Both lobes of the soluble receptor of the periplasmic histidine permease, an ABC transporter (traffic ATPase), interact with the membrane-bound complex. Effect of different ligands and consequences for the mechanism of action

Crystal structures of a putative periplasmic cystine-binding protein from Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus: insights into an adapted mechanism of ligand binding

The amino acid-binding receptors, a component of ABC transporters, have evolved to cater to different specificities and functions. Of particular interest are cystine-binding receptors, which have shown broad specificity. In the present study, a putative periplasmic cystine-binding protein from Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus (CLasTcyA) was characterized. Analysis of the CLasTcyA sequence and crystal structures in the ligand-bound state revealed novel features of CLasTcyA in comparison to related proteins. One of the unique features found in CLasTcyA structure was the positioning of the C-terminal extended loop of one chain very close to the substrate-binding site of the adjacent monomer in the asymmetric unit. The presence of a disulphide bond, unique to Candidatus Liberibacter family, holds the C-terminal extended loop in position. Analysis of the substrate-binding pocket of CLasTcyA suggested a broad specificity and a completely different orientation of the bound substrates in comparison to related protein structures. The open conformation for one of the two chains of the asymmetric unit in the Arg-bound structure revealed a limited open state (18.4°) for CLasTcyA as compared to open state of other related proteins (~ 60°). The strong interaction between Asp126 on helix-α5 of small domain and Arg82 (bigger domain) restricts the degree of opening in ligand-free open state. The dissociation constant of 1.26 μm by SPR and 3.7 μm by MST exhibited low affinity for the cystine. This is the first structural characterization of an l-cystine ABC transporter from plant pathogen and our results suggest that CLasTcyA may have evolved to cater to its specific needs for its survival in the host.

Predicting the ligand-binding properties of Borrelia burgdorferi s.s. Bmp proteins in light of the conserved features of related Borrelia proteins

Bacteria of the genus Borrelia cause vector-borne infections like the most important hard tick-borne disease in the northern hemisphere, Lyme borreliosis (LB), and soft tick or louse transmitted relapsing fevers (RF), prevalent in temperate and tropical areas. Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato (s.l.) includes several genospecies and causes LB in humans. In infected patients, Borrelia burgdorferi sensu stricto (s.s.) expresses the BmpA, BmpB, BmpC and BmpD proteins. The role of these proteins in the pathogenesis of LB remains incompletely characterized, but they are, however, closely related to Treponema pallidum PnrA (Purine nucleoside receptor A), a substrate-binding lipoprotein of the ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporter family preferentially binding purine nucleosides. Based on 3D homology modeling, the Bmp proteins share the typical fold of the substrate-binding protein family and the ligand-binding properties of BmpA, BmpB and BmpD are highly similar, whereas those of BmpC differ markedly. Nevertheless, these residues are highly conserved within the genus Borrelia and the inferred phylogenetic tree also reveals that the RF Borrelia lack BmpB proteins but has an additional Bmp protein (BmpA2) missing in LB-causing Borrelia burgdorferi s.l. Our results indicate that the Bmp proteins could bind nucleosides, although BmpC might have a different ligand-binding specificity and, therefore, a distinct function. Furthermore, the work provides a means for classifying the Bmp proteins and supports further elucidation of the roles of these proteins.

Ligand binding specificity of the Escherichia coli periplasmic histidine binding protein, HisJ

The HisJ protein from Escherichia coli and related Gram negative bacteria is the periplasmic component of a bacterial ATP-cassette (ABC) transporter system. Together these proteins form a transmembrane complex that can take up L-histidine from the environment and translocate it into the cytosol. We have studied the specificity of HisJ for binding L-His and many related naturally occurring compounds. Our data confirm that L-His is the preferred ligand, but that 1-methyl-L-His and 3-methyl-L-His can also bind, while the dipeptide carnosine binds weakly and D-histidine and the histidine degradation products, histamine, urocanic acid and imidazole do not bind. L-Arg, homo-L-Arg, and post-translationally modified methylated Arg-analogs also bind with reasonable avidity, with the exception of symmetric dimethylated-L-Arg. In contrast, L-Lys and L-Orn have considerably weaker interactions with HisJ and methylated and acetylated Lys variants show relatively poor binding. It was also observed that the carboxylate group of these amino acids and their variants was very important for proper recognition of the ligand. Taken together our results are a key step towards designing HisJ as a specific protein-based reagentless biosensor.

