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Zhu S, Ye L, Bennett S, Xu H, He D, Xu J. Molecular structure, gene expression and functional role of WFDC1 in angiogenesis and cancer. Cell Biochem Funct 2021; 39:588-595. [PMID: 33615507 DOI: 10.1002/cbf.3624] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2020] [Revised: 12/29/2020] [Accepted: 01/17/2021] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Whey acidic proteins (WAP) perform a diverse range of important biological functions, including proteinase activity, calcium transport and bacterial growth. The WAP four-disulphide core domain protein 1 (WFDC1) gene (also called PS20), encodes the 20 kDa prostate stromal protein (ps20), which is a member of the WAP-type four-disulphide core domain family of proteins, and exhibits characteristics of serine protease inhibitors, such as elafin and secretory leukocyte protease inhibitor. Molecular structural analysis reveals that ps20 consists of four-disulphide bonds formed by eight cysteine residues located at the carboxyl terminus of the protein. Wfdc1-null mice were found to display no overt developmental phenotype, suggesting a dispensable role in organ growth and development. However, WFDC1 was able to mediate endothelial cell migration and pericyte stabilization, which are vital for the formation of functional vascular structures. WFDC1 was also found to be downregulated in cancers and exhibited a regulatory effect on cell proliferation. In addition, it was involved in the modulation of memory T cells during human immunodeficiency virus infection. Gaining a solid understanding of the mechanisms by which WFDC1 regulates tissue homeostasis and disease processes, in a tissue specific manner, will be an important move towards the development of WFDC1/ps20 as potential therapeutic targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sipin Zhu
- Department of Orthopaedics, The Second Affiliated Hospital and Yuying Children's Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China.,Division of Regenerative Biology, School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Lin Ye
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, The Fifth Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Lishui Municipal Central Hospital, Lishui, China
| | - Samuel Bennett
- Division of Regenerative Biology, School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Huazi Xu
- Department of Orthopaedics, The Second Affiliated Hospital and Yuying Children's Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
| | - Dengwei He
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, The Fifth Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Lishui Municipal Central Hospital, Lishui, China
| | - Jiake Xu
- Department of Orthopaedics, The Second Affiliated Hospital and Yuying Children's Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China.,Division of Regenerative Biology, School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
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2
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Kluth M, Jung S, Habib O, Eshagzaiy M, Heinl A, Amschler N, Masser S, Mader M, Runte F, Barow P, Frogh S, Omari J, Möller-Koop C, Hube-Magg C, Weischenfeldt J, Korbel J, Steurer S, Krech T, Huland H, Graefen M, Minner S, Sauter G, Schlomm T, Simon R. Deletion lengthening at chromosomes 6q and 16q targets multiple tumor suppressor genes and is associated with an increasingly poor prognosis in prostate cancer. Oncotarget 2017; 8:108923-108935. [PMID: 29312579 PMCID: PMC5752492 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.22408] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2017] [Accepted: 09/16/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Prostate cancer is characterized by recurrent deletions that can considerably vary in size. We hypothesized that large deletions develop from small deletions and that this “deletion lengthening” might have a “per se” carcinogenic role through a combinatorial effect of multiple down regulated genes. In vitro knockdown of 37 genes located inside the 6q12-q22 deletion region identified 4 genes with additive tumor suppressive effects, further supporting a role of the deletion size for cancer aggressiveness. Employing fluorescence in-situ hybridization analysis on prostate cancer tissue microarrays, we determined the deletion size at 6q and 16q in more than 3,000 tumors. 16q and 6q deletion length was strongly linked to poor clinical outcome and this effect was even stronger if the length of both deletions was combined. To study deletion lengthening in cancer progression we eventually analyzed the entire cancers from 317 patients for 6q and 16q deletion length heterogeneity and found that the deletion expanded within 50-60% of 6q and 16q deleted cancers. Taken together, these data suggest continuous “deletion lengthening” as a key mechanism for prostate cancer progression leading to parallel down regulation of genes with tumor suppressive properties, some of which act cooperatively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martina Kluth
- Institute of Pathology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Simon Jung
- Institute of Pathology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Omar Habib
- Institute of Pathology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Mina Eshagzaiy
- Institute of Pathology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Anna Heinl
- Institute of Pathology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Nina Amschler
- Institute of Pathology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Sawinee Masser
- Institute of Pathology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Malte Mader
- Institute of Pathology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Frederic Runte
- Institute of Pathology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Philipp Barow
- Institute of Pathology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Sohall Frogh
- Institute of Pathology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Jazan Omari
- Institute of Pathology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Christina Möller-Koop
- Institute of Pathology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Claudia Hube-Magg
- Institute of Pathology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Joachim Weischenfeldt
- Genome Biology Unit, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Jan Korbel
- Genome Biology Unit, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Stefan Steurer
- Institute of Pathology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Till Krech
- Institute of Pathology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Hartwig Huland
- Martini-Clinic, Prostate Cancer Center, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Markus Graefen
- Martini-Clinic, Prostate Cancer Center, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Sarah Minner
- Institute of Pathology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Guido Sauter
- Institute of Pathology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Thorsten Schlomm
- Martini-Clinic, Prostate Cancer Center, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany.,Department of Urology, Section for Translational Prostate Cancer Research, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Ronald Simon
- Institute of Pathology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
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3
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Kattenhorn LM, Tipper CH, Stoica L, Geraghty DS, Wright TL, Clark KR, Wadsworth SC. Adeno-Associated Virus Gene Therapy for Liver Disease. Hum Gene Ther 2016; 27:947-961. [PMID: 27897038 PMCID: PMC5177998 DOI: 10.1089/hum.2016.160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2016] [Accepted: 11/23/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The field of adeno-associated virus (AAV) gene therapy has progressed rapidly over the past decade, with the advent of novel capsid serotype and organ-specific promoters, and an increasing understanding of the immune response to AAV administration. In particular, liver-directed therapy has made remarkable strides, with a number of clinical trials currently planned and ongoing in hemophilia A and B, as well as other liver disorders. This review focuses on liver-directed AAV gene therapy, including historic context, current challenges, and future developments.
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Cathepsin-L and transglutaminase dependent processing of ps20: A novel mechanism for ps20 regulation via ECM cross-linking. Biochem Biophys Rep 2016; 7:328-337. [PMID: 28955923 PMCID: PMC5613349 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrep.2016.06.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2015] [Revised: 05/16/2016] [Accepted: 06/13/2016] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Whey-acidic-protein (WAP) four-disulphide core (WFDC) proteins have important roles in the regulation of innate immunity, anti-microbial function, and the inhibition of inflammatory proteases at mucosal surfaces. It was recently demonstrated that the WFDC protein, prostate stromal 20 (ps20), encoded by the WFDC1 gene, is a potent growth inhibitory factor, and shares with other WFDC proteins the ability to modulate wound healing processes and immune responses to viral infections. However, ps20 remains relatively uncharacterised at the protein level. Using a panel of ps20 antibodies for western-blotting (WB), ELISA and immunoaffinity purification, we isolated, biochemically characterised and tested ps20 preparations for three biological properties: (i) interactions with glycosaminoglycans (GAG) (ii) inhibition of cell proliferation, and (iii) transglutaminase2 (TG2) mediated crosslinking of ps20 to fibronectin, a process implicated in wound healing. We show herein that ps20 preparations contain multiple molecular forms including full-length ps20 (resolving at ≈27 kDa), an exon 3 truncated form (≈22 kDa) that lacks aa113-140, and variable amounts of a putatively cleaved lower MW (≈15-17 kDa) species. Untagged purified ps20 preparations containing a mixture of these forms are biologically active in significantly suppressing prostate cell proliferation. We show that one mechanism by which lower LMW forms of ps20 arise is through cathepsin L (CL) cleavage, and confirm that CL cleaves ps20 at the C-terminus, but this does not inhibit its growth inhibitory function. However, CL cleavage abrogated the interaction between ps20 and solid-phase fibronectin. Therefore, we demonstrate for the first time that LMW forms of ps20 that lack a C-terminal immunogenic epitope can arise through CL cleavage and this cleavage impairs multimerisation and potential capacity to cross-link to ECM, but not the capacity of ps20 to inhibit cell proliferation. We propose that ps20 like other WFDC proteins can become associated with GAGs and the ECM. Furthermore, we suggest post-translational processing and cleavage of ps20 is required to generate functional protein species, and TG2 mediated crosslinking and CL cleavage form components of a ps20 regulatory apparatus.
