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Falkenberg F, Bott M, Bongaerts J, Siegert P. Phylogenetic survey of the subtilase family and a data-mining-based search for new subtilisins from Bacillaceae. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:1017978. [PMID: 36225363 PMCID: PMC9549277 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.1017978] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2022] [Accepted: 08/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The subtilase family (S8), a member of the clan SB of serine proteases are ubiquitous in all kingdoms of life and fulfil different physiological functions. Subtilases are divided in several groups and especially subtilisins are of interest as they are used in various industrial sectors. Therefore, we searched for new subtilisin sequences of the family Bacillaceae using a data mining approach. The obtained 1,400 sequences were phylogenetically classified in the context of the subtilase family. This required an updated comprehensive overview of the different groups within this family. To fill this gap, we conducted a phylogenetic survey of the S8 family with characterised holotypes derived from the MEROPS database. The analysis revealed the presence of eight previously uncharacterised groups and 13 subgroups within the S8 family. The sequences that emerged from the data mining with the set filter parameters were mainly assigned to the subtilisin subgroups of true subtilisins, high-alkaline subtilisins, and phylogenetically intermediate subtilisins and represent an excellent source for new subtilisin candidates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabian Falkenberg
- Institute of Nano- and Biotechnologies, Aachen University of Applied Sciences, Jülich, Germany
| | - Michael Bott
- Institute of Bio- and Geosciences, IBG-1: Biotechnology, Forschungszentrum Jülich, Jülich, Germany
| | - Johannes Bongaerts
- Institute of Nano- and Biotechnologies, Aachen University of Applied Sciences, Jülich, Germany
| | - Petra Siegert
- Institute of Nano- and Biotechnologies, Aachen University of Applied Sciences, Jülich, Germany
- *Correspondence: Petra Siegert,
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2
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Watase GJ, Nelson JO, Yamashita YM. Nonrandom sister chromatid segregation mediates rDNA copy number maintenance in Drosophila. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2022; 8:eabo4443. [PMID: 35895823 PMCID: PMC9328678 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.abo4443] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2022] [Accepted: 06/10/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Although considered to be exact copies of each other, sister chromatids can segregate nonrandomly in some cases. For example, sister chromatids of the X and Y chromosomes segregate nonrandomly during asymmetric division of male germline stem cells (GSCs) in Drosophila melanogaster. Here, we demonstrate that the ribosomal DNA (rDNA) loci, which are located on the X and Y chromosomes, and an rDNA binding protein Indra are required for nonrandom sister chromatid segregation (NRSS). We provide the evidence that NRSS, following unequal sister chromatid exchange, is a mechanism by which GSCs recover rDNA copy number, counteracting the spontaneous copy number loss that occurs during aging. Our study reveals an unexpected role for NRSS in maintaining germline immortality through maintenance of a vulnerable genomic element, rDNA.
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Affiliation(s)
- George J. Watase
- Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research, Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, 455 Main Street, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - Jonathan O. Nelson
- Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research, Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, 455 Main Street, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - Yukiko M. Yamashita
- Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research, Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, 455 Main Street, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
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3
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Cloning, Purification, and Characterization of Tripeptidyl Peptidase from Streptomyces herbaricolor TY-21. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 2017; 184:239-252. [DOI: 10.1007/s12010-017-2547-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2017] [Accepted: 06/21/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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4
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Eklund S, Lindås AC, Hamnevik E, Widersten M, Tomkinson B. Exploring the active site of tripeptidyl-peptidase II through studies of pH dependence of reaction kinetics. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-PROTEINS AND PROTEOMICS 2012; 1824:561-70. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbapap.2012.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2011] [Revised: 01/03/2012] [Accepted: 01/03/2012] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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5