Role of the two structural domains from the periplasmic Escherichia coli histidine-binding protein HisJ

Escherichia coli HisJ is a type II periplasmic binding protein that functions to reversibly capture histidine and transfer it to its cognate inner membrane ABC permease. Here, we used NMR spectroscopy to determine the structure of apo-HisJ (26.5 kDa) in solution. HisJ is a bilobal protein in which domain 1 (D1) is made up of two noncontiguous subdomains, and domain 2 (D2) is expressed as the inner domain. To better understand the roles of D1 and D2, we have isolated and characterized each domain separately. Structurally, D1 closely resembles its homologous domain in apo- and holo-HisJ, whereas D2 is more similar to the holo-form. NMR relaxation experiments reveal that HisJ becomes more ordered upon ligand binding, whereas isolated D2 experiences a significant reduction in slower (millisecond to microsecond) motions compared with the homologous domain in apo-HisJ. NMR titrations reveal that D1 is able to bind histidine in a similar manner as full-length HisJ, albeit with lower affinity. Unexpectedly, isolated D1 and D2 do not interact with each other in the presence or absence of histidine, which indicates the importance of intact interdomain-connecting elements (i.e. hinge regions) for HisJ functioning. Our results shed light on the binding mechanism of type II periplasmic binding proteins where ligand is initially bound by D1, and D2 plays a supporting role in this dynamic process.

Conformational changes of the bacterial type I ATP-binding cassette importer HisQMP2 at distinct steps of the catalytic cycle

Prokaryotic solute binding protein-dependent ATP-binding cassette import systems are divided into type I and type II and mechanistic differences in the transport process going along with this classification are under intensive investigation. Little is known about the conformational dynamics during the catalytic cycle especially concerning the transmembrane domains. The type I transporter for positively charged amino acids from Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium (LAO-HisQMP2) was studied by limited proteolysis in detergent solution in the absence and presence of co-factors including ATP, ADP, LAO/arginine, and Mg(2+) ions. Stable peptide fragments could be obtained and differentially susceptible cleavage sites were determined by mass spectrometry as Lys-258 in the nucleotide-binding subunit, HisP, and Arg-217/Arg-218 in the transmembrane subunit, HisQ. In contrast, transmembrane subunit HisM was gradually degraded but no stable fragment could be detected. HisP and HisQ were equally resistant under pre- and post-hydrolysis conditions in the presence of arginine-loaded solute-binding protein LAO and ATP/ADP. Some protection was also observed with LAO/arginine alone, thus reflecting binding to the transporter in the apo-state and transmembrane signaling. Comparable digestion patterns were obtained with the transporter reconstituted into proteoliposomes and nanodiscs. Fluorescence lifetime spectroscopy confirmed the change of HisQ(R218) to a more apolar microenvironment upon ATP binding and hydrolysis. Limited proteolysis was subsequently used as a tool to study the consequences of mutations on the transport cycle. Together, our data suggest similar conformational changes during the transport cycle as described for the maltose ABC transporter of Escherichia coli, despite distinct structural differences between both systems.

Receptor-transporter interactions of canonical ATP-binding cassette import systems in prokaryotes

ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transport systems mediate the translocation of solutes across biological membranes at the expense of ATP. They share a common modular architecture comprising two pore-forming transmembrane domains and two nucleotide binding domains. In prokaryotes, ABC transporters are involved in the uptake of a large variety of chemicals, including nutrients, osmoprotectants and signal molecules. In pathogenic bacteria, some ABC importers are virulence factors. Canonical ABC import systems require an additional component, a substrate-specific receptor or binding protein for function. Interaction of the liganded receptor with extracytoplasmic loop regions of the transmembrane domains initiate the transport cycle. In this review we summarize the current knowledge on receptor-transporter interplay provided by crystal structures as well as by biochemical and biophysical means. In particular, we focus on the maltose/maltodextrin transporter of enterobacteria and the transporters for positively charged amino acids from the thermophile Geobacillus stearothermophilus and Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium.

Periplasmic domain of the sensor-kinase BvgS reveals a new paradigm for the Venus flytrap mechanism

Two-component sensory transduction systems control important bacterial programs. In Bordetella pertussis, expression of the virulence regulon is controlled by the unorthodox BvgAS two-component system. BvgS is the prototype of a family of sensor-kinases that harbor periplasmic domains homologous to bacterial solute-binding proteins. Although BvgAS is active under laboratory conditions, no activating signal has been identified, only negative modulators. Here we show that the second periplasmic domain of BvgS interacts with modulators and adopts a Venus flytrap (VFT) fold. X-ray crystallography reveals that the two lobes of VFT2 delimitate a ligand-binding cavity enclosing fortuitous ligands. Most substitutions of putative ligand-binding residues in the VFT2 cavity keep BvgS active, and alteration of the cavity's electrostatic potential affects responsiveness to modulation. The crystal structure of this VFT2 variant conferring constitutive kinase activity to BvgS shows a closed cavity with another nonspecific ligand. Thus, VFT2 is closed and active without a specific agonist ligand, in contrast to typical VFTs. Modulators are antagonists of VFT2 that interrupt signaling. BvgAS is active for most of the B. pertussis infectious cycle, consistent with the proposed mechanism.