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Key Words
- CL, cathepsin L
- CM, conditioned media
- CV, column volume
- Cathepsin
- ECM, extracellular matrix
- FL, full length
- GAG, glycosaminoglycan
- Glycosaminoglycan
- HMW, high molecular weight
- LMW, low molecular weight
- MW, molecular weight
- Prostate cancer
- Ps20
- TR, truncated
- Transglutaminase
- WB, western blot
- WFDC1, whey acidic protein four disulphide core 1
- Whey-four-disulphide core
- ps20, prostate stromal 20
- rps20, recombinant ps20
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Hickman OJ, Smith RA, Dasgupta P, Rao SN, Nayak S, Sreenivasan S, Vyakarnam A, Galustian C. Expression of two WFDC1/ps20 isoforms in prostate stromal cells induces paracrine apoptosis through regulation of PTGS2/COX-2. Br J Cancer 2016; 114:1235-42. [PMID: 27115470 PMCID: PMC4891514 DOI: 10.1038/bjc.2016.91] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2015] [Revised: 03/03/2016] [Accepted: 03/11/2016] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND WFDC1/Prostate stromal 20 (ps20) is a small secreted protein highly expressed within the prostate stroma. WFDC1/ps20 expression is frequently downregulated or lost in prostate cancer (PCa) and ps20 has demonstrated growth-suppressive functions in numerous tumour model systems, although the mechanisms of this phenomenon are not understood. METHODS Ps20 was cloned and overexpressed in DU145, PC3, LNCaP and WPMY-1 cells. Cellular growth, cell cycle and apoptosis were characterised. WPMY-1 stromal cells expressing ps20 were characterised by transcriptome microarray and the function of WPMY-1 conditioned media on growth of PCa cell lines was assessed. RESULTS Prostrate stromal 20 expression enhanced the proliferation of LNCaP cells, whereas stromal WPMY-1 cells were inhibited and underwent increased apoptosis. Prostrate stromal 20-expressing WPMY-1 cells secrete a potently proapoptotic conditioned media. Prostrate stromal 20 overexpression upregulates expression of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) in LNCaP and WPMY-1 cells, and induces expression of a growth-suppressive phenotype, which inhibits proliferation of PCa cells by ps20-expressing WPMY-1 conditioned media. This growth suppression was subsequently shown to be dependent on COX-2 function. CONCLUSIONS This work posits that expression of ps20 in the prostate stroma can regulate growth of epithelial and other tissues through the prostaglandin synthase pathway, and thereby restricts development and progression of neoplasms. This provides a rational for selective pressure against ps20 expression in tumour- associated stroma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oliver J Hickman
- Department of Infectious Disease, King's College London, Guys Hospital, Great Maze Pond, London SE1 9RT, UK
| | - Richard A Smith
- Division of Transplantation, King's College London, Guys Hospital, Great Maze Pond, London SE1 9RT, UK
| | - Prokar Dasgupta
- Division of Transplantation, King's College London, Guys Hospital, Great Maze Pond, London SE1 9RT, UK
| | | | - Soumya Nayak
- Centre for Infectious Disease Research, Indian Institute of Science, Raman Avenue, Bangalore 560012, India.,Institute of Bioinformatics and Biotechnology, Biotech Park, Electronics City Phase I, Bengaluru 560 100, India
| | - Shubha Sreenivasan
- Centre for Infectious Disease Research, Indian Institute of Science, Raman Avenue, Bangalore 560012, India
| | - Annapurna Vyakarnam
- Department of Infectious Disease, King's College London, Guys Hospital, Great Maze Pond, London SE1 9RT, UK.,Centre for Infectious Disease Research, Indian Institute of Science, Raman Avenue, Bangalore 560012, India
| | - Christine Galustian
- Division of Transplantation, King's College London, Guys Hospital, Great Maze Pond, London SE1 9RT, UK
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Kluth M, Runte F, Barow P, Omari J, Abdelaziz ZM, Paustian L, Steurer S, Christina Tsourlakis M, Fisch M, Graefen M, Tennstedt P, Huland H, Michl U, Minner S, Sauter G, Simon R, Adam M, Schlomm T. Concurrent deletion of 16q23 and PTEN is an independent prognostic feature in prostate cancer. Int J Cancer 2015; 137:2354-63. [PMID: 26009879 DOI: 10.1002/ijc.29613] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2014] [Revised: 03/13/2015] [Accepted: 04/22/2015] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
The deletion of 16q23-q24 belongs to the most frequent chromosomal changes in prostate cancer, but the clinical consequences of this alteration have not been studied in detail. We performed fluorescence in situ hybridization analysis using a 16q23 probe in more than 7,400 prostate cancers with clinical follow-up data assembled in a tissue microarray format. Chromosome 16q deletion was found in 21% of cancers, and was linked to advanced tumor stage, high Gleason grade, accelerated cell proliferation, the presence of lymph node metastases (p < 0.0001 each) and positive surgical margin (p = 0.0004). 16q Deletion was more frequent in ERG fusion-positive (27%) as compared to ERG fusion-negative cancers (16%, p < 0.0001), and was linked to other ERG-associated deletions including phosphatase and tensin homolog (PTEN) (p < 0.0001) and 3p13 (p = 0.0303). In univariate analysis, the deletion of 16q was linked to early biochemical recurrence independently from the ERG status (p < 0.0001). Tumors with codeletions of 16q and PTEN had a worse prognosis (p = 0.0199) than those with PTEN or the deletion of 16q alone. Multivariate modeling revealed that the prognostic value of 16q/PTEN deletion patterns was independent from the established prognostic factors. In summary, the results of our study demonstrate that the deletion of 16q and PTEN cooperatively drives prostate cancer progression, and suggests that deletion analysis of 16q and PTEN could be of important clinical value particularly for preoperative risk assessment of the clinically most challenging group of low- and intermediated grade prostate cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martina Kluth
- Institute of Pathology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Frederic Runte
- Institute of Pathology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Philipp Barow
- Institute of Pathology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Jazan Omari
- Institute of Pathology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Zaid M Abdelaziz
- Institute of Pathology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Lisa Paustian
- Institute of Pathology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Stefan Steurer
- Institute of Pathology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | | | - Margit Fisch
- Department of Urology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Markus Graefen
- Martini-Clinic, Prostate Cancer Center, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Pierre Tennstedt
- Martini-Clinic, Prostate Cancer Center, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Hartwig Huland
- Martini-Clinic, Prostate Cancer Center, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Uwe Michl
- Martini-Clinic, Prostate Cancer Center, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Sarah Minner
- Institute of Pathology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Guido Sauter
- Institute of Pathology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Ronald Simon
- Institute of Pathology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Meike Adam
- Department of Urology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany.,Martini-Clinic, Prostate Cancer Center, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Thorsten Schlomm
- Department of Urology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany.,Department of Urology, Section for Translational Prostate Cancer Research, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
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7
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Ressler SJ, Dang TD, Wu SM, Tse DY, Gilbert BE, Vyakarnam A, Yang F, Schauer IG, Barron DA, Rowley DR. WFDC1 is a key modulator of inflammatory and wound repair responses. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2014; 184:2951-64. [PMID: 25219356 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajpath.2014.07.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2014] [Revised: 07/19/2014] [Accepted: 07/24/2014] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
