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Ahmed-Hassan H, Sisson B, Shukla RK, Wijewantha Y, Funderburg NT, Li Z, Hayes D, Demberg T, Liyanage NPM. Innate Immune Responses to Highly Pathogenic Coronaviruses and Other Significant Respiratory Viral Infections. Front Immunol 2020; 11:1979. [PMID: 32973803 PMCID: PMC7468245 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.01979] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2020] [Accepted: 07/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The new pandemic virus SARS-CoV-2 emerged in China and spread around the world in <3 months, infecting millions of people, and causing countries to shut down public life and businesses. Nearly all nations were unprepared for this pandemic with healthcare systems stretched to their limits due to the lack of an effective vaccine and treatment. Infection with SARS-CoV-2 can lead to Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). COVID-19 is respiratory disease that can result in a cytokine storm with stark differences in morbidity and mortality between younger and older patient populations. Details regarding mechanisms of viral entry via the respiratory system and immune system correlates of protection or pathogenesis have not been fully elucidated. Here, we provide an overview of the innate immune responses in the lung to the coronaviruses MERS-CoV, SARS-CoV, and SARS-CoV-2. This review provides insight into key innate immune mechanisms that will aid in the development of therapeutics and preventive vaccines for SARS-CoV-2 infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanaa Ahmed-Hassan
- Department of Microbial Infection and Immunity, College of Medicine, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States.,Department of Zoonoses, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt
| | - Brianna Sisson
- Department of Microbial Infection and Immunity, College of Medicine, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States
| | - Rajni Kant Shukla
- Department of Microbial Infection and Immunity, College of Medicine, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States
| | - Yasasvi Wijewantha
- Department of Microbial Infection and Immunity, College of Medicine, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States
| | - Nicholas T Funderburg
- Division of Medical Laboratory Science, School of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States
| | - Zihai Li
- The James Comprehensive Cancer Center, Pelotonia Institute for Immuno-Oncology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States
| | - Don Hayes
- Division of Pulmonary Medicine, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, United States.,Department of Pediatrics, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH, United States
| | | | - Namal P M Liyanage
- Department of Microbial Infection and Immunity, College of Medicine, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States.,Department of Veterinary Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States.,Infectious Diseases Institute, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States
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2
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Affiliation(s)
- M.H. Maxwell
- Roslin Institute (Edinburgh), Roslin, Midlothian EH 25 9PS, UK
| | - G.W. Robertson
- Roslin Institute (Edinburgh), Roslin, Midlothian EH 25 9PS, UK
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3
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Larsen FT, Bed'Hom B, Naghizadeh M, Kjærup RB, Zohari S, Dalgaard TS. Immunoprofiling of peripheral blood from infectious bronchitis virus vaccinated MHC-B chicken lines - Monocyte MHC-II expression as a potential correlate of protection. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2019; 96:93-102. [PMID: 30763593 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2019.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2018] [Revised: 02/05/2019] [Accepted: 02/05/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Vaccination programs are implemented in poultry farms to limit outbreaks and spread of infectious bronchitis virus (IBV), which is a substantial economic burden in the poultry industry. Immune correlates, used to predict vaccine efficacy, have proved difficult to find for IBV-vaccine-induced protection. To find correlates of IBV-vaccine-induced protection, hence, we employed a flow cytometric assay to quantify peripheral leucocyte subsets and expression of cell surface markers of six different non-vaccinated and vaccinated Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) haplotypes. Non-vaccinated and vaccinated MHC haplotypes presented differential leucocyte composition and IBV viral load. A strong effect of MHC-B, but not vaccination, on several leucocyte subsets resulted in positive correlations with IBV viral load based on MHC haplotype ranking. In addition, a strong effect of MHC-B and vaccination on monocyte MHC-II expression showed that animals with highest monocyte MHC-II expression had weakest vaccine-induced protection. In conclusion, we found several interesting MHC-B related immune correlates of protection and that flow cytometric analysis can be employed to study correlates of IBV-vaccine-induced protection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frederik T Larsen
- Department of Animal Science, Aarhus University, Blichers Allé 20, 8830, Tjele, Denmark
| | - Bertrand Bed'Hom
- GABI, INRA, AgroParisTech, Université Paris-Saclay, 78350, Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - Mohammad Naghizadeh
- Department of Animal Science, Aarhus University, Blichers Allé 20, 8830, Tjele, Denmark
| | - Rikke B Kjærup
- Department of Animal Science, Aarhus University, Blichers Allé 20, 8830, Tjele, Denmark
| | - Siamak Zohari
- National Veterinary Institute, SVA, Ullsv. 2B, S-75189, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Tina S Dalgaard
- Department of Animal Science, Aarhus University, Blichers Allé 20, 8830, Tjele, Denmark.
