1
|
Xu K, Nnyamah C, Pandya N, Sweis N, Corona-Avila I, Priyadarshini M, Wicksteed B, Layden BT. β cell acetate production and release are negligible. Islets 2024; 16:2339558. [PMID: 38607959 PMCID: PMC11018053 DOI: 10.1080/19382014.2024.2339558] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2023] [Accepted: 04/02/2024] [Indexed: 04/14/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Studies suggest that short chain fatty acids (SCFAs), which are primarily produced from fermentation of fiber, regulate insulin secretion through free fatty acid receptors 2 and 3 (FFA2 and FFA3). As these are G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs), they have potential therapeutic value as targets for treating type 2 diabetes (T2D). The exact mechanism by which these receptors regulate insulin secretion and other aspects of pancreatic β cell function is unclear. It has been reported that glucose-dependent release of acetate from pancreatic β cells negatively regulates glucose stimulated insulin secretion. While these data raise the possibility of acetate's potential autocrine action on these receptors, these findings have not been independently confirmed, and multiple concerns exist with this observation, particularly the lack of specificity and precision of the acetate detection methodology used. METHODS Using Min6 cells and mouse islets, we assessed acetate and pyruvate production and secretion in response to different glucose concentrations, via liquid chromatography mass spectrometry. RESULTS Using Min6 cells and mouse islets, we showed that both intracellular pyruvate and acetate increased with high glucose conditions; however, intracellular acetate level increased only slightly and exclusively in Min6 cells but not in the islets. Further, extracellular acetate levels were not affected by the concentration of glucose in the incubation medium of either Min6 cells or islets. CONCLUSIONS Our findings do not substantiate the glucose-dependent release of acetate from pancreatic β cells, and therefore, invalidate the possibility of an autocrine inhibitory effect on glucose stimulated insulin secretion.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kai Xu
- Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Chioma Nnyamah
- Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Nupur Pandya
- Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Nadia Sweis
- Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Irene Corona-Avila
- Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Medha Priyadarshini
- Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Barton Wicksteed
- Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Brian T. Layden
- Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
- Jesse Brown VA Medical Center, Chicago, IL, USA
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Inuki S, Miyamoto J, Hashimoto N, Shimizu H, Tabuchi H, Kawai A, Greiner LC, Kimura I, Ohno H. Structure-activity relationship studies of tetrahydroquinolone derivatives as GPR41 modulators. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2024; 107:129758. [PMID: 38641152 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2024.129758] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2024] [Revised: 04/09/2024] [Accepted: 04/15/2024] [Indexed: 04/21/2024]
Abstract
GPR41, a G protein-coupled receptor, serves as a sensor for short-chain fatty acids and plays a crucial role in regulating multiple physiological processes such as the maintenance of metabolic and immune homeostasis. Therefore, the modulation of GPR41 has garnered attention as a potential strategy for the treatment of various disorders. We conducted a structure-activity relationship study on a lead tetrahydroquinolone derivative bearing a 2-(trifluoromethoxy)benzene group that displayed antagonistic activity toward GPR41. Modification of the aryl group attached to the furan moiety revealed that derivatives containing di- or trifluorobenzene, instead of 2-(trifluoromethoxy)benzene, exhibited agonistic activity toward GPR41, comparable with the reported agonistic modulator AR420626. These results suggest that the aryl group plays a pivotal role in regulating the activity of compounds toward GPR41, providing valuable insights for the design of GPR41 modulators.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shinsuke Inuki
- Department of Bioorganic Medicinal Chemistry, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyoto University, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan
| | - Junki Miyamoto
- Department of Applied Biological Science, Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Fuchu-shi, Tokyo 183-8509, Japan
| | - Naoki Hashimoto
- Department of Bioorganic Medicinal Chemistry, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyoto University, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan
| | - Hidenori Shimizu
- Laboratory of Molecular Endocrinology, Graduate School of Biostudies, Kyoto University, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan; Noster Inc., Kamiueno, Muko-shi, Kyoto 617-0006, Japan
| | - Hitomi Tabuchi
- Department of Bioorganic Medicinal Chemistry, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyoto University, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan
| | - Atsuko Kawai
- Department of Bioorganic Medicinal Chemistry, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyoto University, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan
| | - Luca C Greiner
- Department of Bioorganic Medicinal Chemistry, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyoto University, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan
| | - Ikuo Kimura
- Department of Applied Biological Science, Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Fuchu-shi, Tokyo 183-8509, Japan; Laboratory of Molecular Endocrinology, Graduate School of Biostudies, Kyoto University, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan; Department of Molecular Endocrinology, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyoto University, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan; AMED-CREST, Japan Agency for Medical Research and Development, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 100-0004, Japan.
| | - Hiroaki Ohno
- Department of Bioorganic Medicinal Chemistry, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyoto University, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan; AMED-CREST, Japan Agency for Medical Research and Development, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 100-0004, Japan.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Zhang X, Guseinov AA, Jenkins L, Li K, Tikhonova IG, Milligan G, Zhang C. Structural basis for the ligand recognition and signaling of free fatty acid receptors. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2024; 10:eadj2384. [PMID: 38198545 PMCID: PMC10780892 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.adj2384] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2023] [Accepted: 12/05/2023] [Indexed: 01/12/2024]
Abstract
Free fatty acid receptors 1 to 4 (FFA1 to FFA4) are class A G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). FFA1 to FFA3 share substantial sequence similarity, whereas FFA4 is unrelated. However, FFA1 and FFA4 are activated by long-chain fatty acids, while FFA2 and FFA3 respond to short-chain fatty acids generated by intestinal microbiota. FFA1, FFA2, and FFA4 are potential drug targets for metabolic and inflammatory conditions. Here, we determined the active structures of FFA1 and FFA4 bound to docosahexaenoic acid, FFA4 bound to the synthetic agonist TUG-891, and butyrate-bound FFA2, each complexed with an engineered heterotrimeric Gq protein (miniGq), by cryo-electron microscopy. Together with computational simulations and mutagenesis studies, we elucidated the similarities and differences in the binding modes of fatty acid ligands to their respective GPCRs. Our findings unveiled distinct mechanisms of receptor activation and G protein coupling. We anticipate that these outcomes will facilitate structure-based drug development and underpin future research on this group of GPCRs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xuan Zhang
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, School of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA
| | - Abdul-Akim Guseinov
- School of Pharmacy, Medical Biology Centre, Queen’s University Belfast, Belfast BT9 7BL, Northern Ireland, UK
| | - Laura Jenkins
- Centre for Translational Pharmacology, School of Molecular Biosciences, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, Scotland, UK
| | - Kunpeng Li
- Cryo-EM Core Facility, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA
| | - Irina G. Tikhonova
- School of Pharmacy, Medical Biology Centre, Queen’s University Belfast, Belfast BT9 7BL, Northern Ireland, UK
| | - Graeme Milligan
- Centre for Translational Pharmacology, School of Molecular Biosciences, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, Scotland, UK
| | - Cheng Zhang
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, School of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Barki N, Jenkins L, Marsango S, Dedeo D, Bolognini D, Dwomoh L, Abdelmalik AM, Nilsen M, Stoffels M, Nagel F, Schulz S, Tobin AB, Milligan G. Phosphorylation bar-coding of free fatty acid receptor 2 is generated in a tissue-specific manner. eLife 2023; 12:RP91861. [PMID: 38085667 PMCID: PMC10715726 DOI: 10.7554/elife.91861] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Free fatty acid receptor 2 (FFAR2) is activated by short-chain fatty acids and expressed widely, including in white adipocytes and various immune and enteroendocrine cells. Using both wild-type human FFAR2 and a designer receptor exclusively activated by designer drug (DREADD) variant we explored the activation and phosphorylation profile of the receptor, both in heterologous cell lines and in tissues from transgenic knock-in mouse lines expressing either human FFAR2 or the FFAR2-DREADD. FFAR2 phospho-site-specific antisera targeting either pSer296/pSer297 or pThr306/pThr310 provided sensitive biomarkers of both constitutive and agonist-mediated phosphorylation as well as an effective means to visualise agonist-activated receptors in situ. In white adipose tissue, phosphorylation of residues Ser296/Ser297 was enhanced upon agonist activation whilst Thr306/Thr310 did not become phosphorylated. By contrast, in immune cells from Peyer's patches Thr306/Thr310 become phosphorylated in a strictly agonist-dependent fashion whilst in enteroendocrine cells of the colon both Ser296/Ser297 and Thr306/Thr310 were poorly phosphorylated. The concept of phosphorylation bar-coding has centred to date on the potential for different agonists to promote distinct receptor phosphorylation patterns. Here, we demonstrate that this occurs for the same agonist-receptor pairing in different patho-physiologically relevant target tissues. This may underpin why a single G protein-coupled receptor can generate different functional outcomes in a tissue-specific manner.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Natasja Barki
- Centre for Translational Pharmacology, School of Molecular Biosciences, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of GlasgowGlasgowUnited Kingdom
| | - Laura Jenkins
- Centre for Translational Pharmacology, School of Molecular Biosciences, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of GlasgowGlasgowUnited Kingdom
| | - Sara Marsango
- Centre for Translational Pharmacology, School of Molecular Biosciences, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of GlasgowGlasgowUnited Kingdom
| | - Domonkos Dedeo
- Centre for Translational Pharmacology, School of Molecular Biosciences, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of GlasgowGlasgowUnited Kingdom
| | - Daniele Bolognini
- Centre for Translational Pharmacology, School of Molecular Biosciences, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of GlasgowGlasgowUnited Kingdom
| | - Louis Dwomoh
- Centre for Translational Pharmacology, School of Molecular Biosciences, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of GlasgowGlasgowUnited Kingdom
| | - Aisha M Abdelmalik
- Centre for Translational Pharmacology, School of Molecular Biosciences, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of GlasgowGlasgowUnited Kingdom
| | - Margaret Nilsen
- Centre for Translational Pharmacology, School of Molecular Biosciences, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of GlasgowGlasgowUnited Kingdom
| | - Manon Stoffels
- Centre for Translational Pharmacology, School of Molecular Biosciences, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of GlasgowGlasgowUnited Kingdom
| | | | - Stefan Schulz
- 7TM Antibodies GmbHJenaGermany
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University Hospital JenaJenaGermany
| | - Andrew B Tobin
- Centre for Translational Pharmacology, School of Molecular Biosciences, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of GlasgowGlasgowUnited Kingdom
| | - Graeme Milligan
- Centre for Translational Pharmacology, School of Molecular Biosciences, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of GlasgowGlasgowUnited Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Teyani R, Moniri NH. Gut feelings in the islets: The role of the gut microbiome and the FFA2 and FFA3 receptors for short chain fatty acids on β-cell function and metabolic regulation. Br J Pharmacol 2023; 180:3113-3129. [PMID: 37620991 DOI: 10.1111/bph.16225] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2023] [Revised: 08/02/2023] [Accepted: 08/03/2023] [Indexed: 08/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) are biosynthesized via fermentation of polysaccharides by gastrointestinal microbiota and have been shown to have wide-reaching effects on almost all tissues, including the pancreatic islets. Historically, the effects of SCFAs have been attributed to their intracellular metabolism and function as energy sources, but the discovery of free fatty acid G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) in the 2000s suggested that many functional outcomes of SCFAs are receptor-mediated. The SCFA receptors FFA2/GPR43 and FFA3/GPR41 are expressed on β-cells, where they regulate glucose-dependent insulin secretion, making them attractive targets for treatment of diabetes and other metabolic disorders. Here, we provide an update on the current evidence regarding regulation of FFA2/FFA3 receptors by specific probiotic bacterial species within the gut microbiome that synthesize SCFAs. We also review the body of research regarding the FFA2- and FFA3 receptor-specific function of SCFAs on β-cells and discuss the somewhat controversial and opposing findings within these studies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Razan Teyani
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Mercer University Health Sciences Center, Mercer University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Nader H Moniri
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Mercer University Health Sciences Center, Mercer University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Medicine, Mercer University Health Sciences Center, Mercer University, Macon, Georgia, USA
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Dong L, Xu Z, Huang G, Zhang R, Deng M, Huang F, Su D. Lychee Pulp-Derived Dietary Fiber-Bound Phenolic Complex Upregulates the SCFAs-GPRs-ENS Pathway and Aquaporins in Loperamide-Induced Constipated Mice by Reshaping Gut Microbiome. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2023; 71:15087-15096. [PMID: 37814441 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.3c03734] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/11/2023]
Abstract
This study aimed to investigate the effects of the lychee pulp-derived dietary fiber-bound phenolic complex (DF-BPC) on a murine model of loperamide-induced constipation and its molecular mechanism associated with gut microbiota modification. DF-BPC supplementation mitigated loperamide-induced dyschezia, intestinal hypomotility, and colonic impairment, as evidenced by the increased gastro-intestinal transit rate and mucus cell counts. By comparison, short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) contents and relative abundances of associated genera (Butyricimonas, Clostridium, and Lactobacillus) were effectively upregulated following DF-BPC supplementation. Notably, DF-BPC significantly enhanced expressions of G protein-coupled receptor (GPR) 41 and 43, reaching 1.43- and 1.62-fold increase, respectively. Neurotransmitter secretions were simultaneously altered in DF-BPC-treated mice, suggesting upregulation of the SCFAs-GPRs-enteric nervous system pathway. The overexpression of aquaporins (AQP3, 8, and 9) was stimulated partly through GPRs activation. Mild inflammation associated with constipation was inhibited by suppressing LBP-TLR4-NF-κB signaling translocation. These findings suggest that DF-BPC from lychee pulp has the potential to alleviate constipation in mice through modifying the gut microbiome.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lihong Dong
- Key Laboratory of Functional Foods, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs/Guangdong Key Laboratory of Agricultural Products Processing, Sericultural and Agri-Food Research Institute Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Guangzhou 510610, PR China
| | - Zhuohui Xu
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Guangzhou University, Guangzhou 510006, PR China
| | - Guitao Huang
- Key Laboratory of Functional Foods, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs/Guangdong Key Laboratory of Agricultural Products Processing, Sericultural and Agri-Food Research Institute Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Guangzhou 510610, PR China
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Guangzhou University, Guangzhou 510006, PR China
| | - Ruifen Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Functional Foods, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs/Guangdong Key Laboratory of Agricultural Products Processing, Sericultural and Agri-Food Research Institute Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Guangzhou 510610, PR China