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Lin JS, Lee SK, Chen Y, Lin WD, Kao CH. Purification and characterization of a novel extracellular tripeptidyl peptidase from Rhizopus oligosporus. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2011; 59:11330-11337. [PMID: 21905725 DOI: 10.1021/jf201879e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
A novel extracellular tripeptidyl peptidase (TPP) was homogenously purified from the culture supernatant of Rhizopus oligosporus by sequential fast protein liquid chromatography. The purified enzyme was a 136.5 kDa dimer composed of identical subunits. The effects of inhibitors and metal ions indicated that TPP is a metallo- and serine protease. TPP was activated by divalent cations, such as Co(2+) and Mn(2+), and completely inhibited by Cu(2+). Enzyme activity was optimal at pH 7.0 and 45 °C with a specific activity of 281.9 units/mg for the substrate Ala-Ala-Phe-pNA. The purified enzyme catalyzed cleavage of various synthetic tripeptides but not when proline occupied the P1 position. Purified TPP cleaved the pentapeptide Ala-Ala-Phe-Tyr-Tyr and tripeptide Ala-Ala-Phe, confirming the TPP activity of the enzyme.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jia-Shin Lin
- Department of Biotechnology, Hungkuang University, 34 Chung-Chie Road, Taichung 43302, Taiwan
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6
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The Enigma of Tripeptidyl-Peptidase II: Dual Roles in Housekeeping and Stress. JOURNAL OF ONCOLOGY 2010; 2010. [PMID: 20847939 PMCID: PMC2933905 DOI: 10.1155/2010/128478] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2009] [Revised: 05/25/2010] [Accepted: 07/12/2010] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
The tripeptidyl-peptidase II complex consists of repeated 138 kDa subunits, assembled into two twisted strands that form a high molecular weight complex (>5 MDa). TPPII, like many other cytosolic peptidases, plays a role in the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway downstream of the proteasome as well as in the production and destruction of MHC class I antigens and degradation of neuropeptides. Tripeptidyl-peptidase II activity is increased in cells with an increased demand for protein degradation, but whether degradation of cytosolic peptides is the only cell biological role for TPPII has remained unclear. Recent data indicated that TPPII translocates into the nucleus to control DNA damage responses in malignant cells, supporting that cytosolic “housekeeping peptidases” may have additional roles in cell biology, besides their contribution to protein turnover. Overall, TPPII has an emerging importance in several cancer-related fields, such as metabolism, cell death control, and control of genome integrity; roles that are not understood in detail. The present paper reviews the cell biology of TPPII and discusses distinct roles for TPPII in the nucleus and cytosol.
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7
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Preta G, de Klark R, Glas R. A role for nuclear translocation of tripeptidyl-peptidase II in reactive oxygen species-dependent DNA damage responses. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2009; 389:575-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2009.09.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2009] [Accepted: 09/04/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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8
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Role of tripeptidyl peptidase II in the processing of Listeria monocytogenes-derived MHC class I-presented antigenic peptides. Microbes Infect 2009; 11:795-802. [PMID: 19426827 DOI: 10.1016/j.micinf.2009.04.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2009] [Revised: 04/17/2009] [Accepted: 04/19/2009] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
The effective control of the infection of mice with the facultatively intracellular bacterium Listeria monocytogenes requires CD8 T cells which recognize bacterial antigenic peptides presented in the context of host MHC class I molecules. It is generally accepted that bacterial antigens are processed by the proteasome, a proteolytic cytoplasmic multiprotein complex. We observed that presentation of the L. monocytogenes-derived CD8 T cell epitope LLO 91-99 by infected cells can not be totally suppressed by inhibitors of the proteasome alone. Further analysis revealed that inhibitors of the cytoplasmic tripeptidyl peptidase II suppressed the presentation of the epitopes LLO 91-99 and p60 449-457. While significant suppression of the presentation of LLO 91-99 required the simultaneous inhibition of the proteasome and tripeptidyl peptidase II, presentation of p60 449-457 was suppressed by inhibitors of either the proteasome or TPPII alone. Thus, these data indicate that both, the proteasome and tripeptidyl protease II play a role in the processing of L. monocytogenes-derived antigenic peptides.
