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Vardali S, Papadouli C, Rigos G, Nengas I, Panagiotaki P, Golomazou E. Recent Advances in Mycotoxin Determination in Fish Feed Ingredients. Molecules 2023; 28:molecules28062519. [PMID: 36985489 PMCID: PMC10053411 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28062519] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2023] [Revised: 03/05/2023] [Accepted: 03/07/2023] [Indexed: 03/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Low-cost plant-based sources used in aquaculture diets are prone to the occurrence of animal feed contaminants, which may in certain conditions affect the quality and safety of aquafeeds. Mycotoxins, a toxic group of small organic molecules produced by fungi, comprise a frequently occurring plant-based feed contaminant in aquafeeds. Mycotoxin contamination can potentially cause significant mortality, reduced productivity, and higher disease susceptibility; thus, its timely detection is crucial to the aquaculture industry. The present review summarizes the methodological advances, developed mainly during the past decade, related to mycotoxin detection in aquafeed ingredients, namely analytical, chromatographic, and immunological methodologies, as well as the use of biosensors and spectroscopic methods which are becoming more prevalent. Rapid and accurate mycotoxin detection is and will continue to be crucial to the food industry, animal production, and the environment, resulting in further improvements and developments in mycotoxin detection techniques.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sofia Vardali
- Department of Ichthyology and Aquatic Environment—Aquaculture Laboratory, School of Agricultural Sciences, University of Thessaly, 38446 Volos, Greece
- Correspondence: (S.V.); (E.G.)
| | - Christina Papadouli
- Department of Ichthyology and Aquatic Environment—Aquaculture Laboratory, School of Agricultural Sciences, University of Thessaly, 38446 Volos, Greece
| | - George Rigos
- Institute of Marine Biology, Biotechnology and Aquaculture, Hellenic Centre for Marine Research, 46.7 km Athens-Sounion, 19013 Attiki, Greece
| | - Ioannis Nengas
- Institute of Marine Biology, Biotechnology and Aquaculture, Hellenic Centre for Marine Research, 46.7 km Athens-Sounion, 19013 Attiki, Greece
| | - Panagiota Panagiotaki
- Department of Ichthyology and Aquatic Environment—Aquaculture Laboratory, School of Agricultural Sciences, University of Thessaly, 38446 Volos, Greece
| | - Eleni Golomazou
- Department of Ichthyology and Aquatic Environment—Aquaculture Laboratory, School of Agricultural Sciences, University of Thessaly, 38446 Volos, Greece
- Correspondence: (S.V.); (E.G.)
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Chatterjee S, Dhole A, Krishnan AA, Banerjee K. Mycotoxin Monitoring, Regulation and Analysis in India: A Success Story. Foods 2023; 12:foods12040705. [PMID: 36832780 PMCID: PMC9956158 DOI: 10.3390/foods12040705] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2022] [Revised: 01/28/2023] [Accepted: 02/03/2023] [Indexed: 02/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxins are deleterious fungal secondary metabolites that contaminate food and feed, thereby creating concerns regarding food safety. Common fungal genera can easily proliferate in Indian tropical and sub-tropical conditions, and scientific attention is warranted to curb their growth. To address this, two nodal governmental agencies, namely the Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority (APEDA) and the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI), have developed and implemented analytical methods and quality control procedures to monitor mycotoxin levels in a range of food matrices and assess risks to human health over the last two decades. However, comprehensive information on such advancements in mycotoxin testing and issues in implementing these regulations has been inadequately covered in the recent literature. The aim of this review is thus to uphold a systematic picture of the role played by the FSSAI and APEDA for mycotoxin control at the domestic level and for the promotion of international trade, along with certain challenges in dealing with mycotoxin monitoring. Additionally, it unfolds various regulatory concerns regarding mycotoxin mitigation in India. Overall, it provides valuable insights for the Indian farming community, food supply chain stakeholders and researchers about India's success story in arresting mycotoxins throughout the food supply chain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sujata Chatterjee
- National Reference Laboratory, ICAR-National Research Centre for Grapes, Post Office, Manjari Farm, Pune 412307, India
| | - Archana Dhole
- National Reference Laboratory, ICAR-National Research Centre for Grapes, Post Office, Manjari Farm, Pune 412307, India
| | | | - Kaushik Banerjee
- National Reference Laboratory, ICAR-National Research Centre for Grapes, Post Office, Manjari Farm, Pune 412307, India
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +91-98909-40914
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Current Developments of Analytical Methodologies for Aflatoxins' Determination in Food during the Last Decade (2013-2022), with a Particular Focus on Nuts and Nut Products. Foods 2023; 12:foods12030527. [PMID: 36766055 PMCID: PMC9914313 DOI: 10.3390/foods12030527] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2022] [Revised: 01/09/2023] [Accepted: 01/20/2023] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
This review aims to provide a clear overview of the most important analytical development in aflatoxins analysis during the last decade (2013-2022) with a particular focus on nuts and nuts-related products. Aflatoxins (AFs), a group of mycotoxins produced mainly by certain strains of the genus Aspergillus fungi, are known to impose a serious threat to human health. Indeed, AFs are considered carcinogenic to humans, group 1, by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). Since these toxins can be found in different food commodities, food control organizations worldwide impose maximum levels of AFs for commodities affected by this threat. Thus, they represent a cumbersome issue in terms of quality control, analytical result reliability, and economical losses. It is, therefore, mandatory for food industries to perform analysis on potentially contaminated commodities before the trade. A full perspective of the whole analytical workflow, considering each crucial step during AFs investigation, namely sampling, sample preparation, separation, and detection, will be presented to the reader, focusing on the main challenges related to the topic. A discussion will be primarily held regarding sample preparation methodologies such as partitioning, solid phase extraction (SPE), and immunoaffinity (IA) related methods. This will be followed by an overview of the leading analytical techniques for the detection of aflatoxins, in particular liquid chromatography (LC) coupled to a fluorescence detector (FLD) and/or mass spectrometry (MS). Moreover, the focus on the analytical procedure will not be specific only to traditional methodologies, such as LC, but also to new direct approaches based on imaging and the ability to detect AFs, reducing the need for sample preparation and separative techniques.