| | - Mei Deng
- Key Laboratory of Functional Foods, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs/Guangdong Key Laboratory of Agricultural Products Processing, Sericultural and Agri-Food Research Institute Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Guangzhou 510610, PR China
| | - Fei Huang
- Key Laboratory of Functional Foods, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs/Guangdong Key Laboratory of Agricultural Products Processing, Sericultural and Agri-Food Research Institute Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Guangzhou 510610, PR China
| | - Dongxiao Su
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Guangzhou University, Guangzhou 510006, PR China
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Zhang X, Guseinov AA, Jenkins L, Li K, Tikhonova IG, Milligan G, Zhang C. Structural basis for the ligand recognition and signaling of free fatty acid receptors. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.08.20.553924. [PMID: 37662198 PMCID: PMC10473637 DOI: 10.1101/2023.08.20.553924] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/05/2023]
Abstract
Free fatty acid receptors 1-4 (FFA1-4) are class A G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). FFA1-3 share substantial sequence similarity whereas FFA4 is unrelated. Despite this FFA1 and FFA4 are activated by the same range of long chain fatty acids (LCFAs) whilst FFA2 and FFA3 are instead activated by short chain fatty acids (SCFAs) generated by the intestinal microbiota. Each of FFA1, 2 and 4 are promising targets for novel drug development in metabolic and inflammatory conditions. To gain insights into the basis of ligand interactions with, and molecular mechanisms underlying activation of, FFAs by LCFAs and SCFAs, we determined the active structures of FFA1 and FFA4 bound to the polyunsaturated LCFA docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), FFA4 bound to the synthetic agonist TUG-891, as well as SCFA butyrate-bound FFA2, each complexed with an engineered heterotrimeric Gq protein (miniGq), by cryo-electron microscopy. Together with computational simulations and mutagenesis studies, we elucidated the similarities and differences in the binding modes of fatty acid ligands with varying chain lengths to their respective GPCRs. Our findings unveil distinct mechanisms of receptor activation and G protein coupling. We anticipate that these outcomes will facilitate structure-based drug development and underpin future research to understand allosteric modulation and biased signaling of this group of GPCRs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xuan Zhang
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, School of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA15261, USA
| | - Abdul-Akim Guseinov
- School of Pharmacy, Medical Biology Centre, Queen’s University Belfast, Belfast BT9 7BL, Northern Ireland, United Kingdom
| | - Laura Jenkins
- Centre for Translational Pharmacology, School of Molecular Biosciences, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Kunpeng Li
- Cryo-EM core facility, Case Western Reserve University, OH44106, USA
| | - Irina G. Tikhonova
- School of Pharmacy, Medical Biology Centre, Queen’s University Belfast, Belfast BT9 7BL, Northern Ireland, United Kingdom
| | - Graeme Milligan
- Centre for Translational Pharmacology, School of Molecular Biosciences, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Cheng Zhang
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, School of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA15261, USA
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Valentini A, Schultz-Knudsen K, Højgaard Hansen A, Tsakoumagkou A, Jenkins L, Christensen HB, Manandhar A, Milligan G, Ulven T, Rexen Ulven E. Discovery of Potent Tetrazole Free Fatty Acid Receptor 2 Antagonists. J Med Chem 2023; 66:6105-6121. [PMID: 37129317 PMCID: PMC10547238 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.2c01935] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2022] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
The free fatty acid receptor 2 (FFA2), also known as GPR43, mediates effects of short-chain fatty acids and has attracted interest as a potential target for treatment of various metabolic and inflammatory diseases. Herein, we report the results from bioisosteric replacement of the carboxylic acid group of the established FFA2 antagonist CATPB and SAR investigations around these compounds, leading to the discovery of the first high-potency FFA2 antagonists, with the preferred compound TUG-2304 (16l) featuring IC50 values of 3-4 nM in both cAMP and GTPγS assays, favorable physicochemical and pharmacokinetic properties, and the ability to completely inhibit propionate-induced neutrophil migration and respiratory burst.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alice Valentini
- Department
of Drug Design and Pharmacology, University
of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 2, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Katrine Schultz-Knudsen
- Department
of Drug Design and Pharmacology, University
of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 2, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Anders Højgaard Hansen
- Department
of Physics, Chemistry and Pharmacy, University
of Southern Denmark, Campusvej 55, DK-5230 Odense M, Denmark
| | - Argyro Tsakoumagkou
- Department
of Drug Design and Pharmacology, University
of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 2, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Laura Jenkins
- Centre
for Translational Pharmacology, School of Molecular Biosciences, College
of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Henriette B. Christensen
- Department
of Physics, Chemistry and Pharmacy, University
of Southern Denmark, Campusvej 55, DK-5230 Odense M, Denmark
| | - Asmita Manandhar
- Department
of Drug Design and Pharmacology, University
of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 2, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Graeme Milligan
- Centre
for Translational Pharmacology, School of Molecular Biosciences, College
of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Trond Ulven
- Department
of Drug Design and Pharmacology, University
of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 2, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
- Department
of Physics, Chemistry and Pharmacy, University
of Southern Denmark, Campusvej 55, DK-5230 Odense M, Denmark
| | - Elisabeth Rexen Ulven
- Department
of Drug Design and Pharmacology, University
of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 2, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Rosli NSA, Abd Gani S, Khayat ME, Zaidan UH, Ismail A, Abdul Rahim MBH. Short-chain fatty acids: possible regulators of insulin secretion. Mol Cell Biochem 2023; 478:517-530. [PMID: 35943655 DOI: 10.1007/s11010-022-04528-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2022] [Accepted: 07/12/2022] [Indexed: 10/15/2022]
Abstract
The benefits of gut microbiota-derived short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) towards health and metabolism have been emerging since the past decade. Extensive studies have been carried out to understand the mechanisms responsible in initiating the functionalities of these SCFAs towards body tissues, which greatly involves the SCFA-specific receptors free fatty acid receptor 2 (FFAR2) and free fatty acid receptor 3 (FFAR3). This review intends to discuss the potential of SCFAs particularly in regulating insulin secretion in pancreatic β-cells, by explaining the production of SCFAs in the gut, the fate of each SCFAs after their production, involvement of FFAR2 and FFAR3 signalling mechanisms and their impacts on insulin secretion. Increased secretion of insulin after SCFAs treatments were reported in many studies, but contradicting evidence also exist in several other studies. Hence, no clear consensus was achieved in determining the true potential of SCFA in regulating insulin secretion. In this review, we explore how such differences were possible and hopefully be able to shed some perspectives in understanding SCFAs-signalling behaviour and preferences.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nur Suraya Ashikin Rosli
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia
| | - Shafinaz Abd Gani
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia
| | - Mohd Ezuan Khayat
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia
| | - Uswatun Hasanah Zaidan
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia
| | - Amin Ismail
- Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia
| | - Mohd Badrin Hanizam Abdul Rahim
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia. .,Institut Biosains, NaturMeds, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia.
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Wang Z, Yao W, Sun Y, Han Y, Chen X, Gong P, Zhai P, Pei S, Xie J, Ba Q, Wang H. Eucommia Bark/Leaf Extract Improves Lipid Metabolism Disorders by Affecting Intestinal Microbiota and Microbiome-Host Interaction in HFD Mice. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2023; 71:3297-3314. [PMID: 36753681 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.2c07239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Eucommia bark contains many bioactive compounds and has anti-hyperlipidemic effects. However, due to the slow growth rate of the plant, there is a limited supply of this resource. Studies have demonstrated that Eucommia leaves contain active ingredients similar to those of Eucommia bark and also have anti-hyperlipidemic effects. It is not currently clear whether Eucommia leaf can be used as a substitute for Eucommia bark. Furthermore, their mechanism of action for anti-hyperlipidemia by improving the structure of the gut microbiota is also unclear. We aimed to determine the composition of the active ingredients in EBE and ELE by HPLC, establish an HFD-induced hyperlipidemia model, and combine fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) experiments to investigate the mechanism of EBE/ELE anti-hyperlipidemia by modifying the structure of intestinal microbiota, as well as to compare the effects of EBE and ELE. Our results showed that EBE and ELE contained similar active ingredients and significantly alleviated lipid metabolism disorders and blood glucose levels in the HFD-induced hyperlipidemia model. In this study, EBE and ELE significantly reduced the relative abundance of Desulfovibrionaceae and Erysipelotrichaceae and significantly increased the relative abundance of Ruminococcaceae. They also promoted the production of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) and activated the gene expression of the SCFA receptors G protein-coupled receptor 41 (GPR41) and GPR43. In addition, EBE and ELE can significantly increase the expression of the fasting-induced adipose factor (Fiaf) gene in the colon and inhibit the secretion of lipoprotein lipase (LPL) in the liver, thereby inhibiting triglyceride (TG) synthesis. They also significantly activate the expression of GPR41 and GPR43 genes in the epididymal fat tissue, leading to reduced lipid accumulation in adipocytes. These effects on the target genes were associated with changes in the abundance of Desulfovibrionaceae, Erysipelotrichaceae, and Ruminococcaceae bacteria in the intestinal microbiota. Thus, regulating the relative abundance of these microbes may serve as prospective targets for EBE/ELE to influence the Fiaf-LPL gut-liver axis and the SCFAs-GPR41/GPR43 gut-fat axis. In addition, there was no significant difference in the anti-hyperlipidemic effects of ELE and EBE, suggesting that Eucommia leaf may be a suitable alternative to Eucommia bark for managing hyperlipidemia by regulating the structure of the intestinal microbiota. These findings suggest that Eucommia leaves have great potential for development as a functional food with lipid-lowering properties.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zhineng Wang
- School of Food Science and Engineering, Shaanxi University of Science and Technology, Xi'an 710021, China
| | - Wenbo Yao
- School of Food Science and Engineering, Shaanxi University of Science and Technology, Xi'an 710021, China
| | - Ying Sun
- School of Food Science and Engineering, Shaanxi University of Science and Technology, Xi'an 710021, China
| | - Yewen Han
- School of Food Science and Engineering, Shaanxi University of Science and Technology, Xi'an 710021, China
| | - Xuefeng Chen
- School of Food Science and Engineering, Shaanxi University of Science and Technology, Xi'an 710021, China
| | - Pin Gong
- School of Food Science and Engineering, Shaanxi University of Science and Technology, Xi'an 710021, China
| | - Pengtao Zhai
- School of Food Science and Engineering, Shaanxi University of Science and Technology, Xi'an 710021, China
| | - Shuya Pei
- School of Food Science and Engineering, Shaanxi University of Science and Technology, Xi'an 710021, China
| | - Jianwu Xie
- School of Food Science and Engineering, Shaanxi University of Science and Technology, Xi'an 710021, China
| | - Qian Ba
- Laboratory of Oncogenes and Related Genes, Center for Single-Cell Omics, School of Public Health, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200025, China
- Laboratory Center, Shanghai Municipal Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai 200071, China
| | - Hui Wang
- Laboratory of Oncogenes and Related Genes, Center for Single-Cell Omics, School of Public Health, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200025, China
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Miyasato S, Iwata K, Mura R, Nakamura S, Yanagida K, Shindou H, Nagata Y, Kawahara M, Yamaguchi S, Aoki J, Inoue A, Nagamune T, Shimizu T, Nakamura M. Constitutively active GPR43 is crucial for proper leukocyte differentiation. FASEB J 2023; 37:e22676. [PMID: 36468834 DOI: 10.1096/fj.202201591r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2022] [Revised: 11/13/2022] [Accepted: 11/17/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The G protein-coupled receptors, GPR43 (free fatty acid receptor 2, FFA2) and GPR41 (free fatty acid receptor 3, FFA3), are activated by short-chain fatty acids produced under various conditions, including microbial fermentation of carbohydrates. Previous studies have implicated this receptor energy homeostasis and immune responses as well as in cell growth arrest and apoptosis. Here, we observed the expression of both receptors in human blood cells and a remarkable enhancement in leukemia cell lines (HL-60, U937, and THP-1 cells) during differentiation. A reporter assay revealed that GPR43 is coupled with Gαi and Gα12/13 and is constitutively active without any stimuli. Specific blockers of GPR43, GLPG0974 and CATPB function as inverse agonists because treatment with these compounds significantly reduces constitutive activity. In HL-60 cells, enhanced expression of GPR43 led to growth arrest through Gα12/13 . In addition, the blockage of GPR43 activity in these cells significantly impaired their adherent properties due to the reduction of adhesion molecules. We further revealed that enhanced GPR43 activity induces F-actin formation. However, the activity of GPR43 did not contribute to butyrate-induced apoptosis in differentiated HL-60 cells because of the ineffectiveness of the inverse agonist on cell death. Collectively, these results suggest that GPR43, which possesses constitutive activity, is crucial for growth arrest, followed by the proper differentiation of leukocytes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sosuke Miyasato
- Department of Bioscience, Graduate School of Life Science, Okayama University of Science, Okayama, Japan
| | - Kurumi Iwata
- Department of Bioscience, Graduate School of Life Science, Okayama University of Science, Okayama, Japan
| | - Reika Mura
- Department of Bioscience, Graduate School of Life Science, Okayama University of Science, Okayama, Japan
| | - Shou Nakamura
- Department of Chemistry and Biotechnology, Graduate School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Keisuke Yanagida
- Department of Lipid Life Science, National Center for Global Health and Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Hideo Shindou
- Department of Lipid Life Science, National Center for Global Health and Medicine, Tokyo, Japan.,Department of Medical Lipid Science, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yosuke Nagata
- Department of Bioscience, Graduate School of Life Science, Okayama University of Science, Okayama, Japan
| | - Masahiro Kawahara
- Department of Chemistry and Biotechnology, Graduate School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan.,Laboratory of Cell Vaccine, Center for Vaccine and Adjuvant Research (CVAR), National Institutes of Biomedical Innovation, Health and Nutrition (NIBIOHN), Osaka, Japan
| | - Satoshi Yamaguchi
- Department of Chemistry and Biotechnology, Graduate School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Junken Aoki
- Department of Health Chemistry, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Science, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan.,Japan Agency for Medical Research and Development (AMED), Core Research for Evolutional Science and Technology (AMED-CREST), Tokyo, Japan
| | - Asuka Inoue
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan
| | - Teruyuki Nagamune
- Department of Chemistry and Biotechnology, Graduate School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Takao Shimizu
- Lipid Signaling, National Center for Global Health and Medicine, Tokyo, Japan.,Institute of Microbial Chemistry, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Motonao Nakamura
