Secretion of the Intimin Passenger Domain Is Driven by Protein Folding

Bacterial surface display of human lectins in Escherichia coli

Lectin-glycan interactions sustain fundamental biological processes involved in development and disease. Owing to their unique sugar-binding properties, lectins have great potential in glycobiology and biomedicine. However, their relatively low affinities and broad specificities pose a significant challenge when used as analytical reagents. New approaches for expression and engineering of lectins are in demand to overcome current limitations. Herein, we report the application of bacterial display for the expression of human galectin-3 and mannose-binding lectin in Escherichia coli. The analysis of the cell surface expression and binding activity of the surface-displayed lectins, including point and deletion mutants, in combination with molecular dynamics simulation, demonstrate the robustness and suitability of this approach. Furthermore, the display of functional mannose-binding lectin in the bacterial surface proved the feasibility of this method for disulfide bond-containing lectins. This work establishes for the first time bacterial display as an efficient means for the expression and engineering of human lectins, thereby increasing the available toolbox for glycobiology research.

Phylogenetic Classification and Functional Review of Autotransporters

Autotransporters are the core component of a molecular nano-machine that delivers cargo proteins across the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria. Part of the type V secretion system, this large family of proteins play a central role in controlling bacterial interactions with their environment by promoting adhesion to surfaces, biofilm formation, host colonization and invasion as well as cytotoxicity and immunomodulation. As such, autotransporters are key facilitators of fitness and pathogenesis and enable co-operation or competition with other bacteria. Recent years have witnessed a dramatic increase in the number of autotransporter sequences reported and a steady rise in functional studies, which further link these proteins to multiple virulence phenotypes. In this review we provide an overview of our current knowledge on classical autotransporter proteins, the archetype of this protein superfamily. We also carry out a phylogenetic analysis of their functional domains and present a new classification system for this exquisitely diverse group of bacterial proteins. The sixteen phylogenetic divisions identified establish sensible relationships between well characterized autotransporters and inform structural and functional predictions of uncharacterized proteins, which may guide future research aimed at addressing multiple unanswered aspects in this group of therapeutically important bacterial factors.

Transmembrane β-barrel proteins of bacteria: From structure to function

The outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria is a specialized organelle conferring protection to the cell against various environmental stresses and resistance to many harmful compounds. The outer membrane has a number of unique features, including an asymmetric lipid bilayer, the presence of lipopolysaccharides and an individual proteome. The vast majority of the integral transmembrane proteins in the outer membrane belongs to the family of β-barrel proteins. These evolutionarily related proteins share a cylindrical, anti-parallel β-sheet core fold spanning the outer membrane. The loops and accessory domains attached to the β-barrel allow for a remarkable versatility in function for these proteins, ranging from diffusion pores and transporters to enzymes and adhesins. We summarize the current knowledge on β-barrel structure and folding and give an overview of their functions, evolution, and potential as drug targets.

Folding Control in the Path of Type 5 Secretion

The type 5 secretion system (T5SS) is one of the more widespread secretion systems in Gram-negative bacteria. Proteins secreted by the T5SS are functionally diverse (toxins, adhesins, enzymes) and include numerous virulence factors. Mechanistically, the T5SS has long been considered the simplest of secretion systems, due to the paucity of proteins required for its functioning. Still, despite more than two decades of study, the exact process by which T5SS substrates attain their final destination and correct conformation is not totally deciphered. Moreover, the recent addition of new sub-families to the T5SS raises additional questions about this secretion mechanism. Central to the understanding of type 5 secretion is the question of protein folding, which needs to be carefully controlled in each of the bacterial cell compartments these proteins cross. Here, the biogenesis of proteins secreted by the Type 5 secretion system is discussed, with a focus on the various factors preventing or promoting protein folding during biogenesis.