WFDC1/ps20 is a whey acidic protein four-disulfide core member that exhibits diverse growth and immune-associated functions in vitro. In vivo functions are unknown, although WFDC1 is lower in reactive stroma. A Wfdc1-null mouse was generated to assess core functions. Wfdc1-null mice exhibited normal developmental and adult phenotypes. However, homeostasis challenges affected inflammatory and repair processes. Wfdc1-null mice infected with influenza A exhibited 2.75-log-fold lower viral titer relative to control mice. Wfdc1-null infected lungs exhibited elevated macrophages and deposition of osteopontin, a potent macrophage chemokine. In wounding studies, Wfdc1-null mice exhibited an elevated rate of skin closure, and this too was associated with elevated deposition of osteopontin and macrophage recruitment. Wfdc1-null fibroblasts exhibited impaired spheroid formation, elevated adhesion to fibronectin, and an increased rate of wound closure in vitro. This was reversed by neutralizing antibody to osteopontin. Osteopontin mRNA and cleaved protein was up-regulated in Wfdc1-null cells treated with lipopolysaccharide or polyinosinic-polycytidylic acid coordinate with constitutively active matrix metallopeptidase-9 (MMP-9), a protease that cleaves osteopontin. These data suggest that WFDC1/ps20 modulates core host response mechanisms, in part, via regulation of osteopontin and MMP-9 activity. Release from WFDC1 regulation is likely a key component of inflammatory and repair response mechanisms, and involves the processing of elevated osteopontin by activated MMP-9, and subsequent macrophage recruitment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven J Ressler
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas
| | - Truong D Dang
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas
| | - Samuel M Wu
- Department of Ophthalmology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas
| | - Dennis Y Tse
- Department of Ophthalmology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas
| | - Brian E Gilbert
- Department of Molecular Virology and Microbiology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas
| | - Annapurna Vyakarnam
- Department of Infectious Diseases, King's College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Feng Yang
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas
| | - Isaiah G Schauer
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas
| | - David A Barron
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas
| | - David R Rowley
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas.
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Kim B, Kim M, Kim AR, Yi M, Choi JH, Park H, Park W, Kim HW. Differences in gene organization between type I and type II crustins in the morotoge shrimp, Pandalopsis japonica. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2013; 35:1176-1184. [PMID: 23891592 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2013.07.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2013] [Revised: 07/15/2013] [Accepted: 07/15/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Crustins are cysteine-rich cationic antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) found in decapod crustaceans. Six novel crustin genes (Paj-CrusIc, Id, Ie, If, IIb and IIc) were identified in the morotoge shrimp, Pandalopsis japonica. Deduced amino acid sequences of isolated Paj-Crus genes ranged from 99 to 178 amino acid residues (10.6-17.8 kDa). Sequence analysis of nine isolated Paj-Crus genes and 100 different crustins from various decapod crustaceans revealed that a splice site and KXXXCP motif within the WAP domain may be the main criteria for classifying type I and II crustins, suggesting that the two types of crustin genes may have been generated by different processes. We also identified three intron-less crustin I genes (Paj-Crus Id, Ie and If) for the first time, which may have been generated by gene duplication. The tissue distribution profiles showed that Paj-CrusI genes were expressed predominantly in the gill and epidermis, whereas Paj-CrusII genes were expressed ubiquitously, suggesting that the two types of crustins may play different roles in various tissues or under different physiological conditions. Differing from previous results, hemocyte-specific crustin was not isolated from Pandalopsis japonica. This study showed that both types of crustin genes (types I and II) exist in decapod crustaceans and their primary structure and expression profiles differ from each other, suggesting that they may play different biological roles. This will help to extend our knowledge of the crustacean innate immune response, which will provide important basic information of shrimp immunity against various pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bokwang Kim
- Department of Marine Biology, Pukyong National University, Busan 608-737, Republic of Korea
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9
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War and peace between WAP and HIV: role of SLPI, trappin-2, elafin and ps20 in susceptibility to HIV infection. Biochem Soc Trans 2012; 39:1427-32. [PMID: 21936827 DOI: 10.1042/bst0391427] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Despite tremendous advances in our understanding of HIV/AIDS since the first cases were reported 30 years ago, we are still a long way from understanding critical steps of HIV acquisition, pathogenesis and correlates of protection. Our new understanding of the importance of the mucosa as a target for HIV infection, as well as our recent observations showing that altered expression and responses of innate pattern recognition receptors are significantly associated with pathogenesis and resistance to HIV infection, indicate that correlates of immunity to HIV are more likely to be associated with mucosal and innate responses. Most of the heterosexual encounters do not result in productive HIV infection, suggesting that the female genital tract is protected against HIV by innate defence molecules, such as antiproteases, secreted mucosally. The present review highlights the role and significance of the serine protease inhibitors SLPI (secretory leucocyte protease inhibitor), trappin-2, elafin and ps20 (prostate stromal protein 20 kDa) in HIV susceptibility and infection. Interestingly, in contrast with SLPI, trappin-2 and elafin, ps20 has been shown to enhance HIV infectivity. Thus understanding the balance and interaction of these factors in mucosal fluids may significantly influence HIV infection.
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10
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Artus J, Douvaras P, Piliszek A, Isern J, Baron MH, Hadjantonakis AK. BMP4 signaling directs primitive endoderm-derived XEN cells to an extraembryonic visceral endoderm identity. Dev Biol 2011; 361:245-62. [PMID: 22051107 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2011.10.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2011] [Revised: 09/19/2011] [Accepted: 10/08/2011] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The visceral endoderm (VE) is an epithelial tissue in the early postimplantation mouse embryo that encapsulates the pluripotent epiblast distally and the extraembryonic ectoderm proximally. In addition to facilitating nutrient exchange before the establishment of a circulation, the VE is critical for patterning the epiblast. Since VE is derived from the primitive endoderm (PrE) of the blastocyst, and PrE-derived eXtraembryonic ENdoderm (XEN) cells can be propagated in vitro, XEN cells should provide an important tool for identifying factors that direct VE differentiation. In this study, we demonstrated that BMP4 signaling induces the formation of a polarized epithelium in XEN cells. This morphological transition was reversible, and was associated with the acquisition of a molecular signature comparable to extraembryonic (ex) VE. Resembling exVE which will form the endoderm of the visceral yolk sac, BMP4-treated XEN cells regulated hematopoiesis by stimulating the expansion of primitive erythroid progenitors. We also observed that LIF exerted an antagonistic effect on BMP4-induced XEN cell differentiation, thereby impacting the extrinsic conditions used for the isolation and maintenance of XEN cells in an undifferentiated state. Taken together, our data suggest that XEN cells can be differentiated towards an exVE identity upon BMP4 stimulation and therefore represent a valuable tool for investigating PrE lineage differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jérôme Artus
- Developmental Biology Program, Sloan-Kettering Institute, New York, NY 10065, USA
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11
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Abstract
The present evaluates the key features of the WFDC1 [WAP (whey acidic protein) four disulfide core 1] gene that encodes ps20 (20 kDa prostate stromal protein), a member of the WAP family. ps20 was first characterized as a growth inhibitory activity that was secreted by fetal urogenital sinus mesenchymal cells. Purified ps20 exhibited several activities that centre on cell adhesion, migration and proliferation. The WFDC1 gene was cloned, contained seven exons, and was mapped to chromosome 16q24, suggesting that it may function as a tumour suppressor; however, direct evidence of this has not emerged. In vivo, ps20 stimulated angiogenesis, although expression of WFDC1/ps20 was down-regulated in the reactive stroma tumour microenvironment in prostate cancer. WFDC1 expression is differential in other cancers and inflammatory conditions. Recent studies point to a role in viral infectivity. Although mechanisms of action are not fully understood, WFDC1/ps20 is emerging as a secreted matricellular protein that probably affects response to micro-organisms and tissue repair homoeostasis.