- Department of Bioscience, Graduate School of Life Science, Okayama University of Science, Okayama, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Liu W, Yang G, Liu P, Jiang X, Xin Y. Modulation of adipose tissue metabolism by microbial-derived metabolites. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:1031498. [PMID: 36569060 PMCID: PMC9783635 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.1031498] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2022] [Accepted: 10/04/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Obesity and its complications, including type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and certain cancers, have posed a significant burden on health and healthcare systems over the years due to their high prevalence and incidence. Gut microbial derivatives are necessary for the regulation of energy metabolism and host immunity, as well as for maintaining homeostasis of the intestinal environment. Gut flora metabolites may be a link between gut microbes and diseases, such as obesity, and help understand why alterations in the microbiota can influence the pathophysiology of human disease. This is supported by emerging evidence that microbial-derived metabolites, such as short-chain fatty acids, bile acids, tryptophan, trimethylamine-N-oxide, and lipopolysaccharides, can be beneficial or detrimental to the host by affecting organs outside the gut, including adipose tissue. Adipose tissue is the largest lipid storage organ in the body and an essential endocrine organ that plays an indispensable role in the regulation of lipid storage, metabolism, and energy balance. Adipose tissue metabolism includes adipocyte metabolism (lipogenesis and lipolysis), thermogenesis, and adipose tissue metabolic maladaptation. Adipose tissue dysfunction causes the development of metabolic diseases, such as obesity. Here, we review the current understanding of how these microbial metabolites are produced and discuss both established mechanisms and the most recent effects of microbial products on host adipose tissue metabolism. We aimed to identify novel therapeutic targets or strategies for the prevention and treatment of obesity and its complications.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wenyun Liu
- Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory of Radiation Oncology & Therapy, The First Hospital of Jilin University, and Key Laboratory of Pathobiology, Ministry of Education, Jilin University, Changchun, China,Key Laboratory of Pathobiology, Ministry of Education, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Ge Yang
- Key Laboratory of Pathobiology, Ministry of Education, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Pinyi Liu
- Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory of Radiation Oncology & Therapy, The First Hospital of Jilin University, and Key Laboratory of Pathobiology, Ministry of Education, Jilin University, Changchun, China,Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory of Radiation Oncology and Therapy, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China,NHC Key Laboratory of Radiobiology, School of Public Health, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Xin Jiang
- Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory of Radiation Oncology & Therapy, The First Hospital of Jilin University, and Key Laboratory of Pathobiology, Ministry of Education, Jilin University, Changchun, China,Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory of Radiation Oncology and Therapy, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China,NHC Key Laboratory of Radiobiology, School of Public Health, Jilin University, Changchun, China,*Correspondence: Xin Jiang,
| | - Ying Xin
- Key Laboratory of Pathobiology, Ministry of Education, Jilin University, Changchun, China,Ying Xin,
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Short-chain fatty acid receptors and gut microbiota as therapeutic targets in metabolic, immune, and neurological diseases. Pharmacol Ther 2022; 239:108273. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2022.108273] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2022] [Revised: 08/05/2022] [Accepted: 08/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
|
14
|
van Deuren T, Blaak EE, Canfora EE. Butyrate to combat obesity and obesity-associated metabolic disorders: Current status and future implications for therapeutic use. Obes Rev 2022; 23:e13498. [PMID: 35856338 PMCID: PMC9541926 DOI: 10.1111/obr.13498] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2022] [Revised: 06/04/2022] [Accepted: 06/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Evidence is increasing that disturbances in the gut microbiome may play a significant role in the etiology of obesity and type 2 diabetes. The short chain fatty acid butyrate, a major end product of the bacterial fermentation of indigestible carbohydrates, is reputed to have anti-inflammatory properties and positive effects on body weight control and insulin sensitivity. However, whether butyrate has therapeutic potential for the treatment and prevention of obesity and obesity-related complications remains to be elucidated. Overall, animal studies strongly indicate that butyrate administered via various routes (e.g., orally) positively affects adipose tissue metabolism and functioning, energy and substrate metabolism, systemic and tissue-specific inflammation, and insulin sensitivity and body weight control. A limited number of human studies demonstrated interindividual differences in clinical effectiveness suggesting that outcomes may depend on the metabolic, microbial, and lifestyle-related characteristics of the target population. Hence, despite abundant evidence from animal data, support of human data is urgently required for the implementation of evidence-based oral and gut-derived butyrate interventions. To increase the efficacy of butyrate-focused interventions, future research should investigate which factors impact treatment outcomes including baseline gut microbial activity and functionality, thereby optimizing targeted-interventions and identifying individuals that merit most from such interventions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Thirza van Deuren
- Department of Human Biology, School for Nutrition and Translational Research in Metabolism (NUTRIM), Maastricht University Medical Center+, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Ellen E Blaak
- Department of Human Biology, School for Nutrition and Translational Research in Metabolism (NUTRIM), Maastricht University Medical Center+, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Emanuel E Canfora
- Department of Human Biology, School for Nutrition and Translational Research in Metabolism (NUTRIM), Maastricht University Medical Center+, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Central and peripheral regulations mediated by short-chain fatty acids on energy homeostasis. Transl Res 2022; 248:128-150. [PMID: 35688319 DOI: 10.1016/j.trsl.2022.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2022] [Revised: 05/16/2022] [Accepted: 06/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The human gut microbiota influences obesity, insulin resistance, and the subsequent development of type 2 diabetes (T2D). The gut microbiota digests and ferments nutrients resulting in the production of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), which generate various beneficial metabolic effects on energy and glucose homeostasis. However, their roles in the central nervous system (CNS)-mediated outputs on the metabolism have only been minimally studied. Here, we explore what is known and future directions that may be worth exploring in this emerging area. Specifically, we searched studies or data in English by using PubMed, Google Scholar, and the Human Metabolome Database. Studies were filtered by time from 1978 to March 2022. As a result, 195 studies, 53 reviews, 1 website, and 1 book were included. One hundred and sixty-five of 195 studies describe the production and metabolism of SCFAs or the effects of SCFAs on energy homeostasis, glucose balance, and mental diseases through the gut-brain axis or directly by a central pathway. Thirty of 195 studies show that inappropriate metabolism and excessive of SCFAs are metabolically detrimental. Most studies suggest that SCFAs exert beneficial metabolic effects by acting as the energy substrate in the TCA cycle, regulating the hormones related to satiety regulation and insulin secretion, and modulating immune cells and microglia. These functions have been linked with AMPK signaling, GPCRs-dependent pathways, and inhibition of histone deacetylases (HDACs). However, the studies focusing on the central effects of SCFAs are still limited. The mechanisms by which central SCFAs regulate appetite, energy expenditure, and blood glucose during different physiological conditions warrant further investigation.
Collapse
|
16
|
Lymperopoulos A, Suster MS, Borges JI. Short-Chain Fatty Acid Receptors and Cardiovascular Function. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23063303. [PMID: 35328722 PMCID: PMC8952772 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23063303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2022] [Revised: 03/15/2022] [Accepted: 03/17/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Increasing experimental and clinical evidence points toward a very important role for the gut microbiome and its associated metabolism in human health and disease, including in cardiovascular disorders. Free fatty acids (FFAs) are metabolically produced and utilized as energy substrates during almost every biological process in the human body. Contrary to long- and medium-chain FFAs, which are mainly synthesized from dietary triglycerides, short-chain FFAs (SCFAs) derive from the gut microbiota-mediated fermentation of indigestible dietary fiber. Originally thought to serve only as energy sources, FFAs are now known to act as ligands for a specific group of cell surface receptors called FFA receptors (FFARs), thereby inducing intracellular signaling to exert a variety of cellular and tissue effects. All FFARs are G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) that play integral roles in the regulation of metabolism, immunity, inflammation, hormone/neurotransmitter secretion, etc. Four different FFAR types are known to date, with FFAR1 (formerly known as GPR40) and FFAR4 (formerly known as GPR120) mediating long- and medium-chain FFA actions, while FFAR3 (formerly GPR41) and FFAR2 (formerly GPR43) are essentially the SCFA receptors (SCFARs), responding to all SCFAs, including acetic acid, propionic acid, and butyric acid. As with various other organ systems/tissues, the important roles the SCFARs (FFAR2 and FFAR3) play in physiology and in various disorders of the cardiovascular system have been revealed over the last fifteen years. In this review, we discuss the cardiovascular implications of some key (patho)physiological functions of SCFAR signaling pathways, particularly those regulating the neurohormonal control of circulation and adipose tissue homeostasis. Wherever appropriate, we also highlight the potential of these receptors as therapeutic targets for cardiovascular disorders.
Collapse
|
17
|
Barki N, Bolognini D, Börjesson U, Jenkins L, Riddell J, Hughes DI, Ulven T, Hudson BD, Ulven ER, Dekker N, Tobin AB, Milligan G. Chemogenetics defines a short-chain fatty acid receptor gut-brain axis. eLife 2022; 11:73777. [PMID: 35229717 PMCID: PMC8887895 DOI: 10.7554/elife.73777] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2021] [Accepted: 02/10/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Volatile small molecules, including the short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), acetate and propionate, released by the gut microbiota from the catabolism of nondigestible starches, can act in a hormone-like fashion via specific G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). The primary GPCR targets for these SCFAs are FFA2 and FFA3. Using transgenic mice in which FFA2 was replaced by an altered form called a Designer Receptor Exclusively Activated by Designer Drugs (FFA2-DREADD), but in which FFA3 is unaltered, and a newly identified FFA2-DREADD agonist 4-methoxy-3-methyl-benzoic acid (MOMBA), we demonstrate how specific functions of FFA2 and FFA3 define a SCFA-gut-brain axis. Activation of both FFA2/3 in the lumen of the gut stimulates spinal cord activity and activation of gut FFA3 directly regulates sensory afferent neuronal firing. Moreover, we demonstrate that FFA2 and FFA3 are both functionally expressed in dorsal root- and nodose ganglia where they signal through different G proteins and mechanisms to regulate cellular calcium levels. We conclude that FFA2 and FFA3, acting at distinct levels, provide an axis by which SCFAs originating from the gut microbiota can regulate central activity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Natasja Barki
- Centre for Translational Pharmacology, Institute of Molecular, Cell and Systems Biology, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Daniele Bolognini
- Centre for Translational Pharmacology, Institute of Molecular, Cell and Systems Biology, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Ulf Börjesson
- Discovery Sciences, Biopharmaceutical R&D, AstraZeneca, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Laura Jenkins
- Centre for Translational Pharmacology, Institute of Molecular, Cell and Systems Biology, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - John Riddell
- Institute of Neuroscience and Psychology, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - David I Hughes
- Institute of Neuroscience and Psychology, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Trond Ulven
- Department of Drug Design and Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Brian D Hudson
- Centre for Translational Pharmacology, Institute of Molecular, Cell and Systems Biology, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Elisabeth Rexen Ulven
- Department of Drug Design and Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Niek Dekker
- Discovery Sciences, Biopharmaceutical R&D, AstraZeneca, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Andrew B Tobin
- Centre for Translational Pharmacology, Institute of Molecular, Cell and Systems Biology, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Graeme Milligan
- Centre for Translational Pharmacology, Institute of Molecular, Cell and Systems Biology, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Mio K, Iida-Tanaka N, Yamanaka C, Kimura I, Aoe S. Consumption of barley flour increases gut fermentation and improves glucose intolerance via the short-chain fatty acid receptor GPR43 in obese male mice. Food Funct 2022; 13:10970-10980. [DOI: 10.1039/d2fo02622h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The ameliorative effect of barley intake on glucose intolerance is attenuated when Gpr43 is deficient.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kento Mio
- Graduate School of Studies in Human Culture, Otsuma Women's University, 12 Sanban-cho, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo, 102-8357, Japan
| | - Naoko Iida-Tanaka
- Graduate School of Studies in Human Culture, Otsuma Women's University, 12 Sanban-cho, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo, 102-8357, Japan
- Department of Food Science, Otsuma Women's University, 12 Sanban-cho, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo, 102-8357, Japan
| | - Chiemi Yamanaka
- The Institute of Human Culture Studies, Otsuma Women's University, 12 Sanban-cho, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo, 102-8357, Japan
| | - Ikuo Kimura
- Department of Applied Biological Science, Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Fuchu-shi, Tokyo, 183-8509, Japan
- Laboratory of Molecular Neurobiology, Graduate School of Biostudies, Kyoto University, Kyoto-shi, Kyoto, 606-8501, Japan
| | - Seiichiro Aoe
- Graduate School of Studies in Human Culture, Otsuma Women's University, 12 Sanban-cho, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo, 102-8357, Japan
- Department of Food Science, Otsuma Women's University, 12 Sanban-cho, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo, 102-8357, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Allosteric receptor modulation uncovers an FFA2R antagonist as a positive orthosteric modulator/agonist in disguise. Cell Signal 2021; 90:110208. [PMID: 34856356 DOI: 10.1016/j.cellsig.2021.110208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2021] [Revised: 11/23/2021] [Accepted: 11/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
A novel receptor crosstalk activation mechanism, through which signals generated by the agonist-occupied P2Y2R (the neutrophil receptor for ATP) activate allosterically modulated free fatty acid 2 receptor (FFA2R) without the involvement of any FFA2R agonist, was used to determine the inhibitor profiles of two earlier-described, FFA2R-specific antagonists, CATPB and GLPG0974. These antagonists have been shown to have somewhat different receptor-interaction characteristics at the molecular/functional level, although both are recognized by the orthosteric site in FFA2R. The antagonists inhibited neutrophil activation induced by ATP, an activation occurred only in the presence of either of the two positive allosteric FFA2R modulators (PAMs) AZ1729 and Cmp58. No neutrophil activation was induced by either AZ1729 or Cmp58 alone, whereas together they acted as co-agonistic PAMs and activated the superoxide-generating NADPH-oxidase in neutrophils. This response was inhibited by CATPB but not by GLPG0974. In contrast, GLPG0974 acted as a positive modulator, increasing the potency, albeit not the efficacy, of the co-agonistic PAMs. GLPG0974 also altered signaling downstream of FFA2R when activated by the co-agonistic PAMs. In the presence of GLPG0974, the response of neutrophils induced by the co-agonistic PAMs included an increase in the cytosolic concentration of free calcium ions (Ca2+), and this effect was reciprocal in that GLPG0974 triggered an increase in intracellular Ca2+, demonstrating that GLPG0974 acted as an FFA2R agonist. In summary, by studying the effects of the FFA2R ligand GLPG0974 on neutrophil activation induced by the co-agonists AZ1729 + Cmp58, we show that GLPG0974 is not only an FFA2R antagonist, but also displays agonistic and positive FFA2R-modulating functions that affect NADPH-oxidase activity and alter the receptor-downstream signaling induced by the co-agonistic PAMs.