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Eriksson S, Gutiérrez OA, Bjerling P, Tomkinson B. Development, evaluation and application of tripeptidyl-peptidase II sequence signatures. Arch Biochem Biophys 2009; 484:39-45. [PMID: 19467630 DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2009.01.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2008] [Accepted: 01/07/2009] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Tripeptidyl-peptidase II (TPP II) is a cytosolic peptidase that has been implicated in fat formation and cancer, apparently independent of the enzymatic activity. In search for alternative functional regions, conserved motifs were identified and eleven signatures were constructed. Seven of the signatures covered previously investigated residues, whereas the functional importance of the other motifs is unknown. This provides directions for future investigations of alternative activities of TPP II. The obtained signatures provide an efficient bioinformatic tool for the identification of TPP II homologues. Hence, a TPP II sequence homologue from fission yeast, Schizosaccharomyces pombe, was identified and demonstrated to encode the TPP II-like protein previously reported as multicorn. Furthermore, an homologous protein was found in the prokaryote Blastopirellula marina, albeit the TPP II function was apparently not conserved. This gene is probably the result of a rare gene transfer from eukaryote to prokaryote.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra Eriksson
- Department of Biochemistry and Organic Chemistry, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
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Hong X, Lei L, Künert B, Naredla R, Applequist SE, Grandien A, Glas R. Tripeptidyl-peptidase II Controls DNA Damage Responses and In vivo γ-Irradiation Resistance of Tumors. Cancer Res 2007; 67:7165-74. [PMID: 17671184 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-06-4094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Cellular responses to gamma-irradiation exposure are controlled by phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase-related kinases (PIKK) in the nucleus, and in addition, cytosolic PIKKs may have a role in such responses. Here, we show that the expression of tripeptidyl-peptidase II (TPPII), a high molecular weight cytosolic peptidase, required PIKK signaling and that TPPII was rapidly translocated into the nucleus of gamma-irradiated cells. These events were dependent on mammalian target of rapamycin, a cytosolic/mitochondrial PIKK that is activated by gamma-irradiation. Lymphoma cells with inhibited expression of TPPII failed to efficiently stabilize p53 and had reduced ability to arrest proliferation in response to gamma-irradiation. We observed that TPPII contains a BRCA COOH-terminal-like motif, contained within sequences of several proteins involved in DNA damage signaling pathways, and this motif was important for nuclear translocation of TPPII and stabilization of p53. Novel tripeptide-based inhibitors of TPPII caused complete in vivo tumor regression in mice in response to relatively low doses of gamma-irradiation (3-4 Gy/wk). This was observed with established mouse and human tumors of diverse tissue backgrounds, with no tumor regrowth after cancellation of treatment. These TPPII inhibitors had minor effects on tumor growth as single agent and had low cellular toxicity. Our data indicated that TPPII connects signaling by cytosolic/mitochondrial and nuclear PIKK-dependent pathways and that TPPII can be targeted for inhibition of tumor therapy resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xu Hong
- Center for Infectious Medicine, Department of Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Karolinska University Hospital-Huddinge
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11
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Seyit G, Rockel B, Baumeister W, Peters J. Size Matters for the Tripeptidylpeptidase II Complex from Drosophila. J Biol Chem 2006; 281:25723-33. [PMID: 16799156 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m602722200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Tripeptidylpeptidase II (TPP II) is an exopeptidase of the subtilisin type of serine proteases, a key component of the protein degradation cascade in many eukaryotes, which cleaves tripeptides from the N terminus of proteasome-released products. The Drosophila TPP II is a large homooligomeric complex (approximately 6 MDa) that is organized in a unique repetitive structure with two strands each composed of ten stacked homodimers; two strands intertwine to form a spindle-shaped structure. We report a novel procedure of preparing an active, structurally homogeneous TPP II holo-complex overexpressed in Escherichia coli. Assembly studies revealed that the specific activity of TPP II increases with oligomer size, which in turn is strongly concentration-dependent. At a TPP II concentration such as prevailing in Drosophila, equilibration of size and activity proceeds on a time scale of hours and leads to spindle formation at a TPP II concentration of > or =0.03 mg/ml. Before equilibrium is reached, activation lags behind assembly, suggesting that activation occurs in a two-step process consisting of (i) assembly and (ii) a subsequent conformational change leading to a switch from basal to full activity. We propose a model consistent with the hyperbolic increase of activity with oligomer size. Spindle formation by strand pairing causes both significant thermodynamic and kinetic stabilization. The strands inherently heterogeneous in length are thus locked into a discrete oligomeric state. Our data indicate that the unique spindle form of the holo-complex represents an assembly motif stabilizing a highly active state.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gönül Seyit
- Department of Molecular Structural Biology, Max Planck Institute of Biochemistry, Am Klopferspitz 18, D-82152 Martinsried, Germany
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12
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Groothuis T, Neefjes J. The Ins and Outs of Intracellular Peptides and Antigen Presentation by MHC Class I Molecules. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 2006; 300:127-48. [PMID: 16573239 DOI: 10.1007/3-540-28007-3_6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