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12
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A mutation of the WFDC1 gene is responsible for multiple ocular defects in cattle. Genomics 2009; 94:55-62. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ygeno.2009.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2009] [Revised: 04/07/2009] [Accepted: 04/08/2009] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Action, localization and structure-function relationship of growth factors and their receptors in the prostate. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009. [DOI: 10.1017/s0962279900001265] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Whereas the direct action of sex steroids, namely of androgens, on prostate cell division was questioned as early as in the 1970s, and remains so, the interest in prostatic growth factors (GFs) is rather recent but has expanded tremendously in the last five years. This lag period can be partly explained by the fact that, at the time, androgen receptors had just been discovered, and newly developed hormonal regimens or strategies to treat patients with prostate carcinoma (PCa) or epithelioma had generated great enthusiasm and hopes in the medical and scientific community. Another point to consider was the difficulty in maintaining prostate tissues in organ cultures and the relative novelty of culturing prostate epithelial cells in monolayers. Failures of sex steroids to elicit a direct positive response on prostate cell divisionin vitro, as seenin vivo, were interpreted as resulting from inappropriate models or culture conditions. However, the increasing number of reports confirming the lack of mitogenic activity of sex steroidsin vitro, coupled with the powerful mitogenic activity of GFs displayed in other systems, the discovery of GF receptors (GF-Rs), and the elucidation of their signalling pathways showing sex steroid receptors as potential substrates of GF-activated protein kinases gradually led to an increased interest in the putative role of GFs in prostate physiopathology. Of utmost importance was the recognition that hormone refractiveness was responsible for PCa progression, and for the poor outcome of patients with advanced disease under endocrine therapies. This problem remains a major issue and it raises several key questions that need to be solved at the fundamental and clinical levels.
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14
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Liu S, Howell P, Ren S, Fodstad O, Zhang G, Samant R, Shevde L, Xi Y, Pannell LK, Riker AI. Expression and functional analysis of the WAP four disulfide core domain 1 gene in human melanoma. Clin Exp Metastasis 2009; 26:739-49. [PMID: 19488830 DOI: 10.1007/s10585-009-9273-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2009] [Accepted: 05/18/2009] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The exact cellular and molecular mechanisms involved in melanoma tumorigenesis remain obscure. Previous gene expression profiling analyses performed upon NHEM and human melanoma samples identified WFDC1 as one of the most frequently down-regulated genes. Here we further showed that NHEM readily express WFDC1 but expression is reduced or completely lost in 80% of the patients-derived melanoma cell lines and tissue samples examined. Furthermore, we show that promoter hypermethylation accounts for the silencing of the WFDC1 gene in 20% of the melanoma cell lines examined. The over-expression of WFDC1 in two metastatic melanoma cell lines, A375 and LOX, resulted in a significant delay of tumor growth in a murine xenograft model, despite a non-significant difference in tumor cell growth in vitro. Gene expression microarray analysis and further expression validation suggests that the Dickkopf-1 (Dkk1) gene is up-regulated in WFDC1 over-expressing cell lines, suggesting that the tumor suppressive function of WFDC1 may be partially a result of up-regulated Dkk1 gene expression, which is known to be a potent inhibitor of the Wnt signaling pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suhu Liu
- Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02115, USA.
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15
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Madar S, Brosh R, Buganim Y, Ezra O, Goldstein I, Solomon H, Kogan I, Goldfinger N, Klocker H, Rotter V. Modulated expression of WFDC1 during carcinogenesis and cellular senescence. Carcinogenesis 2008; 30:20-7. [PMID: 18842679 PMCID: PMC2639035 DOI: 10.1093/carcin/bgn232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Fibroblasts located adjacent to the tumor [cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs)] that constitute a large proportion of the cancer-associated stroma facilitate the transformation process. In this study, we compared the biological behavior of CAFs that were isolated from a prostate tumor to their normal-associated fibroblast (NAF) counterparts. CAFs formed more colonies when seeded at low cell density, exhibited a higher proliferation rate and were less prone to contact inhibition. In contrast to the general notion that high levels of α-smooth muscle actin serve as a marker for CAFs, we found that prostate CAFs express it at a lower level compared with prostate NAFs. Microarray analysis revealed a set of 161 genes that were altered in CAFs compared with NAFs. We focused on whey acidic protein four-disulfide core domain 1 (WFDC1), a known secreted protease inhibitor, and found it to be downregulated in the CAFs. WFDC1 expression was also dramatically downregulated in highly prolific mesenchymal cells and in various cancers including fibrosarcomas and in tumors of the lung, bladder and brain. Overexpression of WFDC1 inhibited the growth rate of the fibrosarcoma HT1080 cell line. Furthermore, WFDC1 level was upregulated in senescent fibroblasts. Taken together, our data suggest an important role for WFDC1 in inhibiting proliferation of both tumors and senescent cells. Finally, we suggest that the downregulation of WFDC1 might serve as a biomarker for cellular transformation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shalom Madar
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
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16
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WFDC1/ps20 is a novel innate immunomodulatory signature protein of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-permissive CD4+ CD45RO+ memory T cells that promotes infection by upregulating CD54 integrin expression and is elevated in HIV type 1 infection. J Virol 2007; 82:471-86. [PMID: 17942534 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00939-07] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Understanding why human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) preferentially infects some CD4(+) CD45RO(+) memory T cells has implications for antiviral immunity and pathogenesis. We report that differential expression of a novel secreted factor, ps20, previously implicated in tissue remodeling, may underlie why some CD4 T cells are preferentially targeted. We show that (i) there is a significant positive correlation between endogenous ps20 mRNA in diverse CD4 T-cell populations and in vitro infection, (ii) a ps20(+) permissive cell can be made less permissive by antibody blockade- or small-interference RNA-mediated knockdown of endogenous ps20, and (iii) conversely, a ps20(low) cell can be more permissive by adding ps20 exogenously or engineering stable ps20 expression by retroviral transduction. ps20 expression is normally detectable in CD4 T cells after in vitro activation and interleukin-2 expansion, and such oligoclonal populations comprise ps20(positive) and ps20(low/negative) isogenic clones at an early differentiation stage (CD45RO(+)/CD25(+)/CD28(+)/CD57(-)). This pattern is altered in chronic HIV infection, where ex vivo CD4(+) CD45RO(+) T cells express elevated ps20. ps20 promoted HIV entry via fusion and augmented CD54 integrin expression; both of these effects were reversed by anti-ps20 antibody. We therefore propose ps20 to be a novel signature of HIV-permissive CD4 T cells that promotes infection in an autocrine and paracrine manner and that HIV has coopted a fundamental role of ps20 in promoting cell adhesion for its benefit. Disrupting the ps20 pathway may therefore provide a novel anti-HIV strategy.