Collapse
|
20
|
Liu J, Gu L, Zhang M, Zhang S, Wang M, Long Y, Zhang X. The Fecal Microbiota Transplantation: A Remarkable Clinical Therapy for Slow Transit Constipation in Future. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2021; 11:732474. [PMID: 34746023 PMCID: PMC8569429 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2021.732474] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2021] [Accepted: 10/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Slow transit constipation is a common condition that would be difficult to treat in clinical practice with a widespread incidence in the population. Pharmacotherapy and surgery are common treatment modalities. However, the clinical effect is limited, and patients still suffer from it. As the researchers strived in this field for decades, the profound relationship between slow transit constipation and fecal microbiota transplantation has comprehensively been sustained. It is very pivotal to maintain intestinal homeostasis, the structure function and metabolic function of symbiotic bacteria, which can inhibit the engraftment of intestinal pathogens. This mini review explains the treatment effects and possible mechanisms of the fecal microbiota transplantation in treating slow transit constipation. Simultaneously, it is found that there is significant improvement in the disease by adjusting the intestinal microbes like fecal microbiota transplantation. Fecal microbiota transplantation has efficient therapeutic effects in slow transit constipation compared with traditional therapies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jiafei Liu
- Department of Colorectal Surgery, Tianjin Union Medical Center, Nankai University, Tianjin, China
| | - Liqiang Gu
- Department of Colorectal Surgery, Tianjin Union Medical Center, Nankai University, Tianjin, China
| | - Mingqing Zhang
- Department of Colorectal Surgery, Tianjin Union Medical Center, Nankai University, Tianjin, China
| | - Shiwu Zhang
- Department of Pathology, Tianjin Union Medical Center, Nankai University, Tianjin, China
| | - Min Wang
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Microbiology and Technology, Ministry of Education, TEDA Institute of Biological Sciences and Biotechnology, Nankai University, Tianjin, China
| | - Yu Long
- Department of Colorectal Surgery, Tianjin Union Medical Center, Nankai University, Tianjin, China
| | - Xipeng Zhang
- Department of Colorectal Surgery, Tianjin Union Medical Center, Nankai University, Tianjin, China
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Modulation of Adipocyte Metabolism by Microbial Short-Chain Fatty Acids. Nutrients 2021; 13:nu13103666. [PMID: 34684670 PMCID: PMC8538331 DOI: 10.3390/nu13103666] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2021] [Revised: 10/17/2021] [Accepted: 10/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Obesity and its complications—including type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and certain cancers—constitute a rising global epidemic that has imposed a substantial burden on health and healthcare systems over the years. It is becoming increasingly clear that there is a link between obesity and the gut microbiota. Gut dysbiosis, characterized as microbial imbalance, has been consistently associated with obesity in both humans and animal models, and can be reversed with weight loss. Emerging evidence has shown that microbial-derived metabolites such as short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs)—including acetate, propionate, and butyrate—provide benefits to the host by impacting organs beyond the gut, including adipose tissue. In this review, we summarize what is currently known regarding the specific mechanisms that link gut-microbial-derived SCFAs with adipose tissue metabolism, such as adipogenesis, lipolysis, and inflammation. In addition, we explore indirect mechanisms by which SCFAs can modulate adipose tissue metabolism, such as via perturbation of gut hormones, as well as signaling to the brain and the liver. Understanding how the modulation of gut microbial metabolites such as SCFAs can impact adipose tissue function could lead to novel therapeutic strategies for the prevention and treatment of obesity.
Collapse
|
22
|
Tang G, Du Y, Guan H, Jia J, Zhu N, Shi Y, Rong S, Yuan W. Butyrate ameliorates skeletal muscle atrophy in diabetic nephropathy by enhancing gut barrier function and FFA2-mediated PI3K/Akt/mTOR signals. Br J Pharmacol 2021; 179:159-178. [PMID: 34638162 DOI: 10.1111/bph.15693] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2020] [Revised: 09/06/2021] [Accepted: 09/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Muscle protein catabolism in patients with diabetic nephropathy (DN) results in striking loss of muscle proteins, which increases morbidity and mortality risks. Evidence shows that short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) play an important role in health maintenance and disease development. Recently, the connection between butyrate (a SCFA) and DN has been revealed, although the relationship between butyrate and muscle atrophy remains unclear. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH We studied changes in serum butyrate levels in DN patients using metabolomic analyses. In db/db mice, protective effects of butyrate on DN-induced muscle atrophy. were explored. Inhibition of muscle atrophy by butyrate and the underlying mechanism(s) were studied in C2C12 cells exposed to high glucose/lipopolysaccharide (HG/LPS). KEY RESULTS Butyrate levels in DN patients were significantly decreased. In db/db mice, supplementing normal diet with butyrate improved intestinal barrier function. Concurrently, butyrate alleviated muscle atrophy, promoted PI3K/Akt/mTOR signalling, and suppressed oxidative stress and autophagy in skeletal muscle of db/db mice, and in HG/LPS-exposed C2C12 cells. Further, FFA2 receptors, key components of SCFA signalling, were decreased in skeletal muscle of db/db mice and in HG/LPS-exposed C2C12 cells. Overexpression of FFA2 receptors activated PI3K/Akt/mTOR signalling and inhibited oxidative stress and autophagy in HG/LPS-exposed C2C12 cells. Silencing of FFA2 blocked PI3K/Akt/mTOR signalling that was improved by butyrate, as well as the suppression of oxidative stress and reduction of autophagy. CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATION Butyrate exerts protective effects on muscle atrophy induced by DN by enhancing intestinal barrier function and activating the FFA2 receptor-mediated PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gang Tang
- Department of Nephrology, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Yi Du
- Department of Nephrology, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Haochen Guan
- Department of Nephrology, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Jieshuang Jia
- Department of Nephrology, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Nan Zhu
- Department of Nephrology, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Yuping Shi
- Department of Nephrology, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Shu Rong
- Department of Nephrology, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Weijie Yuan
- Department of Nephrology, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Hansen AH, Christensen HB, Pandey SK, Sergeev E, Valentini A, Dunlop J, Dedeo D, Fratta S, Hudson BD, Milligan G, Ulven T, Rexen Ulven E. Structure-Activity Relationship Explorations and Discovery of a Potent Antagonist for the Free Fatty Acid Receptor 2. ChemMedChem 2021; 16:3326-3341. [PMID: 34288488 DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.202100356] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2021] [Revised: 07/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Free fatty acid receptor 2 (FFA2) is a sensor for short-chain fatty acids that has been identified as an interesting potential drug target for treatment of metabolic and inflammatory diseases. Although several ligand series are known for the receptor, there is still a need for improved compounds. One of the most potent and frequently used antagonists is the amide-substituted phenylbutanoic acid known as CATPB ( 1 ). We here report the structure-activity relationship exploration of this compound, leading to the identification of homologues with increased potency. The preferred compound 37 (TUG-1958) was found, besides improved potency, to have high solubility and favorable pharmacokinetic properties.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anders Højgaard Hansen
- University of Southern Denmark: Syddansk Universitet, Department of Physics,Chemistry and Pharmacy, DENMARK
| | - Henriette B Christensen
- University of Southern Denmark: Syddansk Universitet, Department of Physics, Chemsitry and Pharmacy, DENMARK
| | - Sunil K Pandey
- University of Southern Denmark: Syddansk Universitet, FKF, DENMARK
| | - Eugenia Sergeev
- University of Glasgow, Center for Translational Pharmacology, UNITED KINGDOM
| | - Alice Valentini
- University of Copenhagen: Kobenhavns Universitet, Department of Drug Design and Pharmacoloy, DENMARK
| | - Julia Dunlop
- University of Glasgow, Center for Translational Medicine, DENMARK
| | - Domonkos Dedeo
- University of Glasgow, Center for Translational Research, DENMARK
| | - Simone Fratta
- University of Copenhagen: Kobenhavns Universitet, Department of Drug Design and Pharmacology, DENMARK
| | - Brian D Hudson
- University of Glasgow, Center for Translational Medicine, DENMARK
| | - Graeme Milligan
- University of Glasgow, Center for Translational Research, DENMARK
| | - Trond Ulven
- University of Copenhagen, Department of Drug Design and Pharmacology, Jagtvej 162, DK-2100, Copenhagen, DENMARK
| | - Elisabeth Rexen Ulven
- University of Copenhagen: Kobenhavns Universitet, Department of Drug Design and Pharmacology, DENMARK
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Ballout J, Akiba Y, Kaunitz JD, Diener M. Short-chain fatty acid receptors involved in epithelial acetylcholine release in rat caecum. Eur J Pharmacol 2021; 906:174292. [PMID: 34216575 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2021.174292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2021] [Revised: 06/17/2021] [Accepted: 06/25/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) produced by the microbial fermentation of carbohydrates are important energy substrates for mammals. Intestinal epithelia respond to these metabolites by stimulation of anion secretion via the release of epithelial acetylcholine. The present experiments were performed to discover which of the known receptors for SCFAs are expressed in rat caecum, the most important site of fermentation within the intestine of non-ruminant mammals. Using the increase in short-circuit current (Isc) induced by anion secretion as the readout, the order of efficiency of the tested SCFAs in rat caecum was propionate > butyrate > acetate. Both synthetic high-affinity selective free fatty acid (FFA) receptor agonists 4-CMTB (FFA2 receptor) and AR420626 (FFA3 receptor) partially mimicked the effect of propionate on Isc (IProp). IProp was concentration-dependently inhibited by the FFA3 receptor antagonist β-OH-butyrate. Although no antagonist of rat FFA2 receptor is available, coadministration of the allosteric FFA2 receptor agonist 4-CMTB together with a low concentration of propionate potentiated IProp, suggesting that FFA2 receptor is involved in sensing of short-chain fatty acids as well. The expression of both receptor types was confirmed by qPCR (with FFA2 > FFA3 receptor). Immunohistochemical staining revealed the localization of FFA2 receptor in the surface epithelium and the FFA3 receptor expression predominantly in enteroendocrine cells and subepithelial nerve-like fibers. Taken together, the present results demonstrate that the anion secretion induced by the microbial metabolite propionate in rat caecum is enhanced by activation of FFA2 and FFA3 receptor expressed in different cell types within the caecal epithelium.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jasmin Ballout
- Institute for Veterinary Physiology and Biochemistry, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Germany
| | - Yasutada Akiba
- Greater Los Angeles Veterans Affairs Healthcare System, University of California Los Angeles, School of Medicine, CA, 90073, USA; Department of Medicine, University of California Los Angeles, School of Medicine, CA, 90073, USA
| | - Jonathan D Kaunitz
- Greater Los Angeles Veterans Affairs Healthcare System, University of California Los Angeles, School of Medicine, CA, 90073, USA; Department of Medicine, University of California Los Angeles, School of Medicine, CA, 90073, USA; Department of Surgery, University of California Los Angeles, School of Medicine, CA, 90073, USA
| | - Martin Diener
- Institute for Veterinary Physiology and Biochemistry, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Germany.
| |
Collapse
|
25
|
Park BO, Kang JS, Paudel S, Park SG, Park BC, Han SB, Kwak YS, Kim JH, Kim S. Novel GPR43 Agonists Exert an Anti-Inflammatory Effect in a Colitis Model. Biomol Ther (Seoul) 2021; 30:48-54. [PMID: 34168098 PMCID: PMC8724840 DOI: 10.4062/biomolther.2021.078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2021] [Revised: 05/20/2021] [Accepted: 05/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
GPR43 (also known as FFAR2), a metabolite-sensing G-protein-coupled receptor stimulated by short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) ligands is involved in innate immunity and metabolism. GPR43 couples with Gαi/o and Gαq/11 heterotrimeric proteins and is capable of decreasing cyclic AMP and inducing Ca2+ flux. The GPR43 receptor has additionally been shown to bind β-arrestin 2 and inhibit inflammatory pathways, such as NF-κB. However, GPR43 shares the same ligands as GPR41, including acetate, propionate, and butyrate, and determination of its precise functions in association with endogenous ligands, such as SCFAs alone, therefore remains a considerable challenge. In this study, we generated novel synthetic agonists that display allosteric modulatory effects on GPR43 and downregulate NF-κB activity. In particular, the potency of compound 187 was significantly superior to that of pre-existing compounds in vitro. However, in the colitis model in vivo, compound 110 induced more potent attenuation of inflammation. These novel allosteric agonists of GPR43 clearly display anti-inflammatory potential, supporting their clinical utility as therapeutic drugs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bi-Oh Park
- Disease Target Structure Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Daejeon 34141, Korea.,College of Pharmacy, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju 28160, Korea
| | - Jong Soon Kang
- Laboratory Animal Resource Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Cheongju 28116, Korea
| | - Suresh Paudel
- College of Pharmacy, Korea University, Sejong 30019, Korea
| | - Sung Goo Park
- Disease Target Structure Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Daejeon 34141, Korea.,Department of Functional Genomics, KRIBB School of Biological Science, Korea University of Science and Technology, Daejeon 34113, Korea
| | - Byoung Chul Park
- Disease Target Structure Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Daejeon 34141, Korea.,Department of Proteome Structural Biology, KRIBB School of Biological Science, Korea University of Science and Technology, Daejeon 34113, Korea
| | - Sang-Bae Han
- College of Pharmacy, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju 28160, Korea
| | | | - Jeong-Hoon Kim
- Disease Target Structure Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Daejeon 34141, Korea.,Department of Functional Genomics, KRIBB School of Biological Science, Korea University of Science and Technology, Daejeon 34113, Korea
| | - Sunhong Kim
- Disease Target Structure Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Daejeon 34141, Korea.,Department of Biomolecular Science, KRIBB School of Biological Science, Korea University of Science and Technology, Daejeon 34113, Republic of Korea
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
FFAR from the Gut Microbiome Crowd: SCFA Receptors in T1D Pathology. Metabolites 2021; 11:metabo11050302. [PMID: 34064625 PMCID: PMC8151283 DOI: 10.3390/metabo11050302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2021] [Revised: 05/06/2021] [Accepted: 05/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The gut microbiome has emerged as a novel determinant of type 1 diabetes (T1D), but the underlying mechanisms are unknown. In this context, major gut microbial metabolites, short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), are considered to be an important link between the host and gut microbiome. We, along with other laboratories, have explored how SCFAs and their cognate receptors affect various metabolic conditions, including obesity, type 2 diabetes, and metabolic syndrome. Though gut microbiome and SCFA-level changes have been reported in T1D and in mouse models of the disease, the role of SCFA receptors in T1D remains under explored. In this review article, we will highlight the existing and possible roles of these receptors in T1D pathology. We conclude with a discussion of SCFA receptors as therapeutic targets for T1D, exploring an exciting new potential for novel treatments of glucometabolic disorders.