MHC class I molecules present small intracellular generated fragments to the outside surveying immune system. This is the result of a series of biochemical processes involving biosynthesis, degradation, translocation, intracellular transport, diffusion, and many more. Critical intermediates and end products of this cascade of events are peptides. The peptides are generated by the proteasome, degraded by peptidases unless transported into the ER where another peptidase and MHC class I molecules are waiting. Unless peptides bind to MHC class I molecules, they are released from the ER and enter the cytoplasm by a system resembling the ERAD pathway in many aspects. The cycle of peptides over the ER membrane with the proteasome at the input site and peptidases or MHC class I molecules on the output site are central in the MHC class I antigen presentation pathway and this review.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Groothuis
- Division of Tumor Biology, The Netherlands Cancer Institute, Plesmanlaan 121, 1066 CX Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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13
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Rockel B, Peters J, Müller SA, Seyit G, Ringler P, Hegerl R, Glaeser RM, Baumeister W. Molecular architecture and assembly mechanism of Drosophila tripeptidyl peptidase II. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2005; 102:10135-40. [PMID: 16006508 PMCID: PMC1177415 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0504569102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
In eukaryotes, tripeptidyl peptidase II (TPPII) is a crucial component of the proteolytic cascade acting downstream of the 26S proteasome in the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway. It is an amino peptidase belonging to the subtilase family removing tripeptides from the free N terminus of oligopeptides. The 150-kDa subunits of Drosophila TPPII assemble into a giant proteolytic complex of 6 MDa with a remarkable architecture consisting of two segmented and twisted strands that form a spindle-shaped structure. A refined 3D model has been obtained by cryoelectron microscopy, which reveals details of the molecular architecture and, in conjunction with biochemical data, provides insight into the assembly mechanism. The building blocks of this complex are apparently dimers, within which the 150-kDa monomers are oriented head to head. Stacking of these dimers leads to the formation of twisted single strands, two of which comprise the fully assembled spindle. This spindle also forms when TPPII is heterologously expressed in Escherichia coli, demonstrating that no scaffolding protein is required for complex formation and length determination. Reciprocal interactions of the N-terminal part of subunits from neighboring strands are probably involved in the formation of the native quaternary structure, lending the TPPII spindle a stability higher than that of single strands.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beate Rockel
- Department of Molecular Structural Biology, Max Planck Institute of Biochemistry, D-82152 Martinsried, Germany.
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14
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Book AJ, Yang P, Scalf M, Smith LM, Vierstra RD. Tripeptidyl peptidase II. An oligomeric protease complex from Arabidopsis. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2005; 138:1046-57. [PMID: 15908606 PMCID: PMC1150419 DOI: 10.1104/pp.104.057406] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
The breakdown of most nuclear and cytoplasmic proteins involves their partial cleavage by the 26S proteasome followed by further disassembly to free amino acids by the combined action of endo- and exopeptidases. In animals, one important intermediate exopeptidase is tripeptidyl peptidase (TPP)II, which digests peptide products of the 26S proteasome and other endopeptidases into tripeptides. Here, we describe the purification and characterization of TPPII from Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana). Like its animal counterparts, Arabidopsis TPPII exists as a soluble, approximately 5- to 9-MD complex. Two related species of 153 and 142 kD are present in the purified preparations that are derived from a single TPP2 gene. Sequencing by Edman degradation of the intact polypeptides and mass spectrometry of proteolytic fragments demonstrated that the 142-kD form mainly differs from the 153-kD form by a truncation at the C-terminal end. This serine protease is a member of the subtilisin superfamily and is sensitive to the inhibitors alanine-alanine-phenylalanine-chloromethylketone and butabindide, which are diagnostic for the TPPII subfamily. The Arabidopsis TPP2 gene is widely expressed in many tissue types with related genes evident in other plant genomes. Whereas the 26S proteasome is essential, TPPII appears not as important for plant physiology. An Arabidopsis T-DNA mutant defective in TPP2 expression displays no phenotypic abnormalities and is not hypersensitive to either amino acid analogs or the 26S proteasome inhibitor MG132. As a consequence, plants likely contain other intermediate exopeptidases that assist in amino acid recycling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam J Book
- Department of Genetics , University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, USA
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15
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Gene expression patterns associated with blood-feeding in the malaria mosquito Anopheles gambiae. BMC Genomics 2005; 6:5. [PMID: 15651988 PMCID: PMC546002 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2164-6-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2004] [Accepted: 01/14/2005] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Blood feeding, or hematophagy, is a behavior exhibited by female mosquitoes required both for reproduction and for transmission of pathogens. We determined the expression patterns of 3,068 ESTs, representing ~2,000 unique gene transcripts using cDNA microarrays in adult female Anopheles gambiae at selected times during the first two days following blood ingestion, at 5 and 30 min during a 40 minute blood meal and at 0, 1, 3, 5, 12, 16, 24 and 48 hours after completion of the blood meal and compared their expression to transcript levels in mosquitoes with access only to a sugar solution. Results In blood-fed mosquitoes, 413 unique transcripts, approximately 25% of the total, were expressed at least two-fold above or below their levels in the sugar-fed mosquitoes, at one or more time points. These differentially expressed gene products were clustered using k-means clustering into Early Genes, Middle Genes, and Late Genes, containing 144, 130, and 139 unique transcripts, respectively. Several genes from each group were analyzed by quantitative real-time PCR in order to validate the microarray results. Conclusion The expression patterns and annotation of the genes in these three groups (Early, Middle, and Late genes) are discussed in the context of female mosquitoes' physiological responses to blood feeding, including blood digestion, peritrophic matrix formation, egg development, and immunity.