The second extracellular loop of pore-forming subunits of ATP-binding cassette transporters for basic amino acids plays a crucial role in interaction with the cognate solute binding protein(s)

In the thermophile Geobacillus stearothermophilus, the uptake of basic amino acids is mediated by an ABC transporter composed of the substrate binding protein (receptor) ArtJ and a homodimer each of the pore-forming subunit, ArtM, and the nucleotide-binding subunit, ArtP. We recently identified two putative binding sites in ArtJ that might interact with the Art(MP)(2) complex, thereby initiating the transport cycle (A. Vahedi-Faridi et al., J. Mol. Biol. 375:448-459, 2008). Here we investigated the contribution of charged amino acid residues in the second extracellular loop of ArtM to contact with ArtJ. Our results demonstrate a crucial role for residues K177, R185, and E188, since mutations to oppositely charged amino acids or glutamine led to a complete loss of ArtJ-stimulated ATPase activity of the complex variants in proteoliposomes. The defects could not be suppressed by ArtJ variants carrying mutations in site I (K39E and K152E) or II (E163K and D170K), suggesting a more complex interplay than that by a single salt bridge. These findings were supported by cross-linking assays demonstrating physical proximity between ArtJ(N166C) and ArtM(E182C). The importance of positively charged residues for receptor-transporter interaction was underscored by mutational analysis of the closely related transporter HisJ/LAO-HisQMP(2) of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium. While transporter variants with mutated positively charged residues in HisQ displayed residual ATPase activities, corresponding mutants of HisM could no longer be stimulated by HisJ/LAO. Interestingly, the ATPase activity of the HisQM(K187E)P(2) variant was inhibited by l- and d-histidine in detergent, suggesting a role of the residue in preventing free histidine from gaining access to the substrate binding site within HisQM.

Structure, function, and evolution of bacterial ATP-binding cassette systems

SUMMARY

ATP-binding cassette (ABC) systems are universally distributed among living organisms and function in many different aspects of bacterial physiology. ABC transporters are best known for their role in the import of essential nutrients and the export of toxic molecules, but they can also mediate the transport of many other physiological substrates. In a classical transport reaction, two highly conserved ATP-binding domains or subunits couple the binding/hydrolysis of ATP to the translocation of particular substrates across the membrane, through interactions with membrane-spanning domains of the transporter. Variations on this basic theme involve soluble ABC ATP-binding proteins that couple ATP hydrolysis to nontransport processes, such as DNA repair and gene expression regulation. Insights into the structure, function, and mechanism of action of bacterial ABC proteins are reported, based on phylogenetic comparisons as well as classic biochemical and genetic approaches. The availability of an increasing number of high-resolution structures has provided a valuable framework for interpretation of recent studies, and realistic models have been proposed to explain how these fascinating molecular machines use complex dynamic processes to fulfill their numerous biological functions. These advances are also important for elucidating the mechanism of action of eukaryotic ABC proteins, because functional defects in many of them are responsible for severe human inherited diseases.

Probing receptor-translocator interactions in the oligopeptide ABC transporter by fluorescence correlation spectroscopy

The oligopeptide transporter Opp is a five-component ABC uptake system. The extracytoplasmic lipid-anchored substrate-binding protein (or receptor) OppA delivers peptides to an integral membrane complex OppBCDF (or translocator), where, on ATP binding and hydrolysis, translocation across the membrane takes place. OppA and OppBCDF were labeled with fluorescent probes, reconstituted into giant unilamellar vesicles, and the receptor-translocator interactions were investigated by fluorescence correlation spectroscopy. Lateral mobility of OppA was reduced on incorporation of OppBCDF into giant unilamellar vesicles, and decreased even further on the addition of peptide. Fluorescence cross-correlation measurements revealed that OppBCDF distinguished liganded from unliganded OppA, binding only the former. Addition of ATP or its nonhydrolyzable analog AMP-PNP resulted in release of OppA from OppBCDF. In vanadate-trapped "transition state" conditions, OppA also was not bound by OppBCDF. A model is presented in which ATP-binding to OppDF results in donation of peptide to OppBC and simultaneous release of OppA. ATP-hydrolysis would complete the peptide translocation and reset the transporter for another catalytic cycle. Implications in terms of a general transport mechanism for ABC importers and exporters are discussed.