The extracellular juncture domains in the intimin passenger adopt a constitutively extended conformation inducing restraints to its sphere of action

Enterohemorrhagic and enteropathogenic Escherichia coli are among the most important food-borne pathogens, posing a global health threat. The virulence factor intimin is essential for the attachment of pathogenic E. coli to the intestinal host cell. Intimin consists of four extracellular bacterial immunoglobulin-like (Big) domains, D00–D2, extending into the fifth lectin subdomain (D3) that binds to the Tir-receptor on the host cell. Here, we present the crystal structures of the elusive D00–D0 domains at 1.5 Å and D0–D1 at 1.8 Å resolution, which confirms that the passenger of intimin has five distinct domains. We describe that D00–D0 exhibits a higher degree of rigidity and D00 likely functions as a juncture domain at the outer membrane-extracellular medium interface. We conclude that D00 is a unique Big domain with a specific topology likely found in a broad range of other inverse autotransporters. The accumulated data allows us to model the complete passenger of intimin and propose functionality to the Big domains, D00–D0–D1, extending directly from the membrane.

Biogenesis and function of the autotransporter adhesins YadA, intimin and invasin

Bacteria often express numerous virulence factors. These virulence factors make them successful pathogens, by e.g. mediating attachment to host cells and thereby facilitating persistence or invasion, or by contributing to the evasion of the host immune system to allow proliferation and spread within the host and in the environment. The site of first contact of Gram negative bacteria with the host is the bacterial outer membrane (OM). Consisting of an asymmetrical lipid bilayer with phospholipids forming the inner, and lipopolysaccharides forming the outer leaflet, the OM harbors numerous integral membrane proteins that are almost exclusively β-barrel proteins. One distinct family of OM β-barrel proteins strongly linked to bacterial virulence are the autotransporter (AT) proteins. During the last years huge progress has been made to better understand the mechanisms underlying the insertion of AT proteins into the OM and also AT function for interaction with the host. This review shortly summarizes our current knowledge about outer membrane protein (OMP) and more specifically AT biogenesis and function. We focused on the AT proteins that we haved studied in most detail: i.e. the Yersinia adhesin A (YadA) and invasin of Yersinia enterocolitica (Ye) as well as its homolog intimin (Int) expressed by enteropathogenic Escherichia coli. In addition, this review provides a short outlook about how we could possibly use this knowledge to fight infection.

Type V Secretion Systems: An Overview of Passenger Domain Functions

Bacteria secrete proteins for different purposes such as communication, virulence functions, adhesion to surfaces, nutrient acquisition, or growth inhibition of competing bacteria. For secretion of proteins, Gram-negative bacteria have evolved different secretion systems, classified as secretion systems I through IX to date. While some of these systems consist of multiple proteins building a complex spanning the cell envelope, the type V secretion system, the subject of this review, is rather minimal. Proteins of the Type V secretion system are often called autotransporters (ATs). In the simplest case, a type V secretion system consists of only one polypeptide chain with a β-barrel translocator domain in the membrane, and an extracellular passenger or effector region. Depending on the exact domain architecture of the protein, type V secretion systems can be further separated into sub-groups termed type Va through e, and possibly another recently identified subtype termed Vf. While this classification works well when it comes to the architecture of the proteins, this is not the case for the function(s) of the secreted passenger. In this review, we will give an overview of the functions of the passengers of the different AT classes, shedding more light on the variety of functions carried out by type V secretion systems.

Catching a SPY: Using the SpyCatcher-SpyTag and Related Systems for Labeling and Localizing Bacterial Proteins

The SpyCatcher-SpyTag system was developed seven years ago as a method for protein ligation. It is based on a modified domain from a Streptococcus pyogenes surface protein (SpyCatcher), which recognizes a cognate 13-amino-acid peptide (SpyTag). Upon recognition, the two form a covalent isopeptide bond between the side chains of a lysine in SpyCatcher and an aspartate in SpyTag. This technology has been used, among other applications, to create covalently stabilized multi-protein complexes, for modular vaccine production, and to label proteins (e.g., for microscopy). The SpyTag system is versatile as the tag is a short, unfolded peptide that can be genetically fused to exposed positions in target proteins; similarly, SpyCatcher can be fused to reporter proteins such as GFP, and to epitope or purification tags. Additionally, an orthogonal system called SnoopTag-SnoopCatcher has been developed from an S. pneumoniae pilin that can be combined with SpyCatcher-SpyTag to produce protein fusions with multiple components. Furthermore, tripartite applications have been produced from both systems allowing the fusion of two peptides by a separate, catalytically active protein unit, SpyLigase or SnoopLigase. Here, we review the current state of the SpyCatcher-SpyTag and related technologies, with a particular emphasis on their use in vaccine development and in determining outer membrane protein localization and topology of surface proteins in bacteria.