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Lindås AC, Tomkinson B. Identification and characterization of the promoter for the gene encoding human tripeptidyl-peptidase II. Gene 2005; 345:249-57. [PMID: 15716107 DOI: 10.1016/j.gene.2004.11.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2004] [Revised: 10/26/2004] [Accepted: 11/24/2004] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Tripeptidyl-peptidase II (TPP II) is a ubiquitously expressed exopeptidase. The expression of this enzyme is increased, e.g. in some tumor cells, but the regulation of the expression of the gene has not been investigated previously. The gene encoding human TPP II (TPP2) is 82 kb and consists of 30 exons. An 8 kb NcoI fragment covering the 5'-flanking region of the TPP2 gene, including the initiation codon, was cloned into a luciferase-containing reporter vector. Human embryonic kidney cells (HEK-293 cells) and murine fibroblasts (NIH3T3 cells) were transiently transfected with the construct. Through sequential deletions and analysis of short PCR-fragments, the promoter could be localized to a 215 bp fragment upstream of the initiation codon. This region is GC-rich, lacks a TATA-box and contains two inverted CCAAT-boxes and a GC-box. Electrophoretic mobility shift assays showed that nuclear proteins bind to the promoter fragment. The 85 bp 5'-end of the promoter fragment is essential for transcriptional activation. Out of this a 44 bp fragment suffices to compete with binding of nuclear proteins to the 215 bp fragment. Supershift assays demonstrated that the CCAAT-binding factor (CBF; NF-Y) is involved in the formation of a complex with the 215 bp fragment. Although Sp1 binds to the promoter fragment in vitro, it was found to bind to the 3'-end of the 215 bp fragment which is not essential for transcription. The potential role of Sp1 in transcription of TPP2 therefore remains to be established.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ann-Christin Lindås
- Uppsala University, BMC, Department of Biochemistry, Box 576, SE-751 23 Uppsala, Sweden
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Reits E, Neijssen J, Herberts C, Benckhuijsen W, Janssen L, Drijfhout JW, Neefjes J. A major role for TPPII in trimming proteasomal degradation products for MHC class I antigen presentation. Immunity 2004; 20:495-506. [PMID: 15084277 DOI: 10.1016/s1074-7613(04)00074-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 178] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2003] [Revised: 03/11/2004] [Accepted: 03/14/2004] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Intracellular proteins are degraded by the proteasome, and resulting peptides surviving cytoplasmic peptidase activity can be presented by MHC class I molecules. Here, we show that intracellular aminopeptidases degrade peptides within seconds, almost irrespectively of amino acid sequence. N- but not C-terminal extension increases the half-life of peptides until they are 15 amino acids long. Beyond 15 amino acids, peptides are exclusively trimmed by the peptidase TPPII, which displays both exo- and endopeptidase activity. Surprisingly, most proteasomal degradation products are handled by TPPII before presentation by MHC class I molecules. We define three distinct proteolytic activities during antigen processing in vivo. Proteasome-generated peptides relevant for antigen presentation are mostly 15 amino acids or longer. These require TPPII activity for further trimming before becoming substrates for other peptidases and MHC class I. The heterogeneous pool of aminopeptidases will process TPPII products into MHC class I peptides and beyond.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric Reits
- Division of Tumor Biology, The Netherlands Cancer Institute, Plesmanlaan 121, 1066 CX Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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18
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Młnarczuk I, Mróz P, Hoser G, Nowis D, Biały ŁP, Ziemba H, Grzela T, Feleszko W, Malejczyk J, Wójcik C, Jakóbisiak M, Gołab J. AAF-cmk sensitizes tumor cells to trail-mediated apoptosis. Leuk Res 2004; 28:53-61. [PMID: 14630081 DOI: 10.1016/s0145-2126(03)00122-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
TRAIL is a member of the tumor necrosis factor (TNF) superfamily. This cytokine is cytotoxic for a high proportion of tumor cells, but could be also toxic for normal cells. There is a need to find other agents able to potentiate the antitumor effects of this cytokine. In our study, we found that Ala-Ala-Phe-chloromethylketone (AAF-cmk) augmented cytotoxic activity of TRAIL or TNF against human leukemic cells. Flow cytometry studies and electron microscopy revealed that apoptosis was primarily responsible for this potentiation. Altogether, our studies indicate that AAF-cmk might effectively sensitize human leukemia cells to apoptosis induced by TRAIL and TNF.