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Understanding Current Methods for Sampling of Aflatoxins in Corn and to Generate a Best Practice Framework. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14120819. [PMID: 36548716 PMCID: PMC9785018 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14120819] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2022] [Revised: 11/11/2022] [Accepted: 11/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Aflatoxin contamination in corn is a significant issue, posing substantial health threats to humans and animals. Aflatoxin testing protects consumer health, ensures the safe global trade of corn, and verifies compliance with legislation; however, effective sampling procedures are essential to ensure reliable results. While many sampling procedures exist, there is no evidence to indicate which is the best approach to ensure accurate detection. Using scientific and gray literature sources, this review analyzed sampling procedures to determine an optimum approach to guide the development of standard practices. Results revealed that sampling is the major source of error in the accurate assessment of aflatoxin levels in food and crucial for obtaining reliable results. To guarantee low variability and sample bias-increased sample size and sampling frequency, the use of automatic dynamic sampling techniques, adequate storage, and homogenization of aggregate samples for analysis are advised to ensure a representative sample. However, there is a lack of evidence to support this or indicate the current utilization of the reviewed procedures. Inadequate data prevented the recommendation of sample sizes or frequency for optimum practice, and thus, further research is required. There is an urgent need to make sampling procedures fit-for-purpose to obtain accurate and reliable aflatoxin measurements.
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Smaoui S, Agriopoulou S, D'Amore T, Tavares L, Mousavi Khaneghah A. The control of Fusarium growth and decontamination of produced mycotoxins by lactic acid bacteria. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2022; 63:11125-11152. [PMID: 35708071 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2022.2087594] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Global crop and food contamination with mycotoxins are one of the primary worldwide concerns, while there are several restrictions regarding approaching conventional physical and chemical mycotoxins decontamination methods due to nutrition loss, sensory attribute reduction in foods, chemical residual, inconvenient operation, high cost of equipment, and high energy consumption of some methods. In this regard, the overarching challenges of mycotoxin contamination in food and food crops require the development of biological decontamination strategies. Using certain lactic acid bacteria (LAB) as generally recognized safe (GRAS) compounds is one of the most effective alternatives due to their potential to release antifungal metabolites against various fungal factors species. This review highlights the potential applications of LAB as biodetoxificant agents and summarizes their decontamination activities against Fusarium growth and Fusarium mycotoxins released into food/feed. Firstly, the occurrence of Fusarium and the instrumental and bioanalytical methods for the analysis of mycotoxins were in-depth discussed. Upgraded knowledge on the biosynthesis pathway of mycotoxins produced by Fusarium offers new insightful ideas clarifying the function of these secondary metabolites. Moreover, the characterization of LAB metabolites and their impact on the decontamination of the mycotoxin from Fusarium, besides the main mechanisms of mycotoxin decontamination, are covered. While the thematic growth inhibition of Fusarium and decontamination of their mycotoxin by LAB is very complex, approaching certain lactic acid bacteria (LAB) is worth deeper investigations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Slim Smaoui
- Laboratory of Microbial, Enzymatic Biotechnology and Biomolecules (LBMEB), Center of Biotechnology of Sfax, University of Sfax-Tunisia, Sfax, Tunisia
| | - Sofia Agriopoulou
- Department of Food Science and Technology, University of the Peloponnese, Antikalamos, Kalamata, Greece
| | - Teresa D'Amore
- Chemistry Department, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Puglia e della Basilicata (IZSPB), Foggia, Italy
| | - Loleny Tavares
- Institute of Food Science and Technology, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, CEP, Brazil
| | - Amin Mousavi Khaneghah
- Department of Fruit and Vegetable Product Technology, Prof. Wacław Dąbrowski Institute of Agricultural and Food Biotechnology - State Research Institute, Warsaw, Poland
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Živančev J, Antić I, Buljovčić M, Bulut S, Kocić-Tanackov S. Review of occurrence of mycotoxins in Serbian food items in the period from 2005 to 2022. FOOD AND FEED RESEARCH 2022. [DOI: 10.5937/ffr49-39145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
This paper aimed to review the publications on mycotoxins' presence in cereals and foodstuffs originated from the Serbian market covering the period from 2005 to 2022. The review covers all the important steps in mycotoxins analysis including sampling, sample preparation, instrumental analysis, and concentration ranges in which the mycotoxins were found. Also, the results were interpreted from the European Union regulation point of view. The review emphasizes the importance of multi-mycotoxins analysis for determining the simultaneous presence of mycotoxins that can negatively affect the Serbian human population. The most frequently used instrumental technique in the mycotoxin analysis of Serbian products was the Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay followed by the Ultra-High Performance Liquid Chromatography coupled with triple quadrupole mass spectrometry. Most of the studies undertaken in Serbia until now investigated a few groups of matrices such as wheat, maize, milk, and dairy products. Only a few studies involved specific matrices such as nuts, dried fruits, biscuits, cookies, and spices. The review showed that contamination of milk and dairy products with aflatoxin M1 (AFM1), occurred at the very beginning of 2013, was the major health issue related to the population health. The contamination of milk and dairy products with the AFM1 was a consequence of maize contamination with aflatoxins which occurred in the year 2012, characterized by drought conditions. The studies dealing with the analysis of masked and emerging mycotoxins are rare and more attention should be paid to monitoring the presence of these types of mycotoxins in foodstuffs from Serbia.
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7
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Živančev J, Antić I, Buljovčić M, Bulut S, Kocić-Tanackov S. Review of occurrence of mycotoxins in Serbian food items in the period from 2005 to 2022. FOOD AND FEED RESEARCH 2022. [DOI: 10.5937/ffr0-39145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
This paper aimed to review the publications on mycotoxins' presence in cereals and foodstuffs originated from the Serbian market covering the period from 2005 to 2022. The review covers all the important steps in mycotoxins analysis including sampling, sample preparation, instrumental analysis, and concentration ranges in which the mycotoxins were found. Also, the results were interpreted from the European Union regulation point of view. The review emphasizes the importance of multi-mycotoxins analysis for determining the simultaneous presence of mycotoxins that can negatively affect the Serbian human population. The most frequently used instrumental technique in the mycotoxin analysis of Serbian products was the Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay followed by the Ultra-High Performance Liquid Chromatography coupled with triple quadrupole mass spectrometry. Most of the studies undertaken in Serbia until now investigated a few groups of matrices such as wheat, maize, milk, and dairy products. Only a few studies involved specific matrices such as nuts, dried fruits, biscuits, cookies, and spices. The review showed that contamination of milk and dairy products with aflatoxin M1 (AFM1), occurred at the very beginning of 2013, was the major health issue related to the population health. The contamination of milk and dairy products with the AFM1 was a consequence of maize contamination with aflatoxins which occurred in the year 2012, characterized by drought conditions. The studies dealing with the analysis of masked and emerging mycotoxins are rare and more attention should be paid to monitoring the presence of these types of mycotoxins in foodstuffs from Serbia.