Crystal structures and mutational analysis of the arginine-, lysine-, histidine-binding protein ArtJ from Geobacillus stearothermophilus. Implications for interactions of ArtJ with its cognate ATP-binding cassette transporter, Art(MP)2

ArtJ is the substrate-binding component (receptor) of the ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transport system ArtJ-(MP)(2) from the thermophilic bacterium Geobacillus stearothermophilus that is specific for arginine, lysine, and histidine. The highest affinity is found for arginine (K(d)=0.039(+/-0.014) microM), while the affinities for lysine and histidine are about tenfold lower. We have determined the X-ray structures of ArtJ liganded with each of these substrates at resolutions of 1.79 A (arginine), 1.79 A (lysine), and 2.35 A (histidine), respectively. As found for other solute receptors, the polypeptide chain is folded into two distinct domains (lobes) connected by a hinge. The interface between the lobes forms the substrate-binding pocket whose geometry is well preserved in all three ArtJ/amino acid complexes. Structure-derived mutational analyses indicated the crucial role of a region in the carboxy-terminal lobe of ArtJ in contacting the transport pore Art(MP)(2) and revealed the functional importance of Gln132 and Trp68. While variant Gln132Leu exhibited lower binding affinity for arginine but no binding of lysine and histidine, the variant Trp68Leu had lost binding activity for all three substrates. The results are discussed in comparison with known structures of homologous proteins from mesophilic bacteria.

A bacterial virulence factor with a dual role as an adhesin and a solute-binding protein: the crystal structure at 1.5 A resolution of the PEB1a protein from the food-borne human pathogen Campylobacter jejuni

The PEB1a protein is an antigenic factor exposed on the surface of the food-borne human pathogen Campylobacter jejuni, which has a major role in adherence and host colonisation. PEB1a is also the periplasmic binding protein component of an aspartate/glutamate ABC transporter essential for optimal microaerobic growth on these dicarboxylic amino acids. Here, we report the crystal structure of PEB1a at 1.5 A resolution. The protein has a typical two-domain alpha/beta structure, characteristic of periplasmic extracytoplasmic solute receptors and a chain topology related to the type II subfamily. An aspartate ligand, clearly defined by electron density in the interdomain cleft, forms extensive polar interactions with the protein, the majority of which are made with the larger domain. Arg89 and Asp174 form ion-pairing interactions with the main chain alpha-carboxyl and alpha-amino-groups, respectively, of the ligand, while Arg67, Thr82, Lys19 and Tyr156 co-ordinate the ligand side-chain carboxyl group. Lys19 and Arg67 line a positively charged groove, which favours binding of Asp over the neutral Asn. The ligand-binding cleft is of sufficient depth to accommodate a glutamate. This is the first structure of an ABC-type aspartate-binding protein, and explains the high affinity of the protein for aspartate and glutamate, and its much weaker binding of asparagine and glutamine. Stopped-flow fluorescence spectroscopy indicates a simple bimolecular mechanism of ligand binding, with high association rate constants. Sequence alignments and phylogenetic analyses revealed PEB1a homologues in some Gram-positive bacteria. The alignments suggest a more distant homology with GltI from Escherichia coli, a known glutamate and aspartate-binding protein, but Lys19 and Tyr156 are not conserved in GltI. Our results provide a structural basis for understanding both the solute transport and adhesin/virulence functions of PEB1a.

Structure of an ABC transporter in complex with its binding protein

ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporter proteins carry diverse substrates across cell membranes. Whereas clinically relevant ABC exporters are implicated in various diseases or cause multidrug resistance of cancer cells, bacterial ABC importers are essential for the uptake of nutrients, including rare elements such as molybdenum. A detailed understanding of their mechanisms requires direct visualization at high resolution and in distinct conformations. Our recent structure of the multidrug ABC exporter Sav1866 has revealed an outward-facing conformation of the transmembrane domains coupled to a closed conformation of the nucleotide-binding domains, reflecting the ATP-bound state. Here we present the 3.1 A crystal structure of a putative molybdate transporter (ModB2C2) from Archaeoglobus fulgidus in complex with its binding protein (ModA). Twelve transmembrane helices of the ModB subunits provide an inward-facing conformation, with a closed gate near the external membrane boundary. The ATP-hydrolysing ModC subunits reveal a nucleotide-free, open conformation, whereas the attached binding protein aligns the substrate-binding cleft with the entrance to the presumed translocation pathway. Structural comparison of ModB2C2A with Sav1866 suggests a common alternating access and release mechanism, with binding of ATP promoting an outward-facing conformation and dissociation of the hydrolysis products promoting an inward-facing conformation.

Functional analysis of detergent-solubilized and membrane-reconstituted ATP-binding cassette transporters

ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters are vital to any living system and are involved in the translocation of a wide variety of substances, from ions and nutrients to high molecular weight proteins. This chapter describes methods used to purify and membrane reconstitute ABC transporters in a fully functional state. The procedures are largely based on our experience with substrate-binding protein-dependent ABC uptake systems from bacteria, but the approaches should be applicable to multisubunit membrane complexes in general. Also, we present simple methods, based on substrate binding or translocation, to follow the activity of the protein complexes in detergent-solubilized and/or membrane-reconstituted state(s).