Collapse
|
27
|
Carretta MD, Quiroga J, López R, Hidalgo MA, Burgos RA. Participation of Short-Chain Fatty Acids and Their Receptors in Gut Inflammation and Colon Cancer. Front Physiol 2021; 12:662739. [PMID: 33897470 PMCID: PMC8060628 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2021.662739] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2021] [Accepted: 03/09/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) are the main metabolites produced by the bacterial fermentation of dietary fiber, and they play a critical role in the maintenance of intestinal health. SCFAs are also essential for modulating different processes, and they have anti-inflammatory properties and immunomodulatory effects. As the inflammatory process predisposes the development of cancer and promotes all stages of tumorigenesis, an antitumor effect has also been associated with SCFAs. This is strongly supported by epidemiological studies showing that a diet rich in fiber is linked to a reduced risk of colon cancer and has significant clinical benefits in patients with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). SCFAs may signal through the metabolite-sensing G protein-coupled receptors free fatty acid receptor 3 [FFAR3 or G protein-coupled receptor 41 (GPR41)], FFAR2 (GPR43), and GPR109A (also known as hydroxycarboxylic acid receptor 2 or HCAR2) expressed in the gut epithelium and immune cells. This review summarizes the existing knowledge regarding the SCFA-mediated suppression of inflammation and carcinogenesis in IBD and colon cancer.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- María Daniella Carretta
- Laboratory of Inflammation Pharmacology, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Institute of Pharmacology and Morphophysiology, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile
| | - John Quiroga
- Laboratory of Inflammation Pharmacology, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Institute of Pharmacology and Morphophysiology, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile
| | - Rodrigo López
- Laboratory of Inflammation Pharmacology, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Institute of Pharmacology and Morphophysiology, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile
| | - María Angélica Hidalgo
- Laboratory of Inflammation Pharmacology, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Institute of Pharmacology and Morphophysiology, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile
| | - Rafael Agustín Burgos
- Laboratory of Inflammation Pharmacology, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Institute of Pharmacology and Morphophysiology, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile
| |
Collapse
|
28
|
Huang G, Wang Z, Wu G, Zhang R, Dong L, Huang F, Zhang M, Su D. Lychee ( Litchi chinensis Sonn.) Pulp Phenolics Activate the Short-Chain Fatty Acid-Free Fatty Acid Receptor Anti-inflammatory Pathway by Regulating Microbiota and Mitigate Intestinal Barrier Damage in Dextran Sulfate Sodium-Induced Colitis in Mice. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2021; 69:3326-3339. [PMID: 33533603 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.0c07407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
The preventive effect of lychee pulp phenolics (LPP) on dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced colitis of mice and its underlying mechanisms were investigated in this research. LPP supplementation mitigated DSS-induced breakage of the gut barrier as evidenced by the increased tight junction proteins and the enhanced integrity of epithelial cells. Both LPP and 5-ASA treatments could downregulate the expressions of toll-like receptor 4 (TLR-4), NOD protein-like receptor 3 (NLRP3), and proinflammatory cytokines to normal levels. Notably, treatment with LPP at a dosage of 500 mg/kg/day effectively upregulated FFAR2 and FFAR3 expression and contents of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), suggesting the activation of the SCFA-FFAR (free fatty acid receptor) pathway. Consistently, the abundances of probiotic taxa and microbiota (Akkermansia, Lactobacillus, Coprococcus, and Bacteroides uniformis) associated with SCFA synthesis were elevated, whereas harmful bacteria (Enterococcus and Aggregatibacter) were suppressed. These data indicate that LPP ameliorates gut barrier damage, activates the microbiota-SCFA-FFAR signaling cascade, and suppresses the TLR4/NLRP3-NF-κB pathway, and therefore, LPP supplementation could be a promising way to protect the intestinal tract.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Guitao Huang
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Guangzhou University, Guangzhou 510006, P.R. China
| | - Zhineng Wang
- Sericultural & Agri-Food Research Institute, Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences/Key Laboratory of Functional Foods, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs/Guangdong Key Laboratory of Agricultural Products Processing, Guangzhou 510610, P.R. China
- College of Life Science, Yangtze University, Jingzhou 434025, P.R. China
| | - Guangxu Wu
- College of Life Science, Yangtze University, Jingzhou 434025, P.R. China
| | - Ruifen Zhang
- Sericultural & Agri-Food Research Institute, Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences/Key Laboratory of Functional Foods, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs/Guangdong Key Laboratory of Agricultural Products Processing, Guangzhou 510610, P.R. China
| | - Lihong Dong
- Sericultural & Agri-Food Research Institute, Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences/Key Laboratory of Functional Foods, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs/Guangdong Key Laboratory of Agricultural Products Processing, Guangzhou 510610, P.R. China
| | - Fei Huang
- Sericultural & Agri-Food Research Institute, Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences/Key Laboratory of Functional Foods, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs/Guangdong Key Laboratory of Agricultural Products Processing, Guangzhou 510610, P.R. China
| | - Mingwei Zhang
- Sericultural & Agri-Food Research Institute, Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences/Key Laboratory of Functional Foods, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs/Guangdong Key Laboratory of Agricultural Products Processing, Guangzhou 510610, P.R. China
| | - Dongxiao Su
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Guangzhou University, Guangzhou 510006, P.R. China
| |
Collapse
|
29
|
Microbial Regulation of Host Physiology by Short-chain Fatty Acids. Trends Microbiol 2021; 29:700-712. [PMID: 33674141 DOI: 10.1016/j.tim.2021.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 341] [Impact Index Per Article: 113.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2020] [Revised: 01/31/2021] [Accepted: 02/01/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Our ancestral diet consisted of much more nondigestible fiber than that of many societies today. Thus, from an evolutionary perspective the human genome and its physiological and nutritional requirements are not well aligned to modern dietary habits. Fiber reaching the colon is anaerobically fermented by the gut bacteria, which produce short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) as metabolic by-products. SCFAs play a role in intestinal homeostasis, helping to explain why changes in the microbiota can contribute to the pathophysiology of human diseases. Recent research has shown that SCFAs can also have effects on tissues and organs beyond the gut, through their circulation in the blood. SCFAs not only signal through binding to cognate G-protein-coupled receptors on endocrine and immune cells in the body but also induce epigenetic changes in the genome through effects on the activity of histone acetylase and histone deacetylase enzymes. Furthermore, epigenetic imprinting likely occurs in utero, highlighting the importance of the maternal diet in early life. Here we review current understanding of how SCFAs impact on human and animal physiology and discuss the potential applications of SCFAs in the prevention and treatment of human diseases.
Collapse
|
30
|
Milligan G, Barki N, Tobin AB. Chemogenetic Approaches to Explore the Functions of Free Fatty Acid Receptor 2. Trends Pharmacol Sci 2021; 42:191-202. [PMID: 33495026 DOI: 10.1016/j.tips.2020.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2020] [Revised: 12/08/2020] [Accepted: 12/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Short-chain fatty acids are generated in large amounts by the intestinal microbiota. They activate both the closely related G protein-coupled receptors free fatty acid receptor 2 (FFA2) and free fatty acid receptor 3 (FFA3) that are considered therapeutic targets in diseases of immuno-metabolism. Limited and species-selective small-molecule pharmacology has restricted our understanding of the distinct roles of these receptors. Replacement of mouse FFA2 with a designer receptor exclusively activated by designer drug form of human FFA2 (hFFA2-DREADD) has allowed definition of specific roles of FFA2 in pharmacological and physiological studies conducted both ex vivo and in vivo, whilst overlay of murine disease models offers opportunities for therapeutic validation prior to human studies. Similar approaches can potentially be used to define roles of other poorly characterised receptors.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Graeme Milligan
- Centre for Translational Pharmacology, Institute of Molecular, Cell and Systems Biology, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, UK.
| | - Natasja Barki
- Centre for Translational Pharmacology, Institute of Molecular, Cell and Systems Biology, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, UK
| | - Andrew B Tobin
- Centre for Translational Pharmacology, Institute of Molecular, Cell and Systems Biology, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
31
|
Moffett JR, Puthillathu N, Vengilote R, Jaworski DM, Namboodiri AM. Acetate Revisited: A Key Biomolecule at the Nexus of Metabolism, Epigenetics, and Oncogenesis - Part 2: Acetate and ACSS2 in Health and Disease. Front Physiol 2020; 11:580171. [PMID: 33304273 PMCID: PMC7693462 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2020.580171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2020] [Accepted: 10/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Acetate, the shortest chain fatty acid, has been implicated in providing health benefits whether it is derived from the diet or is generated from microbial fermentation of fiber in the gut. These health benefits range widely from improved cardiac function to enhanced red blood cell generation and memory formation. Understanding how acetate could influence so many disparate biological functions is now an area of intensive research. Protein acetylation is one of the most common post-translational modifications and increased systemic acetate strongly drives protein acetylation. By virtue of acetylation impacting the activity of virtually every class of protein, acetate driven alterations in signaling and gene transcription have been associated with several common human diseases, including cancer. In part 2 of this review, we will focus on some of the roles that acetate plays in health and human disease. The acetate-activating enzyme acyl-CoA short-chain synthetase family member 2 (ACSS2) will be a major part of that focus due to its role in targeted protein acetylation reactions that can regulate central metabolism and stress responses. ACSS2 is the only known enzyme that can recycle acetate derived from deacetylation reactions in the cytoplasm and nucleus of cells, including both protein and metabolite deacetylation reactions. As such, ACSS2 can recycle acetate derived from histone deacetylase reactions as well as protein deacetylation reactions mediated by sirtuins, among many others. Notably, ACSS2 can activate acetate released from acetylated metabolites including N-acetylaspartate (NAA), the most concentrated acetylated metabolite in the human brain. NAA has been associated with the metabolic reprograming of cancer cells, where ACSS2 also plays a role. Here, we discuss the context-specific roles that acetate can play in health and disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- John R. Moffett
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology and Genetics, and Neuroscience Program, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD, United States
| | - Narayanan Puthillathu
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology and Genetics, and Neuroscience Program, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD, United States
| | - Ranjini Vengilote
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology and Genetics, and Neuroscience Program, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD, United States
| | - Diane M. Jaworski
- Department of Neurological Sciences, University of Vermont College of Medicine, Burlington, VT, United States
| | - Aryan M. Namboodiri
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology and Genetics, and Neuroscience Program, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD, United States
| |
Collapse
|
32
|
Shackley M, Ma Y, Tate EW, Brown AJH, Frost G, Hanyaloglu AC. Short Chain Fatty Acids Enhance Expression and Activity of the Umami Taste Receptor in Enteroendocrine Cells via a Gα i/o Pathway. Front Nutr 2020; 7:568991. [PMID: 33195366 PMCID: PMC7658341 DOI: 10.3389/fnut.2020.568991] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2020] [Accepted: 09/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The short chain fatty acids (SCFAs) acetate, butyrate and propionate, are produced by fermentation of non-digestible carbohydrates by the gut microbiota and regulate appetite, adiposity, metabolism, glycemic control, and immunity. SCFAs act at two distinct G protein coupled receptors (GPCRs), FFAR2 and FFAR3 and are expressed in intestinal enteroendocrine cells (EECs), where they mediate anorectic gut hormone release. EECs also express other GPCRs that act as nutrient sensors, thus SCFAs may elicit some of their health-promoting effects by altering GPCR expression in EECs and enhance gut sensitivity to dietary molecules. Here, we identify that exposure of the murine EEC STC-1 cell line or intestinal organoids to physiological concentrations of SCFAs enhances mRNA levels of the umami taste receptors TASR1 and TASR3, without altering levels of the SCFA GPCRs, FFAR2 and FFAR3. Treatment of EECs with propionate or butyrate, but not acetate, increased levels of umami receptor transcripts, while propionate also reduced CCK expression. This was reversed by inhibiting Gαi/o signaling with pertussis toxin, suggesting that SCFAs act through FFAR2/3 to alter gene expression. Surprisingly, neither a FFAR3 nor a FFAR2 selective ligand could increase TASR1/TASR3 mRNA levels. We assessed the functional impact of increased TASR1/TASR3 expression using unique pharmacological properties of the umami taste receptor; namely, the potentiation of signaling by inosine monophosphate. Activation of umami taste receptor induced inositol-1-phosphate and calcium signaling, and butyrate pretreatment significantly enhanced such signaling. Our study reveals that SCFAs may contribute to EEC adaptation and alter EEC sensitivity to bioactive nutrients.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Matilda Shackley
- Section of Nutrition Research, Department of Metabolism, Digestion, and Reproduction, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom.,Institute of Reproductive and Developmental Biology, Department of Metabolism, Digestion, and Reproduction, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Yue Ma
- Section of Nutrition Research, Department of Metabolism, Digestion, and Reproduction, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Edward W Tate
- Department of Chemistry, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | | | - Gary Frost
- Section of Nutrition Research, Department of Metabolism, Digestion, and Reproduction, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Aylin C Hanyaloglu
- Institute of Reproductive and Developmental Biology, Department of Metabolism, Digestion, and Reproduction, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
33
|
FFA2-, but not FFA3-agonists inhibit GSIS of human pseudoislets: a comparative study with mouse islets and rat INS-1E cells. Sci Rep 2020; 10:16497. [PMID: 33020504 PMCID: PMC7536384 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-73467-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2020] [Accepted: 08/28/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The expression of short chain fatty acid receptors FFA2 and FFA3 in pancreatic islets raised interest in using them as drug targets for treating hyperglycemia in humans. This study aims to examine the efficacy of synthetic FFA2- and FFA3-ligands to modulate glucose-stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS) in human pseudoislets which display intact glucose responsiveness. The FFA2-agonists 4-CMTB and TUG-1375 inhibited GSIS, an effect reversed by the FFA2-antagonist CATPB. GSIS itself was not augmented by CATPB. The FFA3-agonists FHQC and 1-MCPC did not affect GSIS in human pseudoislets. For further drug evaluation we used mouse islets. The CATPB-sensitive inhibitory effect of 100 µM 4-CMTB on GSIS was recapitulated. The inhibition was partially sensitive to the Gi/o-protein inhibitor pertussis toxin. A previously described FFA2-dependent increase of GSIS was observed with lower concentrations of 4-CMTB (10 and 30 µM). The stimulatory effect of 4-CMTB on secretion was prevented by the Gq-protein inhibitor FR900359. As in human pseudoislets, in mouse islets relative mRNA levels were FFAR2 > FFAR3 and FFA3-agonists did not affect GSIS. The FFA3-agonists, however, inhibited GSIS in a pertussis toxin-sensitive manner in INS-1E cells and this correlated with relative mRNA levels of Ffar3 > > Ffar2. Thus, in humans, when FFA2-activation impedes GSIS, FFA2-antagonism may reduce glycemia.