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8
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Kumphanda J, Matumba L, Monjerezi M, Whitaker TB, De Saeger S, Makun HA. Are sample size and sample preparation for mycotoxin quantitation in grain products getting trivialized? Food Control 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2021.108400] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Mycotoxins in food, recent development in food analysis and future challenges; a review. Curr Opin Food Sci 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cofs.2021.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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Janik E, Niemcewicz M, Podogrocki M, Ceremuga M, Gorniak L, Stela M, Bijak M. The Existing Methods and Novel Approaches in Mycotoxins' Detection. Molecules 2021; 26:3981. [PMID: 34210086 PMCID: PMC8271920 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26133981] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2021] [Revised: 06/23/2021] [Accepted: 06/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxins represent a wide range of secondary, naturally occurring and practically unavoidable fungal metabolites. They contaminate various agricultural commodities like cereals, maize, peanuts, fruits, and feed at any stage in pre- or post-harvest conditions. Consumption of mycotoxin-contaminated food and feed can cause acute or chronic toxicity in human and animals. The risk that is posed to public health have prompted the need to develop methods of analysis and detection of mycotoxins in food products. Mycotoxins wide range of structural diversity, high chemical stability, and low concentrations in tested samples require robust, effective, and comprehensible detection methods. This review summarizes current methods, such as chromatographic and immunochemical techniques, as well as novel, alternative approaches like biosensors, electronic noses, or molecularly imprinted polymers that have been successfully applied in detection and identification of various mycotoxins in food commodities. In order to highlight the significance of sampling and sample treatment in the analytical process, these steps have been comprehensively described.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edyta Janik
- Biohazard Prevention Centre, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Lodz, Pomorska 141/143, 90-236 Lodz, Poland; (E.J.); (M.N.); (M.P.); (L.G.)
| | - Marcin Niemcewicz
- Biohazard Prevention Centre, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Lodz, Pomorska 141/143, 90-236 Lodz, Poland; (E.J.); (M.N.); (M.P.); (L.G.)
| | - Marcin Podogrocki
- Biohazard Prevention Centre, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Lodz, Pomorska 141/143, 90-236 Lodz, Poland; (E.J.); (M.N.); (M.P.); (L.G.)
| | - Michal Ceremuga
- Military Institute of Armament Technology, Prymasa Stefana Wyszyńskiego 7, 05-220 Zielonka, Poland;
| | - Leslaw Gorniak
- Biohazard Prevention Centre, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Lodz, Pomorska 141/143, 90-236 Lodz, Poland; (E.J.); (M.N.); (M.P.); (L.G.)
| | - Maksymilian Stela
- CBRN Reconnaissance and Decontamination Department, Military Institute of Chemistry and Radiometry, Antoniego Chrusciela “Montera” 105, 00-910 Warsaw, Poland;
| | - Michal Bijak
- Biohazard Prevention Centre, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Lodz, Pomorska 141/143, 90-236 Lodz, Poland; (E.J.); (M.N.); (M.P.); (L.G.)
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Weaver AC, King WD, Verax M, Fox U, Kudupoje MB, Mathis G, Lumpkins B, Yiannikouris A. Impact of Chronic Levels of Naturally Multi-Contaminated Feed with Fusarium Mycotoxins on Broiler Chickens and Evaluation of the Mitigation Properties of Different Titers of Yeast Cell Wall Extract. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:E636. [PMID: 33019707 PMCID: PMC7599674 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12100636] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2020] [Revised: 08/20/2020] [Accepted: 09/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The chronic intake of naturally multi-mycotoxin contaminated feed by broilers with or without titers of Yeast Cell Wall Extract (YCWE, a.k.a Mycosorb A+®), was investigated. Day-old male Cobb chicks (1600 birds, 64 pens, 25 birds/pen) were randomly allocated to diets of control (CON); diet containing mycotoxins (MT); CON + 0.2% YCWE; MT + 0.025% YCWE; MT + 0.05% YCWE; MT + 0.1% YCWE; MT + 0.2% YCWE; and MT + 0.4% YCWE. Growth performance, blood biochemical parameters and gut health were recorded over 42 days. Compared with CON, MT had reduced body weight (BW) and increased feed conversion ratio (FCR) on days 35 and 42 with increased duodenal crypt depth and fewer goblet cells. Furthermore, European Poultry Production Efficiency (EPEF) was reduced for MT versus CON. Feeding MT + 0.2% YCWE improved BW, lowered FCR, reduced crypt depth, increased goblet cell count and improved EPEF. Considering titration of YCWE (0 to 0.4%) during mycotoxin challenge, a cubic effect was observed for FCR with NC + 0.2% YCWE having the lowest FCR. These findings suggest that chronic consumption of multiple Fusarium mycotoxins present in common field concentrations can negatively impact broiler performance and gut health while inclusion of YCWE, particularly 0.2%, could be effective in counteracting mycotoxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra C. Weaver
- Alltech, Inc., 3031 Catnip Hill Road, Nicholasville, KY 40356, USA; (A.C.W.); (W.D.K.); (M.V.); (U.F.); (M.B.K.)
| | - W. D. King
- Alltech, Inc., 3031 Catnip Hill Road, Nicholasville, KY 40356, USA; (A.C.W.); (W.D.K.); (M.V.); (U.F.); (M.B.K.)
| | - Morgan Verax
- Alltech, Inc., 3031 Catnip Hill Road, Nicholasville, KY 40356, USA; (A.C.W.); (W.D.K.); (M.V.); (U.F.); (M.B.K.)