Type V Secretion in Gram-Negative Bacteria

Type V, or "autotransporter," secretion is a term used to refer to several simple protein export pathways that are found in a wide range of Gram-negative bacteria. Autotransporters are generally single polypeptides that consist of an extracellular ("passenger") domain and a β barrel domain that anchors the protein to the outer membrane (OM). Although it was originally proposed that the passenger domain is secreted through a channel formed solely by the covalently linked β barrel domain, experiments performed primarily on the type Va, or "classical," autotransporter pathway have challenged this hypothesis. Several lines of evidence strongly suggest that both the secretion of the passenger domain and the membrane integration of the β barrel domain are catalyzed by the barrel assembly machinery (Bam) complex, a conserved hetero-oligomer that plays an essential role in the assembly of most integral OM proteins. The secretion reaction appears to be driven at least in part by the folding of the passenger domain in the extracellular space. Although many aspects of autotransporter biogenesis remain to be elucidated, it will be especially interesting to determine whether the different classes of proteins that fall under the type V rubric-most of which have not been examined in detail-are assembled by the same basic mechanism as classical autotransporters.

Evolving Accelerated Amidation by SpyTag/SpyCatcher to Analyze Membrane Dynamics

SpyTag is a peptide that forms a spontaneous amide bond with its protein partner SpyCatcher. This protein superglue is a broadly useful tool for molecular assembly, locking together biological building blocks efficiently and irreversibly in diverse architectures. We initially developed SpyTag and SpyCatcher by rational design, through splitting a domain from a Gram-positive bacterial adhesin. In this work, we established a phage-display platform to select for specific amidation, leading to an order of magnitude acceleration for interaction of the SpyTag002 variant with the SpyCatcher002 variant. We show that the 002 pair bonds rapidly under a wide range of conditions and at either protein terminus. SpyCatcher002 was fused to an intimin derived from enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli. SpyTag002 reaction enabled specific and covalent decoration of intimin for live cell fluorescent imaging of the dynamics of the bacterial outer membrane as cells divide.

A New Strain Collection for Improved Expression of Outer Membrane Proteins

Almost all integral membrane proteins found in the outer membranes of Gram-negative bacteria belong to the transmembrane β-barrel family. These proteins are not only important for nutrient uptake and homeostasis, but are also involved in such processes as adhesion, protein secretion, biofilm formation, and virulence. As surface exposed molecules, outer membrane β-barrel proteins are also potential drug and vaccine targets. High production levels of heterologously expressed proteins are desirable for biochemical and especially structural studies, but over-expression and subsequent purification of membrane proteins, including outer membrane proteins, can be challenging. Here, we present a set of deletion mutants derived from E. coli BL21 Gold (DE3) designed for the over-expression of recombinant outer membrane proteins. These strains harbor deletions of four genes encoding abundant β-barrel proteins in the outer membrane (OmpA, OmpC, OmpF, and LamB), both single and in all combinations of double, triple, and quadruple knock-outs. The sequences encoding these outer membrane proteins were deleted completely, leaving only a minimal scar sequence, thus preventing the possibility of genetic reversion. Expression tests in the quadruple mutant strain with four test proteins, including a small outer membrane β-barrel protein and variants thereof as well as two virulence-related autotransporters, showed significantly improved expression and better quality of the produced proteins over the parent strain. Differences in growth behavior and aggregation in the presence of high salt were observed, but these phenomena did not negatively influence the expression in the quadruple mutant strain when handled as we recommend. The strains produced in this study can be used for outer membrane protein production and purification, but are also uniquely useful for labeling experiments for biophysical measurements in the native membrane environment.