Collapse
|
34
|
Caengprasath N, Gonzalez-Abuin N, Shchepinova M, Ma Y, Inoue A, Tate EW, Frost G, Hanyaloglu AC. Internalization-Dependent Free Fatty Acid Receptor 2 Signaling Is Essential for Propionate-Induced Anorectic Gut Hormone Release. iScience 2020; 23:101449. [PMID: 32853993 PMCID: PMC7452316 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2020.101449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2020] [Revised: 07/30/2020] [Accepted: 08/10/2020] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
The ability of propionate, a short-chain fatty acid produced from the fermentation of non-digestible carbohydrates in the colon, to stimulate the release of anorectic gut hormones, such as glucagon like peptide-1 (GLP-1), is an attractive approach to enhance appetite regulation, weight management, and glycemic control. Propionate induces GLP-1 release via its G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR), free fatty acid receptor 2 (FFA2), a GPCR that activates Gαi and Gαq/11. However, how pleiotropic GPCR signaling mechanisms in the gut regulates appetite is poorly understood. Here, we identify propionate-mediated G protein signaling is spatially directed within the cell whereby FFA2 is targeted to very early endosomes. Furthermore, propionate activates a Gαi/p38 signaling pathway, which requires receptor internalization and is essential for propionate-induced GLP-1 release in enteroendocrine cells and colonic crypts. Our study reveals that intestinal metabolites engage membrane trafficking pathways and that receptor internalization could orchestrate complex GPCR pathways within the gut.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Natarin Caengprasath
- Institute of Reproductive and Developmental Biology (IRDB), Department of Metabolism, Digestion and Reproduction, Imperial College London, Rm 2009, Hammersmith Campus, Du Cane Road, London W12 0NN, UK
| | - Noemi Gonzalez-Abuin
- Department of Metabolism, Digestion and Reproduction, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | | | - Yue Ma
- Department of Metabolism, Digestion and Reproduction, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Asuka Inoue
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan
| | - Edward W. Tate
- Department of Chemistry, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Gary Frost
- Department of Metabolism, Digestion and Reproduction, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Aylin C. Hanyaloglu
- Institute of Reproductive and Developmental Biology (IRDB), Department of Metabolism, Digestion and Reproduction, Imperial College London, Rm 2009, Hammersmith Campus, Du Cane Road, London W12 0NN, UK
| |
Collapse
|
35
|
Frei R, Nordlohne J, Hüser U, Hild S, Schmidt J, Eitner F, Grundmann M. Allosteric targeting of the FFA2 receptor (GPR43) restores responsiveness of desensitized human neutrophils. J Leukoc Biol 2020; 109:741-751. [PMID: 32803826 PMCID: PMC8048482 DOI: 10.1002/jlb.2a0720-432r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2019] [Revised: 07/08/2020] [Accepted: 07/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The G protein‐coupled free fatty acid receptor 2 (FFA2R) is highly expressed on neutrophils and was previously described to regulate neutrophil activation. Allosteric targeting of G protein‐coupled receptors (GPCRs) is increasingly explored to create distinct pharmacology compared to endogenous, orthosteric ligands. The consequence of allosteric versus orthosteric FFA2R activation for neutrophil response, however, is currently largely elusive. Here, different FFA2R desensitization profiles in human neutrophils following allosteric or orthosteric activation are reported. Using a set of neutrophil functional assays to measure calcium flux, pERK1/2, chemotaxis, cellular degranulation, and oxidative burst together with holistic and pathway‐unbiased whole cell sensing based on dynamic mass redistribution, it is found that the synthetic positive allosteric modulator agonist 4‐CMTB potently activates neutrophils and simultaneously alters FFA2R responsiveness toward the endogenous, orthosteric agonist propionic acid (C3) after homologous and heterologous receptor desensitization. Stimulation with C3 or the hierarchically superior chemokine receptor activator IL‐8 led to strong FFA2R desensitization and rendered neutrophils unresponsive toward repeated stimulation with C3. In contrast, stimulation with allosteric 4‐CMTB engaged a distinct composition of signaling pathways as compared to orthosteric receptor activation and was able to activate neutrophils that underwent homologous and heterologous desensitization with C3 and IL‐8, respectively. Moreover, allosteric FFA2R activation could re‐sensitize FFA2 toward the endogenous agonist C3 after homologous and heterologous desensitization. Given the fact that receptor desensitization is critical in neutrophils to sense and adapt to their current environment, these findings are expected to be useful for the discovery of novel pharmacological mechanisms to modulate neutrophil responsiveness therapeutically.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Robert Frei
- Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Johannes Nordlohne
- Bayer AG, Pharmaceuticals R&D, Preclinical Research, Pharma Research Center, Wuppertal, Germany
| | - Ulrike Hüser
- Bayer AG, Pharmaceuticals R&D, Preclinical Research, Pharma Research Center, Wuppertal, Germany
| | - Seda Hild
- Molecular, Cellular and Pharmacobiology Section, Institute of Pharmaceutical Biology, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Johannes Schmidt
- Molecular, Cellular and Pharmacobiology Section, Institute of Pharmaceutical Biology, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Frank Eitner
- Bayer AG, Pharmaceuticals R&D, Preclinical Research, Pharma Research Center, Wuppertal, Germany
| | - Manuel Grundmann
- Molecular, Cellular and Pharmacobiology Section, Institute of Pharmaceutical Biology, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany.,Bayer AG, Pharmaceuticals R&D, Preclinical Research, Pharma Research Center, Wuppertal, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
36
|
Free Fatty Acid Receptors 2 and 3 as Microbial Metabolite Sensors to Shape Host Health: Pharmacophysiological View. Biomedicines 2020; 8:biomedicines8060154. [PMID: 32521775 PMCID: PMC7344995 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines8060154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2020] [Revised: 05/30/2020] [Accepted: 06/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The role of the gut microbiome in human health is becoming apparent. The major functional impact of the gut microbiome is transmitted through the microbial metabolites that are produced in the gut and interact with host cells either in the local gut environment or are absorbed into circulation to impact distant cells/organs. Short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) are the major microbial metabolites that are produced in the gut through the fermentation of non-digestible fibers. SCFAs are known to function through various mechanisms, however, their signaling through free fatty acid receptors 2 and 3 (FFAR2/3; type of G-coupled protein receptors) is a new therapeutic approach. FFAR2/3 are widely expressed in diverse cell types in human and mice, and function as sensors of SCFAs to change several physiological and cellular functions. FFAR2/3 modulate neurological signaling, energy metabolism, intestinal cellular homeostasis, immune response, and hormone synthesis. FFAR2/3 function through Gi and/or Gq signaling, that is mediated through specific structural features of SCFAs-FFAR2/3 bindings and modulating specific signaling pathway. In this review, we discuss the wide-spread expression and structural homologies between human and mice FFAR2/3, and their role in different human health conditions. This information can unlock opportunities to weigh the potential of FFAR2/3 as a drug target to prevent human diseases.
Collapse
|
37
|
Zhang Z, Gao X, Zhang Q, Li W. Constitutive activity of a spermine receptor is maintained by a single site in the C-terminal. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2020; 526:389-395. [PMID: 32222281 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2020.03.053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2020] [Accepted: 03/08/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Olfactory receptors are G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) that enable olfactory epithelia to detect odorants. These GPCRs may also show constitutive activity, which play important roles in the development and responses of odorant receptor neurons. However, little is known about the molecular characteristics that support the constitutive activities in olfactory receptors. Here, we characterize a pair of olfactory receptor orthologs that show similar ligand-dependent activity but different levels of constitutive activity, and elucidate the molecular characteristics that maintain the constitutive activity. Previously, PmTAAR348, a sea lamprey (Petromyzon marinus) olfactory receptor that is activated by the male sex pheromone spermine has been reported. In this study, we identified LmTAAR348 of Northeast Chinese lamprey (Lethenteron morii) as an ortholog of PmTAAR348. When expressed in HEK293T cell lines, both receptors showed similar levels of activation when exposed to spermine. However, the constitutive activity of LmTAAR348 was 100-fold higher than that of PmTAAR348. Using site-directed mutagenesis, we screened all 13 amino acid residues (aa) that differed between the two orthologs and found that a switch in position 340 reversed the constitutive activity levels between LmTAAR348 and PmTAAR348. Mutating the remaining 12 aa did not affect the ligand-dependent or constitutive activation. Moreover, both the ligand-dependent and constitutive activation of TAAR348 are Golf (G protein ⍺ subunit olfactory type) independent. We conclude that a single aa in the C-terminal maintains the constitutive activity in a spermine receptor.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zhe Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Exploration and Utilization of Aquatic Genetic Resources, Ministry of Education, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, 201306, China; International Research Center for Marine Biosciences, Ministry of Science and Technology, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, 201306, China; Shanghai Universities Key Laboratory of Marine Animal Taxonomy and Evolution, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, 201306, China
| | - Xiang Gao
- Key Laboratory of Exploration and Utilization of Aquatic Genetic Resources, Ministry of Education, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, 201306, China; International Research Center for Marine Biosciences, Ministry of Science and Technology, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, 201306, China; Shanghai Universities Key Laboratory of Marine Animal Taxonomy and Evolution, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, 201306, China
| | - Qinghua Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Exploration and Utilization of Aquatic Genetic Resources, Ministry of Education, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, 201306, China; International Research Center for Marine Biosciences, Ministry of Science and Technology, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, 201306, China; Shanghai Universities Key Laboratory of Marine Animal Taxonomy and Evolution, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, 201306, China
| | - Weming Li
- Department of Fisheries and Wildlife, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, 48824, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
38
|
Ulven ER, Quon T, Sergeev E, Barki N, Brvar M, Hudson BD, Dutta P, Hansen AH, Bielefeldt LØ, Tobin AB, McKenzie CJ, Milligan G, Ulven T. Structure-Activity Relationship Studies of Tetrahydroquinolone Free Fatty Acid Receptor 3 Modulators. J Med Chem 2020; 63:3577-3595. [PMID: 32141297 PMCID: PMC7307922 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.9b02036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2019] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Free fatty acid receptor 3 (FFA3, previously GPR41) is activated by short-chain fatty acids, mediates health effects of the gut microbiota, and is a therapeutic target for metabolic and inflammatory diseases. The shortage of well-characterized tool compounds has however impeded progress. Herein, we report structure-activity relationship of an allosteric modulator series and characterization of physicochemical and pharmacokinetic properties of selected compounds, including previous and new tools. Two representatives, 57 (TUG-1907) and 63 (TUG-2015), showed improved solubility and preserved potency. Of these, 57, with EC50 = 145 nM and a solubility of 33 μM, showed high clearance in vivo but is a preferred tool in vitro. In contrast, 63, with EC50 = 162 nM and a solubility of 9 μM, showed lower clearance and seems better suited for in vivo studies. Using 57, we demonstrate for the first time that FFA3 activation leads to calcium mobilization in murine dorsal root ganglia.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Elisabeth Rexen Ulven
- Department
of Drug Design and Pharmacology, University
of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 2, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
- Department
of Physics, Chemistry and Pharmacy, University
of Southern Denmark, Campusvej 55, DK-5230 Odense M, Denmark
| | - Tezz Quon
- Centre
for Translational Pharmacology, Institute of Molecular, Cell and Systems
Biology, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, G12 8QQ Glasgow, Scotland, U.K.
| | - Eugenia Sergeev
- Centre
for Translational Pharmacology, Institute of Molecular, Cell and Systems
Biology, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, G12 8QQ Glasgow, Scotland, U.K.
| | - Natasja Barki
- Centre
for Translational Pharmacology, Institute of Molecular, Cell and Systems
Biology, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, G12 8QQ Glasgow, Scotland, U.K.
| | - Matjaz Brvar
- Department
of Physics, Chemistry and Pharmacy, University
of Southern Denmark, Campusvej 55, DK-5230 Odense M, Denmark
| | - Brian D. Hudson
- Centre
for Translational Pharmacology, Institute of Molecular, Cell and Systems
Biology, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, G12 8QQ Glasgow, Scotland, U.K.
| | - Palash Dutta
- Department
of Drug Design and Pharmacology, University
of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 2, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Anders Højgaard Hansen
- Department
of Physics, Chemistry and Pharmacy, University
of Southern Denmark, Campusvej 55, DK-5230 Odense M, Denmark
| | - Line Ø. Bielefeldt
- Department
of Physics, Chemistry and Pharmacy, University
of Southern Denmark, Campusvej 55, DK-5230 Odense M, Denmark
| | - Andrew B. Tobin
- Centre
for Translational Pharmacology, Institute of Molecular, Cell and Systems
Biology, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, G12 8QQ Glasgow, Scotland, U.K.
| | - Christine J. McKenzie
- Department
of Physics, Chemistry and Pharmacy, University
of Southern Denmark, Campusvej 55, DK-5230 Odense M, Denmark
| | - Graeme Milligan
- Centre
for Translational Pharmacology, Institute of Molecular, Cell and Systems
Biology, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, G12 8QQ Glasgow, Scotland, U.K.
| | - Trond Ulven
- Department
of Drug Design and Pharmacology, University
of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 2, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| |
Collapse
|
39
|
Abstract
In recent years, the importance of the gut microbiota in human health has been revealed and many publications have highlighted its role as a key component of human physiology. Owing to the use of modern sequencing approaches, the characterisation of the microbiome in healthy individuals and in disease has demonstrated a disturbance of the microbiota, or dysbiosis, associated with pathological conditions. The microbiota establishes a symbiotic crosstalk with their host: commensal microbes benefit from the nutrient-rich environment provided by the gut and the microbiota produces hundreds of proteins and metabolites that modulate key functions of the host, including nutrient processing, maintenance of energy homoeostasis and immune system development. Many bacteria-derived metabolites originate from dietary sources. Among them, an important role has been attributed to the metabolites derived from the bacterial fermentation of dietary fibres, namely SCFA linking host nutrition to intestinal homoeostasis maintenance. SCFA are important fuels for intestinal epithelial cells (IEC) and regulate IEC functions through different mechanisms to modulate their proliferation, differentiation as well as functions of subpopulations such as enteroendocrine cells, to impact gut motility and to strengthen the gut barrier functions as well as host metabolism. Recent findings show that SCFA, and in particular butyrate, also have important intestinal and immuno-modulatory functions. In this review, we discuss the mechanisms and the impact of SCFA on gut functions and host immunity and consequently on human health.