| | - Ursula Fox
- Alltech, Inc., 3031 Catnip Hill Road, Nicholasville, KY 40356, USA; (A.C.W.); (W.D.K.); (M.V.); (U.F.); (M.B.K.)
| | - Manoj B. Kudupoje
- Alltech, Inc., 3031 Catnip Hill Road, Nicholasville, KY 40356, USA; (A.C.W.); (W.D.K.); (M.V.); (U.F.); (M.B.K.)
| | - Greg Mathis
- Southern Poultry Research, Inc., Athens, GA 30607, USA; (G.M.); (B.L.)
| | - Brett Lumpkins
- Southern Poultry Research, Inc., Athens, GA 30607, USA; (G.M.); (B.L.)
| | - Alexandros Yiannikouris
- Alltech, Inc., 3031 Catnip Hill Road, Nicholasville, KY 40356, USA; (A.C.W.); (W.D.K.); (M.V.); (U.F.); (M.B.K.)
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Rodríguez-Blanco M, Ramos AJ, Prim M, Sanchis V, Marín S. Usefulness of the analytical control of aflatoxins in feedstuffs for dairy cows for the prevention of aflatoxin M 1 in milk. Mycotoxin Res 2019; 36:11-22. [PMID: 31111427 DOI: 10.1007/s12550-019-00362-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2019] [Revised: 04/02/2019] [Accepted: 05/02/2019] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) is a hydroxylated metabolite of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and can be excreted in milk of cows after consuming aflatoxin (AF)-contaminated feed. The aim of this research was to assess the levels of total AFs in samples of feedingstuff for dairy cows (n = 193) and the levels of AFM1 in raw bulk tank milk samples (n = 375), in order to estimate the ratio of "AFB1 feed input" versus "AFM1 milk output" in four specific regions of Spain. Moreover, the correlation between the raw materials used as ingredients of the total mixed ration (TMR) and the presence of AFs was studied. About one-third (34.7%) of the feed samples were positive for total AFs in a range of 0.05-6.45 μg/kg, and 12.4% were positive for AFB1. AFM1 was detected in 18.9% of bulk milk samples, with concentrations ranging from 0.009 to 1.36 μg/kg. While none of the feed samples exceeded the European Union (EU) maximum content for AFB1 in feedingstuff for dairy animals of 5 μg/kg, three bulk milk samples exceeded the EU maximum level for AFM1 in milk of 50 ng/kg. The transfer ratio AFB1/AFM1, which was derived from AFB1 levels in feed, AFM1 levels in bulk tank milk, feed intake, and milk yield data, was 0.6-6%, which corresponded well with the range of published carry-over data for aflatoxins. Statistical analyses showed that the main sources of AFB1 in TMR were maize silage, bagasse, soya bean husk, maize, alfalfa hay, cotton seed and compound feed, thus special attention should be paid in controlling these raw materials when used in TMR preparation. Although the analysis of AFs in feed did not correlate with the presence of AFM1 in milk, monitoring feedstuffs is a useful tool in order to try and minimise AF-contamination of milk.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Rodríguez-Blanco
- Applied Mycology Unit, Food Technology Department, University of Lleida, UTPV-XaRTA, Agrotecnio Centre, Av. Rovira Roure 191, 25198, Lleida, Spain
| | - A J Ramos
- Applied Mycology Unit, Food Technology Department, University of Lleida, UTPV-XaRTA, Agrotecnio Centre, Av. Rovira Roure 191, 25198, Lleida, Spain
| | - M Prim
- Applied Mycology Unit, Food Technology Department, University of Lleida, UTPV-XaRTA, Agrotecnio Centre, Av. Rovira Roure 191, 25198, Lleida, Spain
| | - V Sanchis
- Applied Mycology Unit, Food Technology Department, University of Lleida, UTPV-XaRTA, Agrotecnio Centre, Av. Rovira Roure 191, 25198, Lleida, Spain
| | - S Marín
- Applied Mycology Unit, Food Technology Department, University of Lleida, UTPV-XaRTA, Agrotecnio Centre, Av. Rovira Roure 191, 25198, Lleida, Spain.
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Hennig-Pauka I, Koch FJ, Schaumberger S, Woechtl B, Novak J, Sulyok M, Nagl V. Current challenges in the diagnosis of zearalenone toxicosis as illustrated by a field case of hyperestrogenism in suckling piglets. Porcine Health Manag 2018; 4:18. [PMID: 30221009 PMCID: PMC6134784 DOI: 10.1186/s40813-018-0095-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2018] [Accepted: 06/26/2018] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Background The mycotoxin zearalenone (ZEN) causes functional and morphological alterations in reproductive organs of pigs. In the field, diagnosis of ZEN-induced disorders is often challenging, as relevant feed lots are no longer available, or feed analysis results are not conclusive. Here, we report a field case of hyperestrogenism in newborn piglets. Surprisingly, more than 50 fungal metabolites were detected in hay pellets fed to gestating sows, including ZEN and its modified form zearalenone-14-sulfate (ZEN-14-S). Despite the broad contamination range in this unconventional feed component, a definite diagnosis of mycotoxicosis could not be achieved. In this context, current limitations regarding the confirmation of suspected cases of ZEN-induced disorders are discussed, covering both feed analysis and the biomarker approach. Case presentation A piglet producer with 200 sows experienced a sudden increase in suckling piglet losses up to 30% by lower vitality and crushing. Predominant clinical signs were splay legs and signs of hyperestrogenism such as swollen and reddened vulvae in newborn piglets. The first differential diagnosis was ZEN mycotoxicosis although feed batches had not been changed for months with the exception of ground hay pellets, which had been included in the diet five months before. Analysis of hay pellets resulted in a sum value of ZEN and its modified forms of more than 1000 μg/kg, with ZEN-14-S alone accounting for 530 μg/kg. Considering the inclusion rate of 7% in the diet for gestating sows, the severe impact of the additional ZEN load due to the contaminated hay pellets seemed unrealistic but could not be completely excluded either. One month after hay pellets had been removed from the diet no further clinical signs were observed. Conclusions Enrichment materials and other fibre sources can contain significant amounts of mycotoxins and should be therefore included in feed analysis. Adequate methods for broad spectrum mycotoxin determination, including modified mycotoxins, are important. As highlighted by this field case, there is a need to establish reliable biomarkers for ZEN exposure in pigs. Currently, available biomarkers do not allow a solid prediction of the ZEN intake of pigs under field conditions, which limits their application to experimental studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabel Hennig-Pauka