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17
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Primary human osteoblasts and bone cancer cells as models to study glycodynamics in bone. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 2007; 40:471-83. [PMID: 17931955 DOI: 10.1016/j.biocel.2007.08.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2007] [Revised: 07/24/2007] [Accepted: 08/21/2007] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Bone cells produce many glycoproteins potentially involved in the maintenance of healthy bone tissues. Two cytokines produced in inflamed joints, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)alpha and transforming growth factor (TGF)beta, have previously been shown to alter cellular glycosylation which may potentially affect the expression and function of glycoproteins. In order to evaluate models to study the glycodynamics of bone cells, we examined primary human osteoblastic cells from osteoarthritis patients, and compared these to human osteosarcoma cells MG63 and SJSA-1. We showed here for the first time that all of the human osteoblastic cells actively synthesize complex N- and O-glycan chains of bone cell glycoproteins, with quantitative differences between cell types. TNFalpha-induced apoptosis or TGFbeta-induced cell differentiation and proliferation had significant effects on both cell surface carbohydrates and glycosyltransferase activities of osteoblasts and osteosarcoma cells. The results indicate that cultured human bone-derived osteoblastic cells are good models to examine the glycodynamics of osteoblasts under conditions of cell growth and cell death. The changes induced by cytokines can result in altered cell surface functions which may be of importance in osteoarthritis, osteoporosis and other bone diseases.
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18
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Hannema SE, Print CG, Charnock-Jones DS, Coleman N, Hughes IA. Changes in Gene Expression during Wolffian Duct Development. Horm Res Paediatr 2006; 65:200-9. [PMID: 16567946 DOI: 10.1159/000092408] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2005] [Accepted: 01/20/2006] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Wolffian ducts (WDs) are the embryonic precursors of the male reproductive tract. Their development is induced by testosterone, which interacts with the androgen receptor (AR). The molecular pathways underlying androgen-dependent WD development are largely unknown. We aimed to identify AR target genes important in this process. METHODS RNA was isolated from rat WDs at E17.5 and E20.5. Affymetrix GeneChip expression arrays were used to identify transcripts up- or downregulated more than 2-fold. Regulation of seven transcripts was confirmed using quantitative PCR. RESULTS Transcripts from 76 known genes were regulated, including modulators of insulin-like growth factor and transforming growth factor-beta signalling. By controlling these modulators, androgens may indirectly affect growth factor signalling pathways important in epithelial-mesenchymal interactions and organ development. Caveolin-1, also upregulated, may play a role in modifying as well as mediating AR signalling. Differentiation of WD epithelium and smooth muscle, innervation and extracellular matrix synthesis were reflected in regulation of other transcripts. Several genes were previously suggested to be regulated by androgens or contained functional or putative androgen/glucocorticoid response elements, indicating they may be direct targets of androgen signalling. CONCLUSION Our results suggest novel cohorts of signals that may contribute to androgen-dependent WD development and provide hypotheses that can be tested by future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabine E Hannema
- Department of Paediatrics, Addenbrooke's Hospital, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.
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19
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Bouchard D, Morisset D, Bourbonnais Y, Tremblay GM. Proteins with whey-acidic-protein motifs and cancer. Lancet Oncol 2006; 7:167-74. [PMID: 16455481 DOI: 10.1016/s1470-2045(06)70579-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 143] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The importance of early diagnosis to reduce the morbidity and mortality from cancer has led to a search for new sensitive and specific tumour markers. Molecular techniques developed over the past few years allow simultaneous screening of thousands of genes, and have been applied to different cancers to identify many genes that are modulated in various cancers. Of these, attention has focused on genes coding for a family of proteins with whey-acidic-protein (WAP) motifs. Most notably, the genes coding for elafin, antileukoproteinase 1 (previously called secretory leucocyte proteinase inhibitor, SLPI), WAP four disulphide core domain protein 1 (previously called prostate stromal protein 20 kDa, PS20), and WAP four disulphide core domain protein 2 (previously called major human epididymis-specific protein E4, HE4), have been identified as candidate molecular markers for several cancers. In this review, we assess data for an association between cancer and human WAP proteins, and discuss their potential role in tumour progression. We also propose a new mechanism by which WAP proteins might have a role in carcinogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dominique Bouchard
- Laval Hospital, Laval University Institute of Pneumology and Cardiology, Quebec, Canada
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20
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Nanez A, Alejandro NF, Falahatpisheh MH, Kerzee JK, Roths JB, Ramos KS. Disruption of glomerular cell-cell and cell-matrix interactions in hydrocarbon nephropathy. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 2005; 289:F1291-303. [PMID: 15998846 DOI: 10.1152/ajprenal.00107.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Environmental chemicals play an etiological role in greater than 50% of idiopathic glomerular diseases. The present studies were conducted to define mechanisms of renal cell-specific hydrocarbon injury. Female rats were given 10 mg/kg benzo(a)pyrene (BaP) once a week for 16 wk. Progressive elevations in total urinary protein, protein/creatinine ratios, and microalbuminuria were observed in rats treated with BaP for up to 16 wk. The nephropathic response involved early reductions in mesangial cell numbers and fibronectin levels by 8 wk, coupled to transient increases in podocyte cellularity. Changes in podocyte numbers subsided by 16 wk and correlated with rebound increases in mesangial cell numbers and fibronectin levels, along with increased α-smooth muscle actin and Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase and fusion of podocyte foot processes. In culture, mesangial cells were more sensitive than podocytes to hydrocarbon injury and expressed higher levels of inducible aryl hydrocarbon hydroxylase activity. Naïve mesangial cells exerted a strong inhibitory influence on podocyte proliferation under both direct and indirect coculture conditions, and this response involved a mesangial cell-derived matrix that selectively inhibited podocyte proliferation. These findings indicate that hydrocarbon nephropathy in rats involves disruption of glomerular cell-cell and cell-matrix interactions mediated by deposition of a mesangial cell-derived growth-inhibitory matrix that regulates podocyte proliferation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrian Nanez
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Texas A&M University College of Veterinary Medicine, College Station, USA
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21
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Brockhausen I, Carran J, McEleney K, Lehotay M, Yang X, Yin L, Anastassiades T. N-Acyl derivatives of glucosamine as acceptor substrates for galactosyltransferase from bone and cartilage cells. Carbohydr Res 2005; 340:1997-2003. [PMID: 15993867 DOI: 10.1016/j.carres.2005.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2005] [Revised: 05/30/2005] [Accepted: 06/07/2005] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Glucosamine is commonly used as a nutraceutical by arthritis patients. However, its mode of action is still unknown, and there is controversy about its clinical efficacy. Synthetic N-acyl glucosamines (acyl group>2 carbons) comprise a new class of drugs. We examined these derivatives for their effect in bone and cartilage cells, and for their ability to serve as acceptor substrates for galactosyltransferase. With the exception of N-benzoylglucosamine, compounds of the series were good substrates for galactosyltransferases from bone and cartilage cells, and for purified enzyme from bovine milk. When N-butyrylglucosamine (GlcNBu) was added to the cell medium of primary bovine chondrocytes and human osteoblasts, small amounts were found to enter the cells and a radiolabeled metabolite appeared in the medium. However, GlcNBu did not appear to be incorporated directly into oligosaccharides. GlcNBu at 1 and 5mM concentrations in the glucose-free cell medium of primary human osteoblasts from osteoarthritis patients did not significantly alter cell proliferation or cell differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Inka Brockhausen
- Department of Medicine, The Arthritis Centre, Queen's University, Kingston General Hospital, Kingston, Ontario, Canada K7L 2V7.