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Affiliation(s)
- Izabela Młnarczuk
- Department of Immunology, Center of Biostructure, The Medical University of Warsaw, Chalubińskiego 5, 02004 Warsaw, Poland
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19
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Marqués G, Haerry TE, Crotty ML, Xue M, Zhang B, O'Connor MB. Retrograde Gbb signaling through the Bmp type 2 receptor wishful thinking regulates systemic FMRFa expression in Drosophila. Development 2003; 130:5457-70. [PMID: 14507784 DOI: 10.1242/dev.00772] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Amidated neuropeptides of the FMRFamide class regulate numerous physiological processes including synaptic efficacy at the Drosophila neuromuscular junction (NMJ). We demonstrate here that mutations in wishful thinking (wit) a gene encoding a Drosophila Bmp type 2 receptor that is required for proper neurotransmitter release at the neuromuscular junction, also eliminates expression of FMRFa in that subset of neuroendocrine cells (Tv neurons) which provide the systemic supply of FMRFa peptides. We show that Gbb, a Bmp ligand expressed in the neurohemal organ provides a retrograde signal that helps specify the peptidergic phenotype of the Tv neurons. Finally, we show that supplying FMRFa in neurosecretory cells partially rescues the wit lethal phenotype without rescuing the primary morphological or electrophysiological defects of wit mutants. We propose that Wit and Gbb globally regulate NMJ function by controlling both the growth and transmitter release properties of the synapse as well as the expression of systemic modulators of NMJ synaptic activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guillermo Marqués
- Department of Genetics, Cell Biology and Development, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN55455, USA
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20
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul H Taghert
- Anatomy and Neurobiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, Missouri 63110, USA
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21
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Hong X, Lei L, Glas R. Tumors acquire inhibitor of apoptosis protein (IAP)-mediated apoptosis resistance through altered specificity of cytosolic proteolysis. J Exp Med 2003; 197:1731-43. [PMID: 12810691 PMCID: PMC2193958 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20020801] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Many tumors overexpress members of the inhibitor of apoptosis protein (IAP) family. IAPs contribute to tumor cell apoptosis resistance by the inhibition of caspases, and are degraded by the proteasome to allow further progression of apoptosis. Here we show that tumor cells can alter the specificity of cytosolic proteolysis in order to acquire apoptosis resistance, which promotes formation of rapidly growing tumors. Survival of tumor cells with low proteasomal activity can occur in the presence of high expression of Tri-peptidyl-peptidase II (TPP II), a large subtilisin-like peptidase that complements proteasomal activity. We find that this state leaves tumor cells unable of effectively degrading IAPs, and that cells in this state form rapidly growing tumors in vivo. We also find, in studies of apoptosis resistant cells derived from large in vivo tumors, that these have acquired an altered peptidase activity, with up-regulation of TPP II activity and decreased proteasomal activity. Importantly, we find that growth of subcutaneous tumors is limited by maintenance of the apoptosis resistant phenotype. The apoptosis resistant phenotype was reversed by increased expression of Smac/DIABLO, an antagonist of IAP molecules. Our data suggest a reversible mechanism in regulation of apoptosis resistance that drives tumor progression in vivo. These data are relevant in relation to the multitude of therapy-resistant clinical tumors that have increased levels of IAP molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xu Hong
- Microbiology and Tumor Biology Center and Department of Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Huddinge University Hospital AB, Stockholm, Sweden
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22
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Hilbi H, Jozsa E, Tomkinson B. Identification of the catalytic triad in tripeptidyl-peptidase II through site-directed mutagenesis. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA 2002; 1601:149-54. [PMID: 12445476 DOI: 10.1016/s1570-9639(02)00468-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Tripeptidyl-peptidase II (TPP II) is a 138-kDa subtilisin-like serine peptidase forming high molecular mass oligomers of >1000 kDa. The enzyme participates in general protein turnover and apoptotic pathways, and also has specific substrates such as neuropeptides. Here we report the site-directed mutagenesis of amino acids predicted to be involved in catalysis. The amino acids forming the putative catalytic triad (Asp-44, His-264, Ser-449) as well as the conserved Asn-362, potentially stabilizing the transition state, were replaced by alanine and the mutated cDNAs were transfected into human embryonic kidney (HEK) 293 cells. In clones stably expressing the mutant proteins, TPP II activity did not exceed the endogenous activity, thus confirming the essential role of the above amino acids in catalysis. Mutant and wild-type TPP II subunits co-eluted from a gel filtration column, suggesting that the subunits associate and that the native subunit conformation was retained in the mutants. Interestingly, the S449A and a H264A mutant enzyme affected the quaternary structure of the endogenously expressed TPP II, resulting in formation of an active, larger complex of >10,000 kDa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hubert Hilbi