On the role of the two extracytoplasmic substrate-binding domains in the ABC transporter OpuA

Members of two transporter families of the ATP-binding cassette (ABC) superfamily use two or even four extracytoplasmic substrate-binding domains (SBDs) for transport. We report on the role of the two SBDs in the translocation cycle of the ABC transporter OpuA from Lactococcus lactis. Heterooligomeric OpuA complexes with only one SBD or one functional and one non-functional SBD (inactivated by covalent linkage of a substrate mimic) have been constructed, and the substrate binding and transport kinetics of the purified transporters, reconstituted in liposomes, have been determined. The data indicate that the two SBDs of OpuA interact in a cooperative manner in the translocation process by stimulating either the docking of the SBDs onto the translocator or the delivery of glycine betaine to the translocator. It appears that one of these initial steps, but not the later steps in translocation or resetting of the system to the initial state, is rate determining for transport. These new insights on the functional role of the extracytoplasmic SBDs are discussed in the light of the current knowledge of substrate-binding-protein-dependent ABC transporters.

Bacterial lactoferrin-binding protein A binds to both domains of the human lactoferrin C-lobe

Pathogenic bacteria in the family Neisseriaceae express surface receptors to acquire iron from the mammalian iron-binding proteins. Transferrins and lactoferrins constitute a family of iron-binding proteins highly related in both sequence and structure, yet the bacterial receptors are able to distinguish between these proteins and uphold a strict binding specificity. In order to understand the molecular basis for this specificity, the interaction between human lactoferrin (hLf) and the lactoferrin-binding protein A (LbpA) from Moraxella catarrhalis was studied. A periplasmic expression system was designed for the heterologous expression of LbpA, which enabled the investigation of its binding activity in the absence of lactoferrin-binding protein B (LbpB). To facilitate delineation of the LbpA-binding regions of hLf, chimeric proteins composed of hLf and bovine transferrin were made. Binding studies performed with the chimeric proteins and recombinant LbpA identified two binding regions within the C-terminus of hLf. Furthermore, native LbpA from Moraxella and Neisseria spp. bound the identical spectrum of hybrid proteins as the recombinant receptor, demonstrating a conserved binding interaction with the C-lobe of hLf.

Parasite plastids: maintenance and functions

Malaria and related parasites retain a vestigial, but biosynthetically active, plastid organelle acquired far back in evolution from a red algal cell. The organelle appears to be essential for parasite transmission from cell to cell and carries the smallest known plastid genome. Why has this genome been retained? The genes it carries seem to be dedicated to the expression of just two "housekeeping" genes. We speculate that one of these, called ycf24 in plants and sufB in bacteria, is tied to an essential "dark" reaction of the organelle--fatty acid biosynthesis. "Ball-park" clues to the function of bacterial suf genes have emerged only recently and point to the areas of iron homeostasis, [Fe-S] cluster formation and oxidative stress. We present experimental evidence for a physical interaction between SufB and its putative partner SufC (ycf16). In both malaria and plants, SufC is encoded in the nucleus and specifies an ATPase that is imported into the plastid.

The structure of Escherichia coli BtuF and binding to its cognate ATP binding cassette transporter

Bacterial binding protein-dependent ATP binding cassette (ABC) transporters facilitate uptake of essential nutrients. The crystal structure of Escherichia coli BtuF, the protein that binds vitamin B12 and delivers it to the periplasmic surface of the ABC transporter BtuCD, reveals a bi-lobed fold resembling that of the ferrichrome binding protein FhuD. B12 is bound in the "base-on" conformation in a deep cleft formed at the interface between the two lobes of BtuF. A stable complex between BtuF and BtuCD (with the stoichiometry BtuC2D2F) is demonstrated to form in vitro and was modeled using the individual crystal structures. Two surface glutamates from BtuF may interact with arginine residues on the periplasmic surface of the BtuCD transporter. These glutamate and arginine residues are conserved among binding proteins and ABC transporters mediating iron and B12 uptake, suggesting that they may have a role in docking and the transmission of conformational changes.

ABC transporters: one, two or four extracytoplasmic substrate-binding sites?

Two families of ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters in which one or two extracytoplasmic substrate-binding domains are fused to either the N- or C-terminus of the translocator protein have been detected. This suggests that two, or even four, substrate-binding sites may function in the ABC transporter complex. This domain organization in ABC transporters, widely represented among microorganisms, raises new possibilities for how the substrate-binding protein(s) (SBPs) might interact with the translocator. One appealing hypothesis is that multiple substrate-binding sites in proximity to the entry site of the translocation pore enhance the transport capacity. We also discuss the implications of multiple substrate-binding sites in close proximity to the translocator in terms of broadened substrate specificity and possible cooperative interactions between SBPs and the translocator.