- Field Station for Epidemiology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, Buescheler Straße 9, 49456 Bakum, Germany
| | - Franz-Josef Koch
- Tierarztpraxis im Holbeinring, Holbeinring 16, 35369 Gießen, Germany
| | | | - Bettina Woechtl
- 4University Clinic for Swine, Department for Farm Animals and Veterinary Public Health, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Veterinaerplatz 1, 1210 Vienna, Austria
| | - Johannes Novak
- 5Functional Botanical Substances, Institute of Animal Nutrition and Functional Plant Compounds, Department for Farm Animals and Veterinary Public Health, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Veterinaerplatz 1, 1210 Vienna, Austria
| | - Michael Sulyok
- 6Center for Analytical Chemistry, Department for Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna (BOKU), Konrad Lorenz Str. 20, 3430 Tulln, Austria
| | - Veronika Nagl
- BIOMIN Research Center, Technopark 1, 3430 Tulln, Austria
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A holistic approach to food safety risks: Food fraud as an example. Food Res Int 2016; 89:463-470. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2016.08.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2016] [Revised: 07/27/2016] [Accepted: 08/22/2016] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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15
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Cheli F, Campagnoli A, Pinotti L, Fusi E, Dell’Orto V. Sampling feed for mycotoxins: acquiring knowledge from food. ITALIAN JOURNAL OF ANIMAL SCIENCE 2016. [DOI: 10.4081/ijas.2009.5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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16
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Turner NW, Bramhmbhatt H, Szabo-Vezse M, Poma A, Coker R, Piletsky SA. Analytical methods for determination of mycotoxins: An update (2009-2014). Anal Chim Acta 2015; 901:12-33. [PMID: 26614054 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2015.10.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 153] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2015] [Revised: 09/30/2015] [Accepted: 10/09/2015] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Mycotoxins are a problematic and toxic group of small organic molecules that are produced as secondary metabolites by several fungal species that colonise crops. They lead to contamination at both the field and postharvest stages of food production with a considerable range of foodstuffs affected, from coffee and cereals, to dried fruit and spices. With wide ranging structural diversity of mycotoxins, severe toxic effects caused by these molecules and their high chemical stability the requirement for robust and effective detection methods is clear. This paper builds on our previous review and summarises the most recent advances in this field, in the years 2009-2014 inclusive. This review summarises traditional methods such as chromatographic and immunochemical techniques, as well as newer approaches such as biosensors, and optical techniques which are becoming more prevalent. A section on sampling and sample treatment has been prepared to highlight the importance of this step in the analytical methods. We close with a look at emerging technologies that will bring effective and rapid analysis out of the laboratory and into the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas W Turner
- Department of Life, Health and Chemical Sciences, The Open University, Milton Keynes, MK7 6AA, UK.
| | - Heli Bramhmbhatt
- Department of Life, Health and Chemical Sciences, The Open University, Milton Keynes, MK7 6AA, UK
| | - Monika Szabo-Vezse
- Department of Life, Health and Chemical Sciences, The Open University, Milton Keynes, MK7 6AA, UK; Toximet Ltd., ToxiMet Limited, 130 Abbott Drive, Kent Science Park, Sittingbourne, Kent, ME9 8AZ, UK
| | - Alessandro Poma
- Department of Life, Health and Chemical Sciences, The Open University, Milton Keynes, MK7 6AA, UK; Department of Chemistry, University College London, London, WC1H 0AJ, UK
| | - Raymond Coker
- Toximet Ltd., ToxiMet Limited, 130 Abbott Drive, Kent Science Park, Sittingbourne, Kent, ME9 8AZ, UK
| | - Sergey A Piletsky
- Department of Chemistry, University of Leicester, Leicester, LE1 7RH, UK
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de Rijk T, van Egmond H, van der Fels-Klerx H, Herbes R, de Nijs M, Samson R, Slate A, van der Spiegel M. A study of the 2013 Western European issue of aflatoxin contamination of maize from the Balkan area. WORLD MYCOTOXIN J 2015. [DOI: 10.3920/wmj2015.1903] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
In March 2013 a large shipment of maize, intended for feed was subject of an alert in the Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed of the European Commission (EC) because the aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) level in the load exceeded the EC regulated maximum level of 20 μg/kg. Since the shipment had passed import controls and was already distributed (mainly to German farms), a massive recall followed. The aim of the current study was to investigate questions, raised by authorities and industry, related to the effectivity of EU sampling procedures, the influence of sample homogenisation procedures and sample storage conditions on the test results, and fungal identification as unexpected mycotoxins were identified during this study. The Netherlands Food and Consumer Product Safety Authority seized a shipload of maize in July 2013, suspected to be contaminated with AFB1. The shipload was sampled according to the 2009 and 2013 EC Sampling Regulations to compare the outcomes of both sampling protocols. Mycotoxin analysis of the incremental samples showed high mean levels of AFB1, aflatoxin G1 (AFG1), and ochratoxin A (OTA). Also an extreme inhomogeneous distribution of aflatoxins and OTA was proven. Analysis of samples homogenised according to the slurry method showed improved performance as compared to samples homogenised through dry homogenisation. Sampling and sample homogenisation according to the Regulation from 2013 showed a closer estimate of the ‘true’ AFB1 content as compared to sampling according to the Regulation from 2009. No influence of laboratory storage conditions on AFB1 concentration could be determined. Fungal identification revealed Aspergillus flavus as the main source of AFB1 in this shipment. Infrequent occurrence of Aspergillus parasiticus might have been the source of AFG1. The occurrence of sometimes large amounts of OTA could not be explained, however it was suggested that Aspergillus welwitschiae might have played a role.