Collapse
|
40
|
Mizuta K, Sasaki H, Zhang Y, Matoba A, Emala CW. The short-chain free fatty acid receptor FFAR3 is expressed and potentiates contraction in human airway smooth muscle. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 2020; 318:L1248-L1260. [PMID: 32209026 DOI: 10.1152/ajplung.00357.2019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Emerging evidence suggests that gut microbiota-derived short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs; acetate, propionate, and butyrate) are important modulators of the inflammatory state in diseases such as asthma. However, the functional expression of the Gi protein-coupled free fatty acid receptors (FFAR2/GPR43 and FFAR3/GPR41) has not been identified on airway smooth muscle (ASM). Classically, acute activation of Gi-coupled receptors inhibits cyclic AMP (cAMP) synthesis, which impairs ASM relaxation and can also induce crosstalk between Gi- and Gq-signaling pathways, potentiating increases in intracellular Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]i), favoring ASM contraction. In contrast, chronic activation of Gi-coupled receptors can sensitize adenylyl cyclase resulting in increased cAMP synthesis favoring relaxation. We questioned whether the Gi-coupled FFAR2 or FFAR3 is expressed in human ASM, whether they modulate cAMP and [Ca2+]i, and whether SCFAs modulate human ASM tone. We detected the protein expression of FFAR3 but not FFAR2 in native human ASM and primary cultured human airway smooth muscle (HASM) cells. In HASM cells, acute activation of FFAR3 with SCFAs inhibited forskolin-stimulated cAMP accumulation, but chronic activation did not sensitize cAMP synthesis. SCFAs induced [Ca2+]i increases that were attenuated by pertussis toxin, gallein, U73122, or xestospongin C. Acute treatment with SCFAs potentiated acetylcholine-stimulated [Ca2+]i increases and stress fiber formation in cells and contraction of ex vivo human airway tissues. In contrast, chronic pretreatment of human ASM with propionate did not potentiate airway relaxation. Together, these findings demonstrate that FFAR3 is expressed in human ASM and contributes to ASM contraction via reduced cAMP and increased [Ca2+]i.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kentaro Mizuta
- Division of Dento-oral Anesthesiology, Tohoku University Graduate School of Dentistry, Sendai, Japan
| | - Haruka Sasaki
- Division of Dento-oral Anesthesiology, Tohoku University Graduate School of Dentistry, Sendai, Japan
| | - Yi Zhang
- Department of Anesthesiology, College of Physicians and Surgeons of Columbia University, New York, New York
| | - Atsuko Matoba
- Division of Dento-oral Anesthesiology, Tohoku University Graduate School of Dentistry, Sendai, Japan
| | - Charles W Emala
- Department of Anesthesiology, College of Physicians and Surgeons of Columbia University, New York, New York
| |
Collapse
|
41
|
Lind S, Holdfeldt A, Mårtensson J, Sundqvist M, Kenakin TP, Björkman L, Forsman H, Dahlgren C. Interdependent allosteric free fatty acid receptor 2 modulators synergistically induce functional selective activation and desensitization in neutrophils. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-MOLECULAR CELL RESEARCH 2020; 1867:118689. [PMID: 32092308 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamcr.2020.118689] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2019] [Revised: 02/04/2020] [Accepted: 02/20/2020] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
The non-activating allosteric modulator AZ1729, specific for free fatty acid receptor 2 (FFAR2), transfers the orthosteric FFAR2 agonists propionate and the P2Y2R specific agonist ATP into activating ligands that trigger an assembly of the neutrophil superoxide generating NADPH-oxidase. The homologous priming effect on the propionate response and the heterologous receptor cross-talk sensitized ATP response mediated by AZ1729 are functional characteristics shared with Cmp58, another non-activating allosteric FFAR2 modulator. In addition, AZ1729 also turned Cmp58 into a potent activator of the superoxide generating neutrophil NADPH-oxidase, and in agreement with the allosteric modulation concept, the effect was reciprocal in that Cmp58 turned AZ1729 into a potent activating allosteric agonist. The activation signals down-stream of FFAR2 when stimulated by the two interdependent allosteric modulators were biased in that, unlike for orthosteric agonists, the two complementary modulators together triggered an activation of the NADPH-oxidase, but not any transient rise in the cytosolic concentration of free calcium ions (Ca2+). Furthermore, following AZ1729/Cmp58 activation, the signaling by the desensitized FFAR2s was functionally selective in that the orthosteric agonist propionate could still induce a transient rise in intracellular Ca2+. The novel neutrophil activation and receptor down-stream signaling pattern mediated by the two cross-sensitizing allosteric FFAR2 modulators represent a new regulatory mechanism that controls receptor signaling.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Simon Lind
- Department of Rheumatology and Inflammation Research, Institute of Medicine, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - André Holdfeldt
- Department of Rheumatology and Inflammation Research, Institute of Medicine, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Jonas Mårtensson
- Department of Rheumatology and Inflammation Research, Institute of Medicine, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Sweden; Rheumatology Unit, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Göteborg, Sweden
| | - Martina Sundqvist
- Department of Rheumatology and Inflammation Research, Institute of Medicine, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Terry P Kenakin
- Department of Pharmacology, UNC-Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Lena Björkman
- Department of Rheumatology and Inflammation Research, Institute of Medicine, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Sweden; Rheumatology Unit, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Göteborg, Sweden
| | - Huamei Forsman
- Department of Rheumatology and Inflammation Research, Institute of Medicine, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Claes Dahlgren
- Department of Rheumatology and Inflammation Research, Institute of Medicine, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Sweden.
| |
Collapse
|
42
|
Zhang JM, Sun YS, Zhao LQ, Chen TT, Fan MN, Jiao HC, Zhao JP, Wang XJ, Li FC, Li HF, Lin H. SCFAs-Induced GLP-1 Secretion Links the Regulation of Gut Microbiome on Hepatic Lipogenesis in Chickens. Front Microbiol 2019; 10:2176. [PMID: 31616396 PMCID: PMC6775471 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2019.02176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2019] [Accepted: 09/05/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The impact of gut microbiota and its metabolites on fat metabolism have been widely reported in human and animals. However, the critical mediators and the signal transductions are not well demonstrated. As ovipara, chicken represents a specific case in lipid metabolism that liver is the main site of lipid synthesis. The aim of this study is to elucidate the linkage of gut microbiota and fat synthesis in broiler chickens. The broilers were subjected to dietary treatments of combined probiotics (Animal bifidobacterium: 4 × 108 cfu/kg; Lactobacillus plantarum: 2 × 108 cfu/kg; Enterococcus faecalis: 2 × 108 cfu/kg; Clostridium butyrate: 2 × 108 cfu/kg, PB) and guar gum (1 g/kg, GG), respectively. Results showed that dietary supplementation of PB and GG changed the cecal microbiota diversity, altered short chain fatty acids (SCFAs) contents, and suppressed lipogenesis. In intestinal epithelial cells (IECs), SCFAs (acetate, propionate, and butyrate) up-regulated the expression of glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) via mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathways, mainly via the phospho - extracellular regulated protein kinase (ERK) and phospho-p38 mitogen activated protein kinase (p38 MAPK) pathways. GLP-1 suppressed lipid accumulation in primary hepatocytes with the involvement of (AMP)-activated protein kinase/Acetyl CoA carboxylase (AMPK/ACC) signaling. In conclusion, the result suggests that SCFAs-induced GLP-1 secretion via MAPK pathway, which links the regulation of gut microbiota on hepatic lipogenesis in chickens.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jian-Mei Zhang
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Biotechnology and Disease Control, College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai'an, China.,Shandong Key Laboratory of Animal Microecological Agents, Biological Research Institute, Shandong Baolai-Leelai Bioengineering Co., Ltd., Tai'an, China
| | - Yin-Shuang Sun
- Shandong Key Laboratory of Animal Microecological Agents, Biological Research Institute, Shandong Baolai-Leelai Bioengineering Co., Ltd., Tai'an, China
| | - Li-Qin Zhao
- College of Life Sciences, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai'an, China
| | - Tian-Tian Chen
- Shandong Key Laboratory of Animal Microecological Agents, Biological Research Institute, Shandong Baolai-Leelai Bioengineering Co., Ltd., Tai'an, China
| | - Mei-Na Fan
- Shandong Key Laboratory of Animal Microecological Agents, Biological Research Institute, Shandong Baolai-Leelai Bioengineering Co., Ltd., Tai'an, China
| | - Hong-Chao Jiao
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Biotechnology and Disease Control, College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai'an, China
| | - Jing-Peng Zhao
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Biotechnology and Disease Control, College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai'an, China
| | - Xiao-Juan Wang
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Biotechnology and Disease Control, College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai'an, China
| | - Fu-Chang Li
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Biotechnology and Disease Control, College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai'an, China
| | - Hai-Fang Li
- College of Life Sciences, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai'an, China
| | - Hai Lin
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Biotechnology and Disease Control, College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai'an, China
| |
Collapse
|
43
|
Kimura I, Ichimura A, Ohue-Kitano R, Igarashi M. Free Fatty Acid Receptors in Health and Disease. Physiol Rev 2019; 100:171-210. [PMID: 31487233 DOI: 10.1152/physrev.00041.2018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 432] [Impact Index Per Article: 86.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Fatty acids are metabolized and synthesized as energy substrates during biological responses. Long- and medium-chain fatty acids derived mainly from dietary triglycerides, and short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) produced by gut microbial fermentation of the otherwise indigestible dietary fiber, constitute the major sources of free fatty acids (FFAs) in the metabolic network. Recently, increasing evidence indicates that FFAs serve not only as energy sources but also as natural ligands for a group of orphan G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) termed free fatty acid receptors (FFARs), essentially intertwining metabolism and immunity in multiple ways, such as via inflammation regulation and secretion of peptide hormones. To date, several FFARs that are activated by the FFAs of various chain lengths have been identified and characterized. In particular, FFAR1 (GPR40) and FFAR4 (GPR120) are activated by long-chain saturated and unsaturated fatty acids, while FFAR3 (GPR41) and FFAR2 (GPR43) are activated by SCFAs, mainly acetate, butyrate, and propionate. In this review, we discuss the recent reports on the key physiological functions of the FFAR-mediated signaling transduction pathways in the regulation of metabolism and immune responses. We also attempt to reveal future research opportunities for developing therapeutics for metabolic and immune disorders.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ikuo Kimura
- Department of Applied Biological Science, Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Fuchu-shi, Tokyo, Japan; AMED-CREST, Japan Agency for Medical Research and Development, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo, Japan; and Department of Biochemistry, Kyoto University Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Science, Sakyo, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Atsuhiko Ichimura
- Department of Applied Biological Science, Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Fuchu-shi, Tokyo, Japan; AMED-CREST, Japan Agency for Medical Research and Development, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo, Japan; and Department of Biochemistry, Kyoto University Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Science, Sakyo, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Ryuji Ohue-Kitano
- Department of Applied Biological Science, Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Fuchu-shi, Tokyo, Japan; AMED-CREST, Japan Agency for Medical Research and Development, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo, Japan; and Department of Biochemistry, Kyoto University Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Science, Sakyo, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Miki Igarashi
- Department of Applied Biological Science, Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Fuchu-shi, Tokyo, Japan; AMED-CREST, Japan Agency for Medical Research and Development, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo, Japan; and Department of Biochemistry, Kyoto University Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Science, Sakyo, Kyoto, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
44
|
Theiler A, Bärnthaler T, Platzer W, Richtig G, Peinhaupt M, Rittchen S, Kargl J, Ulven T, Marsh LM, Marsche G, Schuligoi R, Sturm EM, Heinemann A. Butyrate ameliorates allergic airway inflammation by limiting eosinophil trafficking and survival. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2019; 144:764-776. [PMID: 31082458 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaci.2019.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2018] [Revised: 04/26/2019] [Accepted: 05/03/2019] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Lung eosinophilia is a hallmark of asthma, and eosinophils are believed to play a crucial role in the pathogenesis of allergic inflammatory diseases. Short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), such as acetate, propionate, and butyrate, are produced in high amounts in the gastrointestinal tract by commensal bacteria and can be absorbed into the bloodstream. Although there is recent evidence that SCFAs are beneficial in allergic asthma models, the effect on eosinophils has remained elusive. OBJECTIVE The role of SCFAs was investigated in human eosinophil function and a mouse model of allergic asthma. METHODS Eosinophils were purified from self-reported allergic or healthy donors. Migration, adhesion to the endothelium, and eosinophil survival were studied in vitro. Ca2+ flux, apoptosis, mitochondrial membrane potential, and expression of surface markers were determined by using flow cytometry and in part by using real-time PCR. Allergic airway inflammation was assessed in vivo in an ovalbumin-induced asthma model by using invasive spirometry. RESULTS For the first time, we observed that SCFAs were able to attenuate human eosinophils at several functional levels, including (1) adhesion to the endothelium, (2) migration, and (3) survival. These effects were independent from GPR41 and GPR43 but were accompanied by histone acetylation and mimicked by trichostatin A, a pan-histone deacetylase inhibitor. In vivo butyrate ameliorated allergen-induced airway and lung eosinophilia, reduced type 2 cytokine levels in bronchial fluid, and improved airway hyperresponsiveness in mice. CONCLUSION These in vitro and in vivo findings highlight the importance of SCFAs, especially butyrate as a promising therapeutic agent in allergic inflammatory diseases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anna Theiler
- Otto Loewi Research Center for Vascular Biology, Immunology and Inflammation, Division of Pharmacology, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria; Ludwig Boltzmann Institute for Lung Vascular Research, Graz, Austria
| | - Thomas Bärnthaler
- Otto Loewi Research Center for Vascular Biology, Immunology and Inflammation, Division of Pharmacology, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Wolfgang Platzer
- Otto Loewi Research Center for Vascular Biology, Immunology and Inflammation, Division of Pharmacology, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Georg Richtig
- Otto Loewi Research Center for Vascular Biology, Immunology and Inflammation, Division of Pharmacology, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Miriam Peinhaupt
- Otto Loewi Research Center for Vascular Biology, Immunology and Inflammation, Division of Pharmacology, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Sonja Rittchen
- Otto Loewi Research Center for Vascular Biology, Immunology and Inflammation, Division of Pharmacology, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Julia Kargl
- Otto Loewi Research Center for Vascular Biology, Immunology and Inflammation, Division of Pharmacology, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Trond Ulven
- Department of Drug Design and Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Leigh M Marsh
- Ludwig Boltzmann Institute for Lung Vascular Research, Graz, Austria
| | - Gunther Marsche
- Otto Loewi Research Center for Vascular Biology, Immunology and Inflammation, Division of Pharmacology, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria; BioTechMed-Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Rufina Schuligoi
- Otto Loewi Research Center for Vascular Biology, Immunology and Inflammation, Division of Pharmacology, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Eva M Sturm
- Otto Loewi Research Center for Vascular Biology, Immunology and Inflammation, Division of Pharmacology, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Akos Heinemann
- Otto Loewi Research Center for Vascular Biology, Immunology and Inflammation, Division of Pharmacology, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria; BioTechMed-Graz, Graz, Austria.