Thiamine transport in Escherichia coli: the mechanism of inhibition by the sulfhydryl-specific modifier N-ethylmaleimide

Active transport of thiamin (vitamin B(1)) into Escherichia coli occurs through a member of the superfamily of transporters known as ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters. Although it was demonstrated that the sulfhydryl-specific modifier N-ethylmaleimide (NEM) inhibited thiamin transport, the exact mechanism of this inhibition is unknown. Therefore, we have carried out a kinetic analysis of thiamin transport to determine the mechanism of inhibition by NEM. Thiamin transport in vivo exhibits Michaelis-Menten kinetics with K(M)=15 nM and V(max)=46 U mg(-1). Treatment of intact E. coli KG33 with saturating NEM exhibited apparent noncompetitive inhibition, decreasing V(max) by approximately 50% without effecting K(M) or the apparent first-order rate constant (k(obsd)). Apparent noncompetitive inhibition is consistent with an irreversible covalent modification of a cysteine(s) that is critical for the transport process. A primary amino acid analysis of the subunits of the thiamin permease combined with our kinetic analysis suggests that inhibition of thiamin transport by NEM is different from other ABC transporters and occurs at the level of protein-protein interactions between the membrane-bound carrier protein and the ATPase subunit.

Structure and association of ATP-binding cassette transporter nucleotide-binding domains

ATP-binding cassette transporters are responsible for the uptake and efflux of a multitude of substances across both eukaryotic and prokaryotic membranes. Members of this family of proteins are involved in diverse physiological processes including antigen presentation, drug efflux from cancer cells, bacterial nutrient uptake and cystic fibrosis. In order to understand more completely the role of these multidomain transporters an integrated approach combining structural, pharmacological and biochemical methods is being adopted. Recent structural data have been obtained on the cytoplasmic, nucleotide-binding domains of prokaryotic ABC transporters. This review evaluates both these data and the conflicting implications they have for domain communication in ABC transporters. Areas of biochemical research that attempt to resolve these conflicts will be discussed.

The tripartite ATP-independent periplasmic (TRAP) transporters of bacteria and archaea

Until recently, extracytoplasmic solute receptor (ESR)-dependent uptake systems were invariably found to possess a conserved ATP-binding protein (the ATP-binding cassette protein or ABC protein), which couples ATP hydrolysis to the translocation of the solute across the cytoplasmic membrane. While it is clear that this class of ABC transporter is ubiquitous in prokaryotes, it is now firmly established that other, unrelated types of membrane transport systems exist which also have ESR components. These systems have been designated tripartite ATP-independent periplasmic (TRAP) transporters, and they form a distinct class of ESR-dependent secondary transporters where the driving force for solute accumulation is an electrochemical ion gradient and not ATP hydrolysis. Currently, the most well characterised TRAP transporter at the functional and molecular level is the high-affinity C4-dicarboxylate transport (Dct) system from Rhodobacter capsulatus. This consists of three proteins; an ESR (DctP) and small (DctQ) and large (DctM) integral membrane proteins. The characteristics of this system are discussed in detail. Homologues of the R. capsulatus DctPQM proteins are present in a diverse range of prokaryotes, both bacteria and archaea, but not in eukaryotes. The deduced structures and possible functions of these homologous systems are described. In addition to the DctP family, other types of ESRs can be associated with TRAP transporters. A conserved family of immunogenic extracytoplasmic proteins is shown to be invariably associated with TRAP systems that contain a large DctQM fusion protein. All of the currently known archaeal systems are of this type. It is concluded that TRAP transporters are a widespread and ancient type of solute uptake system that transport a potentially diverse range of solutes and most likely evolved by the addition of auxiliary proteins to a single secondary transporter.

Solute-binding protein-dependent ABC transporters are responsible for solute efflux in addition to solute uptake

The ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporter superfamily is one of the most widespread of all gene families and currently has in excess of 1100 members in organisms ranging from the Archaea to manQ1. The movement of the diverse solutes of ABC transporters has been accepted as being strictly unidirectional, with recent models indicating that they are irreversible. However, contrary to this paradigm, we show that three solute-binding protein-dependent (SBP) ABC transporters of amino acids, i.e. the general amino acid permease (Aap) and the branched-chain amino acid permease (Bra) of Rhizobium leguminosarum and the histidine permease (His) of Salmonella typhimurium, are bidirectional, being responsible for efflux in addition to the uptake of solutes. The net solute movement measured for an ABC transporter depends on the rates of uptake and efflux, which are independent; a plateau is reached when both are saturated. SBP ABC transporters promote active uptake because, although the Vmax values for uptake and efflux are not significantly different, there is a 103-104 higher affinity for uptake of solute compared with efflux. Therefore, the SBP ABC transporters are able to support a substantial concentration gradient and provide a net uptake of solutes into bacterial cells.