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Affiliation(s)
- T.C. de Rijk
- RIKILT Wageningen UR, P.O. Box 230, 6700 AE Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - H.P. van Egmond
- RIKILT Wageningen UR, P.O. Box 230, 6700 AE Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | | | - R. Herbes
- Netherlands Food and Consumer Product Safety Authority (NVWA), P.O. Box 43006, 3540 AA Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - M. de Nijs
- RIKILT Wageningen UR, P.O. Box 230, 6700 AE Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - R.A. Samson
- CBS-KNAW Fungal Biodiversity Centre, P.O. Box 85167, 3508 AD Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - A.B. Slate
- US Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, North Carolina State University, P.O. Box 7625, Raleigh, NC 27695-7625, USA
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18
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Gallo A, Giuberti G, Frisvad JC, Bertuzzi T, Nielsen KF. Review on Mycotoxin Issues in Ruminants: Occurrence in Forages, Effects of Mycotoxin Ingestion on Health Status and Animal Performance and Practical Strategies to Counteract Their Negative Effects. Toxins (Basel) 2015; 7:3057-111. [PMID: 26274974 PMCID: PMC4549740 DOI: 10.3390/toxins7083057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 188] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2015] [Revised: 07/30/2015] [Accepted: 07/31/2015] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Ruminant diets include cereals, protein feeds, their by-products as well as hay and grass, grass/legume, whole-crop maize, small grain or sorghum silages. Furthermore, ruminants are annually or seasonally fed with grazed forage in many parts of the World. All these forages could be contaminated by several exometabolites of mycotoxigenic fungi that increase and diversify the risk of mycotoxin exposure in ruminants compared to swine and poultry that have less varied diets. Evidence suggests the greatest exposure for ruminants to some regulated mycotoxins (aflatoxins, trichothecenes, ochratoxin A, fumonisins and zearalenone) and to many other secondary metabolites produced by different species of Alternaria spp. (e.g., AAL toxins, alternariols, tenuazonic acid or 4Z-infectopyrone), Aspergillus flavus (e.g., kojic acid, cyclopiazonic acid or β-nitropropionic acid), Aspergillus fuminatus (e.g., gliotoxin, agroclavine, festuclavines or fumagillin), Penicillium roqueforti and P. paneum (e.g., mycophenolic acid, roquefortines, PR toxin or marcfortines) or Monascus ruber (citrinin and monacolins) could be mainly related to forage contamination. This review includes the knowledge of mycotoxin occurrence reported in the last 15 years, with special emphasis on mycotoxins detected in forages, and animal toxicological issues due to their ingestion. Strategies for preventing the problem of mycotoxin feed contamination under farm conditions are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonio Gallo
- Institute of Feed & Food Science and Nutrition, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Piacenza 29122, Italy.
| | - Gianluca Giuberti
- Institute of Feed & Food Science and Nutrition, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Piacenza 29122, Italy.
| | - Jens C Frisvad
- Department of Systems Biology, Technical University of Denmark, Building 221, Kgs. Lyngby DK-2800, Denmark.
| | - Terenzio Bertuzzi
- Institute of Feed & Food Science and Nutrition, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Piacenza 29122, Italy.
| | - Kristian F Nielsen
- Department of Systems Biology, Technical University of Denmark, Building 221, Kgs. Lyngby DK-2800, Denmark.
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Armorini S, Altafini A, Zaghini A, Roncada P. Occurrence of aflatoxin B1 in conventional and organic flour in Italy and the role of sampling. Food Control 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2014.10.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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20
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Häggblom P, Nordkvist E. Deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, and Fusarium graminearum contamination of cereal straw; field distribution; and sampling of big bales. Mycotoxin Res 2015; 31:101-7. [PMID: 25665688 PMCID: PMC4412695 DOI: 10.1007/s12550-015-0220-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2014] [Revised: 01/28/2015] [Accepted: 01/29/2015] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Sampling of straw bales from wheat, barley, and oats was carried out after harvest showing large variations in deoxynivalenol (DON) and zearalenone (ZEN) levels. In the wheat field, DON was detected in all straw samples with an average DON concentration of 976 μg/kg and a median of 525 μg/kg, while in four bales, the concentrations were above 3000 μg/kg. For ZEN, the concentrations were more uniform with an average concentration of 11 μg/kg. The barley straw bales were all positive for DON with an average concentration of 449 μg/kg and three bales above 800 μg/kg. In oat straw, the average DON concentration was 6719 μg/kg with the lowest concentration at 2614 μg/kg and eight samples above 8000 μg/kg. ZEN contamination was detected in all bales with an average concentration of 53 μg/kg with the highest concentration at 219 μg/kg. Oat bales from another field showed an average concentration of 16,382 μg/kg. ZEN concentrations in the oat bales were on average 153 μg/kg with a maximum at 284 μg/kg. Levels of Fusarium graminearum DNA were higher in oat straw (max 6444 pg DNA/mg straw) compared to straw from wheat or barley. The significance of mycotoxin exposure from straw should not be neglected particularly in years when high levels of DON and ZEN are also detected in the feed grain. With a limited number of samples preferably using a sampling probe, it is possible to distinguish lots of straw that should not be used as bedding material for pigs.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Häggblom
- Department of Chemistry, Environment and Feed Hygiene, National Veterinary Institute, SE-751 89, Uppsala, Sweden,
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21
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Mallmann AO, Marchioro A, Oliveira MS, Rauber RH, Dilkin P, Mallmann CA. Comparison of the efficiency between two sampling plans for aflatoxins analysis in maize. Braz J Microbiol 2014; 45:35-42. [PMID: 24948911 PMCID: PMC4059321 DOI: 10.1590/s1517-83822014000100006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2012] [Accepted: 09/09/2013] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Variance and performance of two sampling plans for aflatoxins quantification in maize were evaluated. Eight lots of maize were sampled using two plans: manual, using sampling spear for kernels; and automatic, using a continuous flow to collect milled maize. Total variance and sampling, preparation, and analysis variance were determined and compared between plans through multifactor analysis of variance. Four theoretical distribution models were used to compare aflatoxins quantification distributions in eight maize lots. The acceptance and rejection probabilities for a lot under certain aflatoxin concentration were determined using variance and the information on the selected distribution model to build the operational characteristic curves (OC). Sampling and total variance were lower at the automatic plan. The OC curve from the automatic plan reduced both consumer and producer risks in comparison to the manual plan. The automatic plan is more efficient than the manual one because it expresses more accurately the real aflatoxin contamination in maize.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adriano Olnei Mallmann
- Laboratório de Análises MicotoxicológicasDepartamento de Medicina Veterinária PreventivaUniversidade Federal de Santa MariaSanta MariaRSBrazil
| | - Alexandro Marchioro