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22
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Watson JEV, Kamkar S, James K, Kowbel D, Andaya A, Paris PL, Simko J, Carroll P, McAlhany S, Rowley D, Collins C. Molecular analysis of WFDC1/ps20 gene in prostate cancer. Prostate 2004; 61:192-9. [PMID: 15305342 DOI: 10.1002/pros.20100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND WFDC1/ps20 protein has been previously established as a growth suppressor of the prostate cancer cell line PC3. It maps to chromosome 16q23.1, a region of frequent loss of heterozygosity, familial association, and genomic loss in prostate cancer. We, therefore, chose to examine WFDC1/ps20 for mutations and expression changes in prostate cancer. METHODS DNA from 21 prostate cancer patients and 5 prostate cancer cell lines was screened for mutations in the WFDC1/ps20 gene by sequencing PCR products of each exon. An SphI polymorphism in the 5' UTR was screened in 23 tumors, 22 normal adjacent prostate tissue samples, and 35 control DNAs. Expression of WFDC1/ps20 in different tissue types was examined by Northern blot and by PCR across a multi-tissue cDNA panel. Expression patterns of WFDC1/ps20 in primary tumors were examined by full-length RT-PCR and products were cloned and sequenced to identify novel splice forms. Quantitative RT-PCR analysis of WFDC1/ps20 was performed in a separate cohort of matched tumor/benign tissues. RESULTS No tumor-associated mutations were identified in the coding region of WFDC1/ps20. A novel polymorphism was found in exon 6 in DNA from cell lines, tumors, and normal adjacent benign tissue. A novel splice form completely deleted for exon 3 was found in tumor and normal prostate RNA. Quantitative RT-PCR demonstrated significant down regulation of WFDC1/ps20 in prostate tumors. Subdivision of normal tissue into stromal and epithelial compartments showed that WFDC1/ps20 expression correlates exponentially with the amount of stroma present. CONCLUSIONS WFDC1/ps20 is down regulated but not frequently mutated in prostate cancer. It is expressed predominantly in the normal stroma of the prostate. We, therefore, propose that WFDC1/ps20 may not be a classical tumor suppressor gene, but might play a role in the maintenance of the normal extra cellular matrix milieu in the prostate.
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Affiliation(s)
- J E Vivienne Watson
- Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, San Francisco, California, USA
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23
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McAlhany SJ, Ayala GE, Frolov A, Ressler SJ, Wheeler TM, Watson JEV, Collins C, Rowley DR. Decreased stromal expression and increased epithelial expression of WFDC1/ps20 in prostate cancer is associated with reduced recurrence-free survival. Prostate 2004; 61:182-91. [PMID: 15305341 DOI: 10.1002/pros.20085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND WAP-type four disulfide core (WFDC1)/ps20 is a member of the whey acidic protein family, which includes several serine protease inhibitors. Expression of WFDC1/ps20 was previously demonstrated in the normal human prostate stromal compartment. To further current understanding of the role of WFDC1/ps20 in prostate cancer, altered expression of WFDC1/ps20 protein in prostate cancer was evaluated. METHODS Immunohistochemical staining for WFDC1/ps20 was performed using tissue microarrays. Quantitation was based on the percentage of positive-staining stromal or epithelial cells and staining intensity. Resulting data was analyzed relative to the recurrence-free survival data and additional information for this patient set. RESULTS Decreased stromal expression of WFDC1/ps20 predicted shorter recurrence-free survival time by univariate analysis. Decreased stromal WFDC1/ps20 expression correlated with higher radical prostatectomy Gleason scores, positive surgical margins, extracapsular extension, higher clinical stage, and higher preoperative prostate specific antigen levels. Increased epithelial expression of WFDC1/ps20 also predicted shorter recurrence-free survival times by univariate analysis. Increased epithelial expression of WFDC1/ps20 correlated with higher biopsy and radical prostatectomy Gleason scores, and higher clinical stage. CONCLUSIONS Decreased stromal WFDC1/ps20 expression reflects the evolution of a prostate cancer reactive stroma, while increased epithelial WFDC1/ps20 expression may indicate progression to a more aggressive epithelial phenotype and may indicate an epithelial mesenchymal transition (EMT) process. Further evaluation of WFDC1/ps20 biologic functions will aid in the understanding of this interesting expression profile.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie J McAlhany
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, USA
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24
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Miao CH, Ye X, Thompson AR. High-level factor VIII gene expression in vivo achieved by nonviral liver-specific gene therapy vectors. Hum Gene Ther 2004; 14:1297-305. [PMID: 14503965 DOI: 10.1089/104303403322319381] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Two liver-specific nonviral gene transfer vectors have been developed to accommodate heterologous genes. The expression cassettes contain (1) a hepatic locus control region from the apolipoprotein E (ApoE) gene (HCR), (2) a liver-specific alpha(1)-antitrypsin promoter (HP), (3) a 1.4-kb truncated factor IX first intron (I) or a synthetic minx intron (mI), (4) a multiple cloning site (MCS) for inserting cDNA sequences, and (5) a bovine growth hormone polyadenylation signal (bpA) to make pBS-HCRHPI-A or pBS-HCRHPmI-A. These vectors were first evaluated with reporter genes encoding human factor IX (hFIX) and green fluorescent protein (GFP). hFIX constructs, pBS-HCRHPI-FIXA and control pBS-HCRHP-FIXIA with the hFIX intron in its native position, produced comparable hFIX gene expression levels (0.5-5 microg/ml) 6 months after naked DNA transfer to mice, whereas the factor IX level from pBS-HCRHPmI-FIXA averaged about 50% lower. RT-PCR analysis of the mRNA indicated that introns inserted upstream from the cDNA were correctly processed and spliced. GFP expression was detected in 15-30% of the hepatocytes in pBS-HCRHPI-GFPA-treated mice. Next, a B domain-deleted human factor VIII (hFVIII) cDNA was inserted into the modified vectors. High-level hFVIII expression (up to 750 ng/ml) was achieved initially in both C57BL/6 mice and Rag2 mice. Moreover, therapeutic levels of hFVIII (20-310 ng/ml) circulated in Rag2 mice 6 months after treatment. These liver-specific gene expression cassettes can deliver a large, heterologous gene such as hFVIII cDNA to achieve high-level, persistent transgene expression after in vivo hepatic gene therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carol H Miao
- Department of Pediatrics and Medicine, University of Washington, WA 98195, USA.
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25
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Watson JEV, Doggett NA, Albertson DG, Andaya A, Chinnaiyan A, van Dekken H, Ginzinger D, Haqq C, James K, Kamkar S, Kowbel D, Pinkel D, Schmitt L, Simko JP, Volik S, Weinberg VK, Paris PL, Collins C. Integration of high-resolution array comparative genomic hybridization analysis of chromosome 16q with expression array data refines common regions of loss at 16q23–qter and identifies underlying candidate tumor suppressor genes in prostate cancer. Oncogene 2004; 23:3487-94. [PMID: 15007382 DOI: 10.1038/sj.onc.1207474] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
We have constructed a high-resolution genomic microarray of human chromosome 16q, and used it for comparative genomic hybridization analysis of 16 prostate tumors. We demarcated 10 regions of genomic loss between 16q23.1 and 16qter that occurred in five or more samples. Mining expression array data from four independent studies allowed us to identify 11 genes that were frequently underexpressed in prostate cancer and that co-localized with a region of genomic loss. Quantitative expression analyses of these genes in matched tumor and benign tissue from 13 patients showed that six of these 11 (WWOX, WFDC1, MAF, FOXF1, MVD and the predicted novel transcript Q9H0B8 (NM_031476)) had significant and consistent downregulation in the tumors relative to normal prostate tissue expression making them candidate tumor suppressor genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- J E Vivienne Watson
- Collins Lab, UCSF Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, 2340 Sutter Street, San Francisco, USA.