Towards the molecular mechanism of prokaryotic and eukaryotic multidrug transporters

Due to their ability to extrude structurally dissimilar cytotoxic drugs out of the cell, multidrug transporters are able to reduce the cytoplasmic drug concentration, and, hence, are able to confer drug resistance on human cancer cells and pathogenic microorganisms. This review will focus on the molecular properties of two bacterial multidrug transporters, the ATP-binding cassette transporter LmrA and the proton motive force-dependent major facilitator superfamily transporter LmrP, which each represent a major class of multidrug transport proteins encountered in pro- and eukaryotic cells. In spite of the structural differences between LmrA and LmrP, the molecular bases of their drug transport activity may turn out to be more similar than might currently appear.

Prolactin directly stimulates transcellular active calcium transport in the duodenum of female rats

Prolactin has been postulated to be a novel calcium-regulating hormone during pregnancy and lactation. It stimulates both passive and active duodenal calcium transport in several experimental models. Our study was performed on sexually mature female Wistar rats (200–250 g) to study the direct action of prolactin on calcium transport in the duodenum using the Ussing chamber technique. To evaluate the effect of prolactin on total calcium transport in the duodenum, we intraperitoneally injected rats with 0.4, 0.6, and 0.8 mg/kg prolactin. The total calcium transport was divided into voltage-dependent, solvent drag-induced, and transcellular active fluxes by applying short-circuit current and by mucosal glucose replacement with mannitol. The effect of prolactin on each flux was studied separately. Finally, to evaluate the direct action of prolactin on duodenal transcellular active flux, we directly exposed duodenal segments to prolactin that had been added to the serosal solution with or without calcium transport inhibitors. We found that 0.6 and 0.8 mg/kg prolactin ip significantly increased the total mucosa–to–serosa calcium flux from the control value (nmol·hr–1·cm–2) of 34.53 ± 6.81 to 68.07 ± 13.53 (P < 0.05) and 84.43 ± 19.72 (P < 0.01), respectively. Prolactin also enhanced the solvent drag-induced calcium flux and transcellular active calcium flux, but not the voltage-dependent calcium flux. The duodenal segments directly exposed to 200, 400, and 800 ng/mL prolactin showed a significant increase in the transcellular active calcium absorption in a dose-dependent manner, i.e., from the control value (nmol·hr–1·cm–2) of 2.94 ± 0.47 to 5.45 ± 0.97 (P < 0.01), 8.09 ± 0.52 (P < 0.001), and 18.42 ± 2.92 (P < 0.001), respectively. Its direct action was inhibited by mucosal exposure to 50 µM lanthanum chloride, a calcium transporter protein competitor, and serosal exposure to 0.1 mM trifluoperazine, a Ca2+-ATPase inhibitor. These studies demonstrate that the duodenum is a target organ of prolactin, which enhances transcellular active calcium transport.Key words: calcium absorption, duodenum, prolactin, solvent drag, transcellular calcium transport.

Multidrug transport by ATP binding cassette transporters: a proposed two-cylinder engine mechanism

The elevated expression of ATP binding cassette (ABC) multidrug transporters in multidrug-resistant cells interferes with the drug-based control of cancers and infectious pathogenic microorganisms. Multidrug transporters interact directly with the drug substrates. This review summarizes current insights into the mechanism(s) by which ATP hydrolysis is coupled to drug transport in bacterial LmrA and its human homolog P-glycoprotein. In addition, the relevance of these insights for other ABC transporters will be discussed.

Thermodynamics and dynamics of histidine-binding protein, the water-soluble receptor of histidine permease. Implications for the transport of high and low affinity ligands