| |
Collapse
|
45
|
Lind S, Holdfeldt A, Mårtensson J, Sundqvist M, Björkman L, Forsman H, Dahlgren C. Functional selective ATP receptor signaling controlled by the free fatty acid receptor 2 through a novel allosteric modulation mechanism. FASEB J 2019; 33:6887-6903. [PMID: 30808243 DOI: 10.1096/fj.201802309r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
A nonactivating allosteric modulator of free fatty acid receptor 2 (FFA2R, also called GPCR 43) turns both propionate (an orthosteric FFA2R agonist) and ATP (an agonist for the purinergic P2Y2 receptor), into potent activating ligands that trigger an assembly of the superoxide-generating neutrophil NADPH oxidase. The ATP-induced activation requires the participation of FFA2R, and the signaling is biased toward oxidase activation, leaving the ATP-induced rise in intracellular Ca2+ unaffected. No NADPH oxidase activity was induced by ATP when propionate replaced the allosteric modulator. Signaling downstream of propionate-activated FFA2Rs was insensitive to Gαq inhibition, but the crosstalk activation involving both FFA2R and P2Y2R relied on Gαq signaling. The receptor crosstalk, by which allosterically modulated FFA2Rs communicate with P2Y2Rs and generate NADPH oxidase activating signals downstream of Gαq, represent a novel mechanism by which GPCR activities can be regulated from inside the plasma membrane. Further, the finding that an allosteric FFA2R modulator sensitizes not only the response induced by orthosteric FFA2R agonists, but also the response induced by ATP (P2Y2R-specific agonist) and formyl peptide receptor-specific agonists, violates the receptor restriction characteristics normally defining the selectivity of allosteric GPCR modulators.-Lind, S., Holdfeldt, A., Mårtensson, J., Sundqvist, M., Björkman, L., Forsman, H., Dahlgren, C. Functional selective ATP receptor signaling controlled by the free fatty acid receptor 2 through a novel allosteric modulation mechanism.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Simon Lind
- Department of Rheumatology and Inflammation Research, Institute of Medicine, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - André Holdfeldt
- Department of Rheumatology and Inflammation Research, Institute of Medicine, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Jonas Mårtensson
- Department of Rheumatology and Inflammation Research, Institute of Medicine, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden.,Rheumatology Unit, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Martina Sundqvist
- Department of Rheumatology and Inflammation Research, Institute of Medicine, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Lena Björkman
- Department of Rheumatology and Inflammation Research, Institute of Medicine, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden.,Rheumatology Unit, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Huamei Forsman
- Department of Rheumatology and Inflammation Research, Institute of Medicine, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Claes Dahlgren
- Department of Rheumatology and Inflammation Research, Institute of Medicine, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| |
Collapse
|
46
|
Selective tracking of FFAR3-expressing neurons supports receptor coupling to N-type calcium channels in mouse sympathetic neurons. Sci Rep 2018; 8:17379. [PMID: 30478340 PMCID: PMC6255804 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-35690-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2018] [Accepted: 11/08/2018] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Activation of short-chain free fatty acid receptors 3 (FFAR3) has been suggested to promote sympathetic outflow in postganglionic sympathetic neurons or hamper it by a negative coupling to N-type calcium (CaV2.2) channels. Heterogeneity of FFAR3 expression in sympathetic neurons, however, renders single neurons studies extremely time-consuming in wild-type mice. Previous studies demonstrated large variability of the degree of CaV2.2 channel inhibition by FFAR3 in a global population of rat sympathetic neurons. Therefore, we focused on a small subpopulation of mouse sympathetic neurons using an FFAR3 antibody and an Ffar3 reporter mouse to perform immunofluorescent and electrophysiological studies. Whole-cell patch-clamp recordings of identified FFAR3-expressing neurons from reporter mice revealed a 2.5-fold decrease in the CaV2.2-FFAR3 inhibitory coupling variability and 1.5-fold increase in the mean ICa2+ inhibition, when compared with unlabeled neurons from wild-type mice. Further, we found that the ablation of Ffar3 gene expression in two knockout mouse models led to a complete loss-of-function. Subpopulations of sympathetic neurons are associated with discrete functional pathways. However, little is known about the neural pathways of the FFAR3-expressing subpopulation. Our data indicate that FFAR3 is expressed primarily in neurons with a vasoconstrictor phenotype. Thus, fine-tuning of chemically-coded neurotransmitters may accomplish an adequate outcome.
Collapse
|
47
|
N-Thiazolylamide-based free fatty-acid 2 receptor agonists: Discovery, lead optimization and demonstration of off-target effect in a diabetes model. Bioorg Med Chem 2018; 26:5169-5180. [PMID: 30253886 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2018.09.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2018] [Revised: 09/13/2018] [Accepted: 09/16/2018] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Free fatty acid-2 (FFA2) receptor is a G-protein coupled receptor of interest in the development of therapeutics in metabolic and inflammatory disease areas. The discovery and optimization of an N-thiazolylamide carboxylic acid FFA2 agonist scaffold is described. Dual key objectives were to i) evaluate the potential of this scaffold for lead optimization in particular with respect to safety de-risking physicochemical properties, i.e. lipophilicity and aromatic content, and ii) to demonstrate the utility of selected lead analogues from this scaffold in a pertinent in vivo model such as oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT). As such, a concomitant improvement in bioactivity together with lipophilic ligand efficiency (LLE) and fraction sp3 content (Fsp3) parameters guided these efforts. Compound 10 was advanced into studies in mice on the basis of its optimized profile vs initial lead 1 (ΔLLE = 0.3, ΔFsp3 = 0.24). Although active in OGTT, 10 also displayed similar activity in the FFA2-knockout mice. Given this off-target OGTT effect, we discontinued development of this FFA2 agonist scaffold.
Collapse
|
48
|
Mårtensson J, Holdfeldt A, Sundqvist M, Gabl M, Kenakin TP, Björkman L, Forsman H, Dahlgren C. Neutrophil priming that turns natural FFA2R agonists into potent activators of the superoxide generating NADPH‐oxidase. J Leukoc Biol 2018; 104:1117-1132. [DOI: 10.1002/jlb.2a0318-130rr] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2018] [Revised: 08/04/2018] [Accepted: 08/04/2018] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Jonas Mårtensson
- Department of Rheumatology and Inflammation ResearchInstitute of MedicineSahlgrenska AcademyUniversity of Gothenburg Göteborg Sweden
- Unit of RheumatologySahlgrenska University Hospital Gothenburg Sweden
| | - André Holdfeldt
- Department of Rheumatology and Inflammation ResearchInstitute of MedicineSahlgrenska AcademyUniversity of Gothenburg Göteborg Sweden
| | - Martina Sundqvist
- Department of Rheumatology and Inflammation ResearchInstitute of MedicineSahlgrenska AcademyUniversity of Gothenburg Göteborg Sweden
| | - Michael Gabl
- Department of Rheumatology and Inflammation ResearchInstitute of MedicineSahlgrenska AcademyUniversity of Gothenburg Göteborg Sweden
| | - Terry P. Kenakin
- Department of PharmacologyUNC‐Chapel Hill Chapel Hill North Carolina USA
| | - Lena Björkman
- Department of Rheumatology and Inflammation ResearchInstitute of MedicineSahlgrenska AcademyUniversity of Gothenburg Göteborg Sweden
- Unit of RheumatologySahlgrenska University Hospital Gothenburg Sweden
| | - Huamei Forsman
- Department of Rheumatology and Inflammation ResearchInstitute of MedicineSahlgrenska AcademyUniversity of Gothenburg Göteborg Sweden
| | - Claes Dahlgren
- Department of Rheumatology and Inflammation ResearchInstitute of MedicineSahlgrenska AcademyUniversity of Gothenburg Göteborg Sweden
| |
Collapse
|
49
|
Priyadarshini M, Kotlo KU, Dudeja PK, Layden BT. Role of Short Chain Fatty Acid Receptors in Intestinal Physiology and Pathophysiology. Compr Physiol 2018; 8:1091-1115. [PMID: 29978895 DOI: 10.1002/cphy.c170050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 118] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Nutrient sensing is a mechanism for organisms to sense their environment. In larger animals, including humans, the intestinal tract is a major site of nutrient sensing for the body, not surprisingly, as this is the central location where nutrients are absorbed. In the gut, bacterial fermentation results in generation of short chain fatty acids (SCFAs), a class of nutrients, which are sensed by specific membrane bound receptors, FFA2, FFA3, GPR109a, and Olfr78. These receptors are expressed uniquely throughout the gut and signal through distinct mechanisms. To date, the emerging data suggests a role of these receptors in normal and pathological conditions. The overall function of these receptors is to regulate aspects of intestinal motility, hormone secretion, maintenance of the epithelial barrier, and immune cell function. Besides in intestinal health, a prominent role of these receptors has emerged in modulation of inflammatory and immune responses during pathological conditions. Moreover, these receptors are being revealed to interact with the gut microbiota. This review article updates the current body of knowledge on SCFA sensing receptors in the gut and their roles in intestinal health and disease as well as in whole body energy homeostasis. © 2017 American Physiological Society. Compr Physiol 8:1091-1115, 2018.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Medha Priyadarshini
- Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Department of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Kumar U Kotlo
- Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Department of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Pradeep K Dudeja
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Department of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Illinois, USA.,Jesse Brown Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Brian T Layden
- Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Department of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Illinois, USA.,Jesse Brown Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| |
Collapse
|
50
|
Alarcon P, Manosalva C, Carretta MD, Hidalgo AI, Figueroa CD, Taubert A, Hermosilla C, Hidalgo MA, Burgos RA. Fatty and hydroxycarboxylic acid receptors: The missing link of immune response and metabolism in cattle. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2018; 201:77-87. [PMID: 29914687 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetimm.2018.05.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2018] [Revised: 03/07/2018] [Accepted: 05/14/2018] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Fatty and hydroxycarboxylic acids are one of the main intermediates of energy metabolism in ruminants and critical in the milk production of cattle. High production demands on a dairy farm can induce nutritional imbalances and metabolism disorders, which have been widely associated with the onset of sterile inflammatory processes and increased susceptibility to infections. The literature suggests that short-chain fatty acids (SCFA), long-chain fatty acids (LCFA) and hydroxycarboxylic acids are relevant modulators of the host innate inflammatory response. For instance, increased SCFA and lactate levels are associated with subacute ruminal acidosis (SARA) and the activation of pro-inflammatory processes mediated by diverse leukocyte and vascular endothelial cells. As such, free LCFA and the ketone body β-hydroxybutyrate are significantly increased in the plasma 1-2 weeks postpartum, coinciding with the time period in which cows are more susceptible to acquiring infectious diseases that the host innate immune system should actively oppose. Today, many of these pro-inflammatory responses can be related to the activation of specific G protein-coupled receptors, including GPR41/FFA3 and GPR43/FFA2 for SCFA; GPR40/FFA1 and GPR120/FFA4 for LCFA, GPR109A/HCA2 for ketone body β-hydroxybutyrate, and GPR81/HCA1 for lactate, all expressed in different bovine tissues. The activation of these receptors modulates the release of intracellular granules [e.g., metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) and lactoferrin], radical oxygen species (ROS) production, chemotaxis, and the production of relevant pro-inflammatory mediators. The article aimed to review the role of natural ligands and receptors and the resulting impact on the host innate immune reaction of cattle and, further, to address the most recent evidence supporting a potential connection to metabolic disorders.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- P Alarcon
- Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile
| | - C Manosalva
- Pharmacy Institute, Faculty of Science, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile
| | - M D Carretta
- Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile
| | - A I Hidalgo
- Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile
| | - C D Figueroa
- Laboratory of Cellular Pathology, Institute of Anatomy, Histology & Pathology, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile
| | - A Taubert
- Institute of Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Giessen, Germany
| | - C Hermosilla
- Institute of Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Giessen, Germany
| | - M A Hidalgo
- Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile
| | - R A Burgos
- Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile.
| |
Collapse
|