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26
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Zannis VI, Liu T, Zanni M, Kan HY, Kardassis D. Regulatory gene mutations affecting apolipoprotein gene expression: functions and regulatory behavior of known genes may guide future pharmacogenomic approaches to therapy. Clin Chem Lab Med 2003; 41:411-24. [PMID: 12747582 DOI: 10.1515/cclm.2003.064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
A pharmacogenomic approach to therapy requires systematic knowledge of the regulatory regions of the genes, as well as basic understanding of transcriptional regulatory mechanisms of genes. Using the apolipoprotein (apo) A-I/CIII gene cluster as a model system, we have identified by in vitro and in vivo studies the regulatory elements and the factors which control its transcription. Studies in transgenic mice established that the hepatocyte nuclear factor (HNF-4) binding site of the apoCIII enhancer, which controls transcription of both genes, is required for the intestinal expression of apoA-I and apoCIII genes, and enhances synergistically their hepatic transcription in vivo. The three Sp1 sites of the enhancer are also required for the intestinal expression of apoA-land apoCIII genes in vivo, and for the enhancement of the hepatic transcription. The regulation of the apoE/apoCI/apoCIV/apoCII cluster is also cited. It is expected that identification of the regulatory regions of genes will be soon accelerated by the sequencing of several mammalian genomes. The functional analyses of the regulatory domains of genes involved in lipid homeostasis, combined with cross-species sequence comparisons in the near future, may identify natural regulatory gene polymorphisms in the general population that will permit rational pharmacogenomic approaches for treatment of dyslipidemias.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vassilis I Zannis
- Section of Molecular Genetics, Whitaker Cardiovascular Institute, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA 02118, USA.
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27
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Saffroy R, Riou P, Soler G, Azoulay D, Emile JF, Debuire B, Lemoine A. Analysis of alterations of WFDC1, a new putative tumour suppressor gene, in hepatocellular carcinoma. Eur J Hum Genet 2002; 10:239-44. [PMID: 12032731 DOI: 10.1038/sj.ejhg.5200795] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2001] [Revised: 01/31/2002] [Accepted: 02/04/2002] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
WFDC1 is a recently isolated human gene identified as a tumour suppressor gene candidate. It is not known whether alterations in this gene are associated with human cancers. The WFDC1 gene maps in human chromosome 16q24, an area of frequent loss of heterozygosity (LOH) in several tumour types, in particular in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). We investigated its role in 46 European HCC by means of the detection of LOH at the WFDC1 locus. We describe here an assay for the detection of loss of heterozygosity at this locus using two dinucleotide repeat polymorphisms identified in WFDC1 introns, with a combined informativity of 86%. LOH was observed in 4/40 informative HCC samples. We further investigated the role of WFDC1 as a tumour suppressor gene candidate in five hepatocellular cell lines and in tumours exhibiting LOH by means of mutation, promoter methylation and gene expression analysis. In HCC samples showing LOH, no mutation of the remaining allele was observed. No significant up or down gene expression was observed in tumour samples comparatively to normal liver and gene expression did not seem related to promoter methylation. These results suggest a minor role, if any, of WFDC1 in hepatocarcinogenesis. However, this approach might be useful for investigating the role of this candidate tumour suppressor gene in other tumour types.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raphaël Saffroy
- Service de Biochimie et Biologie moléculaire, Hôpital Universitaire Paul Brousse, UPRES 1596-Faculté de Médecine Paris-Sud, 14 avenue Paul Vaillant Couturier 94804 Villejuif Cedex, France.
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28
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Zannis VI, Kan HY, Kritis A, Zanni EE, Kardassis D. Transcriptional regulatory mechanisms of the human apolipoprotein genes in vitro and in vivo. Curr Opin Lipidol 2001; 12:181-207. [PMID: 11264990 DOI: 10.1097/00041433-200104000-00012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
The present review summarizes recent advances in the transcriptional regulation of the human apolipoprotein genes, focusing mostly, but not exclusively, on in-vivo studies and signaling mechanisms that affect apolipoprotein gene transcription. An attempt is made to explain how interactions of transcription factors that bind to proximal promoters and distal enhancers may bring about gene transcription. The experimental approaches used and the transcriptional regulatory mechanisms that emerge from these studies may also be applicable in other gene systems that are associated with human disease. Understanding extracellular stimuli and the specific mechanisms that underlie apolipoprotein gene transcription may in the long run allow us to selectively switch on antiatherogenic genes, and switch off proatherogenic genes. This may have beneficial effects and may confer protection from atherosclerosis to humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- V I Zannis
- Section of Molecular Genetics, Whitaker Cardiovascular Institute, Department of Medicine, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts 02118-2394, USA.
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29
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Abstract
The development of the prostate is controlled by steroid hormones that in turn induce and maintain a complex and little understood cross talk between the various cell types making up the gland. The result of this intercellular communication can be either new growth or growth quiescence, depending upon the differentiation state of the cell type being stimulated. Secretory function of the prostate is dependent upon direct stimulation of fully differentiated prostatic epithelial cells by androgens. The prostate thus seems to be regulated in a similar manner to other organs of the male and female genital tract with proliferative control mediated by cell-cell interactions, whereas differentiated function is determined by direct steroid action on the parenchymal cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- S W Hayward
- Department of Urology, University of California San Francisco, USA.
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30
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Goodart SA, Huynh C, Chen W, Cooper AD, Levy-Wilson B. Expression of the human cholesterol 7alpha-hydroxylase gene in transgenic mice. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1999; 266:454-9. [PMID: 10600524 DOI: 10.1006/bbrc.1999.1799] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
We have generated transgenic mice expressing human CYP7A1 transgenes. Only 1.5 kilobases (kb) of 5' upstream sequence and 6.5 kb of 3' sequence were sufficient for hepatic transcription of the transgenes. However, the 5' end segment alone was not sufficient to direct liver expression, suggesting that additional hepatic regulatory elements reside in the 3' extension or within introns. The level of expression of these transgenes was low in comparison to the levels of the endogenous mouse CYP7A1 mRNA. To generate mice expressing higher levels of CYP7A1 mRNA, we injected a large human genomic PAC clone, extending up to -105 kb 5' of the structural gene and about 50 kb 3' of the gene. These transgenic mice expressed CYP7A1 mRNA at higher levels, suggesting that additional hepatic regulatory elements are found either 5' of -1520 or beyond 6.5 kb 3' of the gene.