The bacterial histidine permease is a model system for ABC transporters (traffic ATPases). The water-soluble receptor of this permease, HisJ, binds L-histidine and L-arginine (tightly) and L-lysine and L-ornithine (less tightly) in the periplasm, interacts with the membrane-bound complex (HisQMP2) and induces its ATPase activity, which results in ligand translocation. HisJ is a two-domain protein; in the absence of ligand, the cleft between two domains is open and binding of substrate stabilizes the closed conformation. Surprisingly, various liganded HisJ forms display substantial differences in their physicochemical characteristics and capacity to induce the ATPase. This is due to either different effects of the individual ligands on the respective closed structures, or to different equilibria being reached for each ligand between the open liganded form and the closed liganded form [Wolf, A. , Lee, K.C., Kirsch, J.F. & Ames, G.F.-L. (1996) J. Biol. Chem. 271, 21243-21250]. In this work, time-resolved measurements of the decay of intrinsic HisJ fluorescence and of the decay of the anisotropy of the fluorescence, as well as the analysis of the steady-state near UV CD and fluorescence spectra, rule out the model in which the differences between liganded complexes reflect different equilibria. The decay of the anisotropy of the fluorescence shows that liganded complexes differ dramatically in their large-scale conformational dynamics. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) curves for the HisJ thermal unfolding are well described by a scheme of equilibrium two-state unfolding of two independent domains, which can be ascribed to the two-domain structure of HisJ. This is true both for apo-HisJ at various pH values, and for HisJ in the presence of its ligands at varying concentrations, at pH 8.3. The DSC and structural data suggest that all ligands interact more extensively with the larger domain. A qualitative model for the HisJ conformational dynamics employing the idea of a twisting movement of the domains is proposed, which explains the difference in the efficacy of the ATPase induction by the various liganded HisJ forms.

Osmoregulated ABC-transport system of Lactococcus lactis senses water stress via changes in the physical state of the membrane

An osmoregulated ABC transporter (OpuA) with novel structural features has been identified that responds to water stress. This glycine betaine transport system consists of an ATP-binding/hydrolyzing subunit (OpuAA) and a protein (OpuABC) that contains both the translocator and the substrate-binding domain. The components of OpuA have been overexpressed, purified, and functionally incorporated into liposomes with an ATP-regenerating system in the vesicle lumen. A transmembrane osmotic gradient (outside hyperosmotic relative to the inside) of both ionic and nonionic compounds was able to osmotically activate OpuA in the proteoliposomal system. Hypoosmotic medium conditions inhibited the basal activity of the system. The data show that OpuAA and OpuABC are sufficient for osmoregulated transport, indicating that OpuA can act both as osmosensor and osmoregulator. Strikingly, OpuA could also be activated by low concentrations of cationic and anionic amphipaths, which interact with the membrane. This result indicates that activation by a transmembrane osmotic gradient is mediated by changes in membrane properties/protein-lipid interactions.

Subunit interactions in ABC transporters: towards a functional architecture

The ABC superfamily is a diverse group of integral membrane proteins involved in the ATP-dependent transport of solutes across biological membranes in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Although ABC transporters have been studied for over 30 years, very little is known about the mechanism by which the energy of ATP hydrolysis is used to transport substrate across the membrane. The recent report of the high resolution crystal structure of HisP, the nucleotide-binding subunit of the histidine permease complex of Salmonella typhimurium, represents a significant breakthrough toward the elucidation of the mechanism of solute translocation by ABC transporters. In this review, we use data from the crystallographic structures of HisP and other nucleotide-binding proteins, combined with sequence analysis of a subset of atypical ABC transporters, to argue a new model for the dimerisation of the nucleotide-binding domains that embraces the notion that the C motif from one subunit forms part of the ATP-binding site in the opposite subunit. We incorporate this dimerisation of the ATP-binding domains into our recently reported beta-barrel model for P-glycoprotein and present a general model for the cooperative interaction of the two nucleotide-binding domains and the translocation of mechanical energy to the transmembrane domains in ABC transporters.

Modulation of ATPase activity by physical disengagement of the ATP-binding domains of an ABC transporter, the histidine permease

The membrane-bound complex of the prokaryotic histidine permease, a periplasmic protein-dependent ABC transporter, is composed of two hydrophobic subunits, HisQ and HisM, and two identical ATP-binding subunits, HisP, and is energized by ATP hydrolysis. The soluble periplasmic binding protein, HisJ, creates a signal that induces ATP hydrolysis by HisP. The crystal structure of HisP has been resolved and shown to have an "L" shape, with one of its arms (arm I) being involved in ATP binding and the other one (arm II) being proposed to interact with the hydrophobic subunits (Hung, L.-W., Wang, I. X., Nikaido, K., Liu, P.-Q., Ames, G. F.-L., and Kim, S.-H. (1998) Nature 396, 703-707). Here we study the basis for the defect of several HisP mutants that have an altered signaling pathway and hydrolyze ATP constitutively. We use biochemical approaches to show that they produce a loosely assembled membrane complex, in which the mutant HisP subunits are disengaged from HisQ and HisM, suggesting that the residues involved are important in the interaction between HisP and the hydrophobic subunits. In addition, the mutant HisPs are shown to have lower affinity for ADP and to display no cooperativity for ATP. All of the residues affected in these HisP mutants are located in arm II of the crystal structure of HisP, thus supporting the proposed function of arm II of HisP as interacting with HisQ and HisM. A revised model involving a cycle of disengagement and reengagement of HisP is proposed as a general mechanism of action for ABC transporters.