- Laboratório de Análises MicotoxicológicasDepartamento de Medicina Veterinária PreventivaUniversidade Federal de Santa MariaSanta MariaRSBrazil
| | - Maurício Schneider Oliveira
- Laboratório de Análises MicotoxicológicasDepartamento de Medicina Veterinária PreventivaUniversidade Federal de Santa MariaSanta MariaRSBrazil
| | - Ricardo Hummes Rauber
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Ciências VeterináriasUniversidade Federal do Rio Grande do SulPorto AlegreRSBrazil
| | - Paulo Dilkin
- Laboratório de Análises MicotoxicológicasDepartamento de Medicina Veterinária PreventivaUniversidade Federal de Santa MariaSanta MariaRSBrazil
| | - Carlos Augusto Mallmann
- Laboratório de Análises MicotoxicológicasDepartamento de Medicina Veterinária PreventivaUniversidade Federal de Santa MariaSanta MariaRSBrazil
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22
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Hallier A, Celette F, Coutarel J, David C. A contribution to reduce sampling variability in the evaluation of deoxynivalenol contamination of organic wheat grain. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2013; 30:2159-64. [DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2013.853227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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23
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Gnonlonfin GJB, Hell K, Adjovi Y, Fandohan P, Koudande DO, Mensah GA, Sanni A, Brimer L. A review on aflatoxin contamination and its implications in the developing world: a sub-Saharan African perspective. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2013; 53:349-65. [PMID: 23320907 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2010.535718] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Mycotoxins contamination in some agricultural food commodities seriously impact human and animal health and reduce the commercial value of crops. Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites produced by fungi that contaminate agricultural commodities pre- or postharvest. Africa is one of the continents where environmental, agricultural and storage conditions of food commodities are conducive of Aspergillus fungi infection and aflatoxin biosynthesis. This paper reviews the commodity-wise aetiology and contamination process of aflatoxins and evaluates the potential risk of exposure from common African foods. Possible ways of reducing risk for fungal infection and aflatoxin development that are relevant to the African context. The presented database would be useful as benchmark information for development and prioritization of future research. There is need for more investigations on food quality and safety by making available advanced advanced equipments and analytical methods as well as surveillance and awareness creation in the region.
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Affiliation(s)
- G J B Gnonlonfin
- Department of Veterinary Disease Biology, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Denmark, Frederiksberg C, Denmark.
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24
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25
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García-Cela E, Ramos A, Sanchis V, Marin S. Risk management towards food safety objective achievement regarding to mycotoxins in pistachio: The sampling and measurement uncertainty issue. Food Control 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2012.09.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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26
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Li P, Zhang Z, Zhang Q, Zhang N, Zhang W, Ding X, Li R. Current development of microfluidic immunosensing approaches for mycotoxin detection via capillary electromigration and lateral flow technology. Electrophoresis 2012; 33:2253-65. [PMID: 22887149 DOI: 10.1002/elps.201200050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Mycotoxin contamination in the food chain has caused serious health issues in humans and animals. Thus, a rapid on-site and lab-independent detection method for mycotoxins, such as aflatoxins (AFTs), is desirable. Microfluidic chip based immunosensor technology is one of the most promising methods for fast mycotoxin assays. In this review, we cover the major microfluidic immunosensors used for mycotoxin analysis, via flow-through (capillary electromigration) and lateral flow technology. Sample preparation from different matrices of agricultural products and foodstuffs is summarized. The choice of materials, fabrication strategies, and detection methods for microfluidic immunosensors are further discussed in detail. The sensors application in mycotoxin determination is also outlined. Finally, future challenges and opportunities are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peiwu Li
- Oil Crops Research Institute of the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Wuhan, P. R. China.
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27
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28
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Tittlemier SA, Varga E, Scott PM, Krska R. Sampling of cereals and cereal-based foods for the determination of ochratoxin A: an overview. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2011; 28:775-85. [PMID: 21623502 PMCID: PMC3118486 DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2011.559278] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2010] [Accepted: 01/26/2011] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
The mycotoxin ochratoxin A (OTA) is known to be heterogeneously distributed both intrinsically (from one individual food item to the next) as well as distributionally (throughout a sample of individual food items) in cereals and cereal-based foods. Therefore, proper sampling and sample comminution are special challenges, but are prerequisites for obtaining sound analytical data. This paper outlines the issue of the sampling process for cereals and cereal-based foods, starting with the planning phase, followed by the sampling step itself and the formation of analytical samples. The sampling of whole grain and retail-level cereal-based foods will be discussed. Furthermore, possibilities to reduce sampling variance are presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- S A Tittlemier
- Canadian Grain Commission, Grain Research Laboratory, Winnipeg, MB, Canada.
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29
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Brera C, De Santis B, Prantera E, Debegnach F, Pannunzi E, Fasano F, Berdini C, Slate AB, Miraglia M, Whitaker TB. Effect of sample size in the evaluation of "in-field" sampling plans for aflatoxin B(1) determination in corn. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2010; 58:8481-8489. [PMID: 20608734 DOI: 10.1021/jf1018356] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
Use of proper sampling methods throughout the agri-food chain is crucial when it comes to effectively detecting contaminants in foods and feeds. The objective of the study was to estimate the performance of sampling plan designs to determine aflatoxin B(1) (AFB(1)) contamination in corn fields. A total of 840 ears were selected from a corn field suspected of being contaminated with aflatoxin. The mean and variance among the aflatoxin values for each ear were 10.6 mug/kg and 2233.3, respectively. The variability and confidence intervals associated with sample means of a given size could be predicted using an equation associated with the normal distribution. Sample sizes of 248 and 674 ears would be required to estimate the true field concentration of 10.6 mug/kg within +/-50 and +/-30%, respectively. Using the distribution information from the study, operating characteristic curves were developed to show the performance of various sampling plan designs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlo Brera
- GMO and Mycotoxins Unit, Department of Veterinary Public Health and Food Safety, Italian Institute for Health (ISS), Viale Regina Elena 299, Rome, Italy.