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Affiliation(s)
- S A Goodart
- Research Institute, Palo Alto Medical Foundation, Palo Alto, California 94301, USA
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31
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Kokontis JM, Liao S. Molecular action of androgen in the normal and neoplastic prostate. VITAMINS AND HORMONES 1999; 55:219-307. [PMID: 9949683 DOI: 10.1016/s0083-6729(08)60937-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- J M Kokontis
- Ben May Institute for Cancer Research, University of Chicago, Illinois 60637, USA
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32
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Roman BL, Timms BG, Prins GS, Peterson RE. In utero and lactational exposure of the male rat to 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin impairs prostate development. 2. Effects on growth and cytodifferentiation. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 1998; 150:254-70. [PMID: 9653056 DOI: 10.1006/taap.1998.8395] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
In the male Holtzman rat, in utero and lactational 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) exposure decreases prostate weight without inhibiting testicular androgen production or decreasing circulating androgen concentrations. Therefore, the present study sought to characterize effects of TCDD exposure on prostate development, from very early outgrowth from the urogenital sinus (Gestation Day [GD] 20) until rapid growth and differentiation are essentially complete (Postnatal Day [PND] 32). Pregnant Holtzman rats were administered a single dose of TCDD (1.0 microgram/kg po) or vehicle on GD 15 and offspring were exposed via placental transfer (GD 20 euthanasia) or placental and subsequent lactational transfer until euthanasia (if before PND 21) or weaning. Results show that the prostatic epithelial budding process was impaired by in utero TCDD exposure, as evidence by significant decreases in the number of buds emerging from dorsal, lateral, and ventral aspects of the GD 20 urogenital sinus. Ventral prostate cell proliferation index was significantly decreased on PND 1 but was similar to or higher than control at later times, whereas apoptosis was an extremely rare event in ventral prostates from both control and TCDD-exposed animals. Delays were noted in the differentiation of pericordal smooth muscle cells and luminal epithelial cells. In addition, ventral prostates from approximately 40% of TCDD-exposed animals examined on PNDs 21 and 32 exhibited alterations in the histological arrangement of cell types that could not be explained by a developmental delay. Compared to controls, these ventral prostates exhibited a disorganized, hyperplastic epithelium containing fewer luminal epithelial cells and an increased density or continuous layer of basal epithelial cells, as well as thicker periductal smooth muscle sheaths. In addition, in ventral prostates from TCDD-exposed animals, the intensity of androgen receptor staining was relatively low in the central and distal epithelium, and the number of androgen receptor-positive cells was relatively high in the periductal stroma. These data suggest that in utero and lactational TCDD exposure interferes with prostate development by decreasing very early epithelial growth, delaying cytodifferentiation, and, in the most severely affected animals, producing alterations in epithelial and stromal cell histological arrangement and the spatial distribution of androgen receptor expression that may be of permanent consequence.
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Affiliation(s)
- B L Roman
- Environmental Toxicology Center, University of Wisconsin, Madison 53706, USA
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33
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Larsen M, Ressler SJ, Lu B, Gerdes MJ, McBride L, Dang TD, Rowley DR. Molecular cloning and expression of ps20 growth inhibitor. A novel WAP-type "four-disulfide core" domain protein expressed in smooth muscle. J Biol Chem 1998; 273:4574-84. [PMID: 9468514 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.273.8.4574] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
We previously reported the purification of ps20 (Rowley, D. R., Dang, T. D., Larsen, M., Gerdes, M. J., McBride, L., and Lu, B. (1995) J. Biol. Chem. 270, 22058-22065), a urogenital sinus mesenchymal cell secreted protein having growth-inhibitory properties. We report here cloning of the 1.03-kilobase rat ps20 cDNA clone from the PS-1 (adult rat prostate smooth muscle) cDNA library. Partial clones were obtained by nested polymerase chain reaction with degenerate primers, and full-length ps20 cDNA clones were isolated by plaque hybridization. Sequence analysis revealed that ps20 protein contains a WAP-type "four-disulfide core" motif and is a novel member of the WAP signature protein family composed primarily of secreted serine protease inhibitors. Native ps20 immunoprecipitated from smooth muscle cells and recombinant ps20 both resolved on SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis with apparent molecular mass of 27-29 kDa under reducing conditions and 21-23 kDa under non-reducing conditions, respectively. Stable ps20-transfectant COS-7 cell lines secreted ps20 and were growth-inhibited relative to mock transfectants. In addition, COS-7 and prostate carcinoma PC-3 cells were growth-inhibited by bacterially expressed ps20. Northern analysis indicated differential expression by tissue with highest expression in the heart. Immunohistochemical localization of ps20 protein showed cell-specific expression by both visceral and vascular smooth muscle in all tissues, including the prostate gland. These results indicate ps20 is a novel growth-regulatory member of the WAP signature family expressed by smooth muscle cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Larsen
- Cell and Molecular Biology Program, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas 77030, USA
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34
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Kooistra A, Romijn JC, Schröder FH. Stromal inhibition of epithelial cell growth in the prostate; overview of an experimental study. UROLOGICAL RESEARCH 1997; 25 Suppl 2:S97-105. [PMID: 9144894 DOI: 10.1007/bf00941995] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
The paracrine influence of prostatic stroma on the proliferation of prostatic epithelial cells was investigated. Using a double-layer soft agar assay it was demonstrated that stromal cells from the human prostate inhibit the anchorage-independent growth of the prostatic tumor epithelial cell lines PC-3 and LNCaP. Anchorage-dependent growth was inhibited too as was shown in the semi-automated colorimetric MTT test performed on multiwell plates. Antiproliferative activity was mediated by a diffusible factor in the stromal cell conditioned medium and was found to be produced specifically by prostatic stromal cells. Although the putative inhibiting factor shared some properties with transforming growth factor beta (TGF-beta) evidence is presented that the factor is different from this well-known inhibitor of epithelial cell growth. Absence of TGF-beta activity was shown by the lack of inhibitory response of the TGF-beta-sensitive mink lung cell line CCL-64 to prostate stromal cell conditioned medium and to concentrated partially purified preparations of the inhibitor. Furthermore, neutralizing antibodies against TGF-beta 1 or TGF-beta 2 did not cause a decline in the level of PC-3 growth inhibition caused by partially purified inhibitor. It is concluded that the prostate stroma-derived factor may be a novel growth inhibitor different from any of the currently described inhibiting factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Kooistra
- Department of Urology, Erasmus University, Academic Hospital Dijkzigt, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
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35
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Degeorges A, Tatoud R, Fauvel-Lafeve F, Podgorniak MP, Millot G, de Cremoux P, Calvo F. Stromal cells from human benign prostate hyperplasia produce a growth-inhibitory factor for LNCaP prostate cancer cells, identified as interleukin-6. Int J Cancer 1996; 68:207-14. [PMID: 8900430 DOI: 10.1002/(sici)1097-0215(19961009)68:2<207::aid-ijc12>3.0.co;2-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
To understand specific interactions between stromal cells and epithelial cells in benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) and prostatic adenocarcinoma, we developed stromal-cell cultures from normal human prostate (PNX) and BPH (BH101), composed of fibroblasts and myofibroblasts. Their role in epithelial-cell growth was studied using the established cancer cell lines LNCaP, PC3 and DU145 and an SV40 large T-immortalized normal epithelial-cell line, PNT1A, in double-diffusion co-culture chambers. PNT1A was stimulated by PNX (x1.6) and more strongly by BH101 stromal cells (x2.7). Conversely, LNCaP growth decreased by 50% in the presence of BH101 stromal cells (stromal/epithelial ratio: 10). A BH101-conditioned medium (CM), obtained in serum-free conditions, induced 90% inhibition of [3H]thymidine incorporation of the LNCaP androgen-sensitive cell line. Two other androgen-independent prostate cancer cell lines were either insensitive to BH101 CM (PC3) or slightly inhibited (40% for DU145). BH101 produced large amounts of IL-1beta, IL-6 and IL-8. HPLC gel filtration enabled separation of an inhibitory fraction which contained IL-6. IL-6 was demonstrated to be responsible for the strong inhibitory effect since an IL-6-neutralizing antibody abolished this inhibition, which was reproduced by human recombinant IL-6. Recombinant IL-6 growth inhibition was observed only on LNCaP prostate cancer androgen-sensitive cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Degeorges
- Laboratoire de Pharmacologie, Institut de Génétique Moléculaire, Hôpital Saint-Louis, Paris, France
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