- Department of Microbiology, The Skirball Institute, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY 10016, USA
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23
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Rockel B, Peters J, Kühlmorgen B, Glaeser RM, Baumeister W. A giant protease with a twist: the TPP II complex from Drosophila studied by electron microscopy. EMBO J 2002; 21:5979-84. [PMID: 12426370 PMCID: PMC137193 DOI: 10.1093/emboj/cdf601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Tripeptidyl peptidase II (TPP II) is an exopeptidase of the subtilisin type of serine proteases that is thought to act downstream of the proteasome in the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway. Recently, a key role in a pathway parallel to the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway has been ascribed to TPP II, which forms a giant protease complex in mammalian cells. Here, we report the 900-fold purification of TPP II from Drosophila eggs and demonstrate via cryo-electron microscopy that TPP II from Drosophila melanogaster also forms a giant protease complex. The presented three-dimensional reconstruction of the 57 x 27 nm TPP II complex at 3.3 nm resolution reveals that the 150 kDa subunits form a superstructure composed of two segmented and twisted strands. Each strand is 12.5 nm in width and composed of 11 segments that enclose a central channel.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jürgen Peters
- Life Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, 1 Cyclotron Road, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA and
Department of Molecular Structural Biology, Max-Planck-Institute for Biochemistry, Am Klopferspitz 18a, D-82152 Martinsried, Germany Corresponding author e-mail:
| | - Brigitte Kühlmorgen
- Life Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, 1 Cyclotron Road, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA and
Department of Molecular Structural Biology, Max-Planck-Institute for Biochemistry, Am Klopferspitz 18a, D-82152 Martinsried, Germany Corresponding author e-mail:
| | | | - Wolfgang Baumeister
- Life Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, 1 Cyclotron Road, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA and
Department of Molecular Structural Biology, Max-Planck-Institute for Biochemistry, Am Klopferspitz 18a, D-82152 Martinsried, Germany Corresponding author e-mail:
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24
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Tomkinson B, Ní Laoi B, Wellington K. The insert within the catalytic domain of tripeptidyl-peptidase II is important for the formation of the active complex. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF BIOCHEMISTRY 2002; 269:1438-43. [PMID: 11874458 DOI: 10.1046/j.1432-1033.2002.02783.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Tripeptidyl-peptidase II (TPP II) is a large (Mr>10(6)) tripeptide-releasing enzyme with an active site of the subtilisin-type. Compared with other subtilases, TPP II has a 200 amino-acid insertion between the catalytic Asp44 and His264 residues, and is active as an oligomeric complex. This study demonstrates that the insert is important for the formation of the active high-molecular mass complex. A recombinant human TPP II and a murine TPP II were found to display different complex-forming characteristics when over-expressed in human 293-cells; the human enzyme was mainly in a nonassociated, inactive state whereas the murine enzyme formed active oligomers. This was surprising because native human TPP II is purified from erythrocytes as an active oligomeric complex, and the amino-acid sequences of the human and murine enzymes were 96% identical. Using a combination of chimeras and a single point mutant, the amino acid responsible for this difference was identified as Arg252 in the recombinant human sequence, which corresponds to a glycine in the murine sequence. As Gly252 is conserved in all sequenced variants of TPP II, the recombinant enzyme with Arg252 is atypical. Nevertheless, as Arg252 evidently interferes with complex formation, and this residue is close to the catalytic His264, it may also explain why oligomerization influences enzyme activity. The exact mechanism for how the G252R substitution interferes with complex formation remains to be determined, but will be of importance for the understanding of the unique properties of TPP II.
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Affiliation(s)
- Birgitta Tomkinson
- Department of Biochemistry, Uppsala University, Biomedical Center, Uppsala, Sweden.