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30
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Mycotoxins in fruits and their processed products: Analysis, occurrence and health implications. J Adv Res 2010. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jare.2010.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 125] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
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Milićević DR, Škrinjar M, Baltić T. Real and perceived risks for mycotoxin contamination in foods and feeds: challenges for food safety control. Toxins (Basel) 2010; 2:572-92. [PMID: 22069600 PMCID: PMC3153222 DOI: 10.3390/toxins2040572] [Citation(s) in RCA: 153] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2010] [Revised: 03/12/2010] [Accepted: 03/31/2010] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxins are toxic compounds, produced by the secondary metabolism of toxigenic moulds in the Aspergillus, Alternaria, Claviceps, Fusarium, Penicillium and Stachybotrys genera occurring in food and feed commodities both pre- and post-harvest. Adverse human health effects from the consumption of mycotoxins have occurred for many centuries. When ingested, mycotoxins may cause a mycotoxicosis which can result in an acute or chronic disease episode. Chronic conditions have a much greater impact, numerically, on human health in general, and induce diverse and powerful toxic effects in test systems: some are carcinogenic, mutagenic, teratogenic, estrogenic, hemorrhagic, immunotoxic, nephrotoxic, hepatotoxic, dermotoxic and neurotoxic. Although mycotoxin contamination of agricultural products still occurs in the developed world, the application of modern agricultural practices and the presence of a legislatively regulated food processing and marketing system have greatly reduced mycotoxin exposure in these populations. However, in developing countries, where climatic and crop storage conditions are frequently conducive to fungal growth and mycotoxin production, much of the population relies on subsistence farming or on unregulated local markets. Therefore both producers and governmental control authorities are directing their efforts toward the implementation of a correct and reliable evaluation of the real status of contamination of a lot of food commodity and, consequently, of the impact of mycotoxins on human and animal health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dragan R. Milićević
- Institute of Meat Hygiene and Technology, Kaćanskog 13, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia; (T.B.)
| | - Marija Škrinjar
- Faculty of Technology, Bulevar Cara Lazara 1, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia; (M.Š.)
| | - Tatjana Baltić
- Institute of Meat Hygiene and Technology, Kaćanskog 13, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia; (T.B.)
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Determination of mycotoxins in foods: current state of analytical methods and limitations. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2010; 86:1595-612. [DOI: 10.1007/s00253-010-2535-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 166] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2009] [Revised: 03/01/2010] [Accepted: 03/01/2010] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Evaluation of DNA extraction methods for PCR detection of fungal and bacterial contamination in cocoa extracts. Eur Food Res Technol 2009. [DOI: 10.1007/s00217-009-1139-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Rivas Casado M, Parsons D, Weightman R, Magan N, Origgi S. Modelling a two-dimensional spatial distribution of mycotoxin concentration in bulk commodities to design effective and efficient sample selection strategies. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2009. [DOI: 10.1080/02652030903042517] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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35
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Maragos C. Biosensors for mycotoxin analysis: recent developments and future prospects. WORLD MYCOTOXIN J 2009. [DOI: 10.3920/wmj2008.1117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The toxicity and prevalence of mycotoxins in commodities and foods has necessitated the development of rapid methods in order to ensure the protection of human food and animal feed supplies. Testing for mycotoxins can be accomplished by many techniques that range from determinative tests in which the presence of the toxin is confirmed, to presumptive tests in which the presence of the toxin is inferred from the presence of markers. This review focuses on tests that fall into a third category, namely indirect assays, where the presence of the toxin is established by it's interaction with an intermediary. Such intermediaries include biological materials that bind mycotoxins, such as antibodies, as well as synthetic materials such as polymers and man-made peptides. The diversity of assays within this category is extraordinary and includes assays based upon traditional microwell formats, microbeads, membranes, electrodes, wave-guides, and solution-phase assays. The microbead format includes platforms as diverse as flow injection immunoassays, tandem column immunoassays, and immunoaffinity columns. The membrane-based formats include flow-through as well as lateral-flow assays. The electrode-based formats incorporate miniaturised immunoassays with electrochemical endpoints. The wave-guide-based devices include formats such as surface plasmon resonance, and fluorescence array biosensors, and the solution phase formats include homogeneous assays such as fluorescence polarisation immunoassay. The breadth of technologies brought to bear upon solving the need for rapid, accurate, detection of mycotoxins is impressive and includes technologies currently available commercially and those which appear poised to enter the marketplace.
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Affiliation(s)
- C. Maragos
- Mycotoxin Research Unit, National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research, ARS, USDA, 1815 N. University St., Peoria, IL 61604, USA
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Leung MCK, Díaz-Llano G, Smith TK. Mycotoxins in pet food: a review on worldwide prevalence and preventative strategies. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2006; 54:9623-35. [PMID: 17177480 DOI: 10.1021/jf062363+] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
Mycotoxins contaminate cereal grains worldwide, and their presence in pet food has been a potential health threat to companion animals. Aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, and Fusarium mycotoxins have been found in both raw ingredients and final products of pet food around the globe. Aflatoxin, a hepatotoxin and carcinogen, has caused several food poisoning outbreaks in dogs, and aflatoxin content is regulated in pet food in many countries. Ochratoxin A and Fusarium mycotoxins including trichothecenes, zearalenone, and fumonisins may have chronic effects on the health of companion animals. Grain processing, sampling error, analytical methods, conjugated mycotoxins, storage conditions, and synergistic interactions are common challenges faced by the pet food industry. Food-processing techniques such as sieving, washing, pearling, ozonation, and acid-based mold inhibition reduce the mycotoxin content of cereal grains. Dietary supplementation with large neutral amino acids, antioxidants, and omega-3 polysaturated fatty acids as well as inclusion of mycotoxin-sequestering agents and detoxifying microbes may ameliorate the harmful effects of mycotoxins in contaminated pet food.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maxwell C K Leung
- Department of Animal and Poultry Science, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada N1G 2W1
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