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25
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Schnorr JD, Holdcraft R, Chevalier B, Berg CA. Ras1 interacts with multiple new signaling and cytoskeletal loci in Drosophila eggshell patterning and morphogenesis. Genetics 2001; 159:609-22. [PMID: 11606538 PMCID: PMC1461825 DOI: 10.1093/genetics/159.2.609] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Little is known about the genes that interact with Ras signaling pathways to regulate morphogenesis. The synthesis of dorsal eggshell structures in Drosophila melanogaster requires multiple rounds of Ras signaling followed by dramatic epithelial sheet movements. We took advantage of this process to identify genes that link patterning and morphogenesis; we screened lethal mutations on the second chromosome for those that could enhance a weak Ras1 eggshell phenotype. Of 1618 lethal P-element mutations tested, 13 showed significant enhancement, resulting in forked and fused dorsal appendages. Our genetic and molecular analyses together with information from the Berkeley Drosophila Genome Project reveal that 11 of these lines carry mutations in previously characterized genes. Three mutations disrupt the known Ras1 cell signaling components Star, Egfr, and Blistered, while one mutation disrupts Sec61beta, implicated in ligand secretion. Seven lines represent cell signaling and cytoskeletal components that are new to the Ras1 pathway; these are Chickadee (Profilin), Tec29, Dreadlocks, POSH, Peanut, Smt3, and MESK2, a suppressor of dominant-negative Ksr. A twelfth insertion disrupts two genes, Nrk, a "neurospecific" receptor tyrosine kinase, and Tpp, which encodes a neuropeptidase. These results suggest that Ras1 signaling during oogenesis involves novel components that may be intimately associated with additional signaling processes and with the reorganization of the cytoskeleton. To determine whether these Ras1 Enhancers function upstream or downstream of the Egf receptor, four mutations were tested for their ability to suppress an activated Egfr construct (lambdatop) expressed in oogenesis exclusively in the follicle cells. Mutations in Star and l(2)43Bb had no significant effect upon the lambdatop eggshell defect whereas smt3 and dock alleles significantly suppressed the lambdatop phenotype.
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Affiliation(s)
- J D Schnorr
- Department of Biology, Whitman College, Walla Walla, Washington 99362, USA.
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26
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Metzler DE, Metzler CM, Sauke DJ. Transferring Groups by Displacement Reactions. Biochemistry 2001. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-012492543-4/50015-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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27
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Tomkinson B. Association and dissociation of the tripeptidyl-peptidase II complex as a way of regulating the enzyme activity. Arch Biochem Biophys 2000; 376:275-80. [PMID: 10775413 DOI: 10.1006/abbi.2000.1713] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Tripeptidyl-peptidase II is an unusually large exopeptidase. The subunits (M(r) = 138,000) form an active complex with an M(r) > 10(6). This paper demonstrates that the complex can spontaneously dissociate in vitro into dimers which retain 110th of the original specific activity. The dissociated enzyme can reassociate at elevated temperatures, provided the protein concentration is sufficiently high. This reassociation was accompanied by a reactivation. The rate of reactivation was increased by the presence of competitive peptide inhibitors. It is speculated that association/dissociation may be a way of regulating the enzyme activity in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Tomkinson
- Department of Biochemistry, Uppsala University, Sweden
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28
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Abstract
Protein degradation is essential for the life and death of every cell. Proteins are broken down to their constitutive amino acids by a succession of peptidases, both in lysosomes and in the cytosol. Tripeptidyl-peptidases I and II are enzymes that can 'count to three' and release N-terminal tripeptides from oligopeptides generated by different endopeptidases. The tripeptides are then degraded by other exopeptidases to release amino acids and dipeptides. Mutations in tripeptidyl-peptidase I have recently been associated with a lysosomal storage disease, late infantile neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Tomkinson
- Dept of Biochemistry, Uppsala University, Biomedical Center, Box 576, SE-751 23 Uppsala, Sweden.
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29
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Abstract
To review the histochemistry of neuropeptide transmitters system in insects, this chapter focuses on the biology of FMRFamide-related neuropeptides in Drosophila. dFMRFamide expression is limited to a small number of neurons that present a complex spatial pattern and whose functions appear heterogeneous. The neuropeptide is first expressed by a few neurons in late stage embryos, then dynamically in as many as 44 neurons in the larval CNS. This review describes histochemical procedures to evaluate this neuronal phenotype and its regulation, including descriptions of promoter activity, and RNA and peptide distributions. To evaluate the use of peptidergic transmitters on a broad scale, I also review experiments in Drosophila studying enzymes necessary for neuropeptide biosynthesis, and in particular, histochemical studies of an enzyme responsible for peptide alpha-amidation.
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Affiliation(s)
- P H Taghert
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Washington University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, Missouri 63110, USA.
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