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4
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Abstract
Avian infectious bronchitis (IB) is caused by avian infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) belonging to Coronaviridae family. The disease is prevalent in all countries with almost 100% incidence rate. Chicken and commercially reared pheasant are the natural host for IBV. Virus causes respiratory diseases, poor weight gain, feed efficiency in broiler, damage to oviduct, and abnormal egg production in mature hens resulting in economic losses. IBV also replicates in tracheal and renal epithelial cells leading to prominent tracheal and kidney lesions. Virus undergoes spontaneous mutation leading to continual emergence of new variants. The effectiveness of immunization program is diminished because of poor cross-protection among the serotypes. Identification of circulating serotypes is important in controlling IBV infection. Toll-like receptor 3 (TLR3) and TLR21 are involved in early recognition of virus resulting in induction of inflammatory cytokines. Both humoral and cellular immune responses are important in the control of infection. Humoral immunity plays an important role in recovery and clearance of viral infection. IBV-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes induce lysis of IBV-infected cells. Effective diagnostic tools are required at field level to identify different IBV variants. Embryonated chicken eggs are effective model for virus isolation. Identification by other specific methods like virus neutralization (VN), hemagglutination inhibition (HI), enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), immunohistochemistry, or nucleic acid analysis or by electron microscopy is also indispensable. VN test in tracheal organ culture is the best method for antigenic typing for surveillance purposes. Continuous epidemiological surveillance, strict biosecurity measures, and vaccine effective against various serotypes are necessary for controlling IB in chickens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yashpal Singh Malik
- ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute (ICAR-IVRI), Izatnagar, Uttar Pradesh India
| | - Raj Kumar Singh
- ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute (ICAR-IVRI), Izatnagar, Uttar Pradesh India
| | - Mahendra Pal Yadav
- ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute (ICAR-IVRI), Izatnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel University of Agriculture and Technology, Meerut, India
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5
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Bayry J. Coronaviridae: Infectious Bronchitis Virus. EMERGING AND RE-EMERGING INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF LIVESTOCK 2017. [PMCID: PMC7122401 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-47426-7_5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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6
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Chhabra R, Chantrey J, Ganapathy K. Immune Responses to Virulent and Vaccine Strains of Infectious Bronchitis Viruses in Chickens. Viral Immunol 2015; 28:478-88. [PMID: 26301315 DOI: 10.1089/vim.2015.0027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Infectious bronchitis (IB) is an acute and highly contagious chicken viral disease, causing severe economic losses to poultry producers worldwide. In the last few decades, infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) has been extensively studied, but knowledge of immune responses to virulent or vaccine strains of IBVs remains limited. This review focuses on fundamental aspects of immune responses against IBV, including the role of pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) in identification of conserved viral structures and the role of different components of innate immunity (e.g., heterophils, macrophages, dendritic cells, acute phase protein, and cytokines). Studies on adaptive immune activation and the role of humoral and cellular immunity in IBV clearance are also reviewed. Multiple interlinking immune responses are essential for protection against virulent IBVs, including passive, innate, adaptive, and effector T cells active at mucosal surfaces. Although the development of approaches for chicken transcriptome and proteome analyses have greatly helped the understanding of the underlying genetic mechanisms for immunity, there are still major knowledge gaps, such as the role of mucosal and cellular responses to IBVs. In view of recent reports of emergent IBV variants in many countries, there is renewed interest in a more complete understanding of poultry immune responses to both virulent and vaccine strains of IBVs. This will be critical for developing new vaccine or vaccination strategies and other intervention programs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rajesh Chhabra
- 1 University of Liverpool, Institute of Infection and Global Health , School of Veterinary Science, Neston, United Kingdom .,2 College Central Laboratory, Lala Lajpat Rai University of Veterinary & Animal Sciences (LUVAS) , Hisar, India
| | - Julian Chantrey
- 1 University of Liverpool, Institute of Infection and Global Health , School of Veterinary Science, Neston, United Kingdom
| | - Kannan Ganapathy
- 1 University of Liverpool, Institute of Infection and Global Health , School of Veterinary Science, Neston, United Kingdom
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7
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Paudel S, Hess C, Wernsdorf P, Käser T, Meitz S, Jensen-Jarolim E, Hess M, Liebhart D. The systemic multiplication of Gallibacterium anatis in experimentally infected chickens is promoted by immunosuppressive drugs which have a less specific effect on the depletion of leukocytes. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2015; 166:22-32. [PMID: 26004945 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetimm.2015.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2015] [Revised: 04/21/2015] [Accepted: 05/02/2015] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The progression of Gallibacterium anatis infection in immunosuppressed versus immunocompetent chickens was investigated. Before experimental infection, birds were treated with corticosterone for general immunosuppression, or 5-fluorouracil, cyclosporine-A, cyclophosphamide for depletion of specific leukocyte populations. Necropsy and sampling were performed at 0, 3, 7, 10 and 28 days post infection. The used drugs did not cause selected depletion of B cells, T cells, heterophils and monocytes/macrophages, as determined by quantification of leukocytes in blood and lymphoid organs using different technologies. Bacterial re-isolation and counts of colony forming units (CFU) showed that G. anatis colonization pattern in various organs, and the numbers of bacteria in trachea were not affected by immunosuppression. However, the treatments acutely increased CFU counts derived from the spleen, which demonstrates that chemically induced immunosuppression intensifies systemic multiplication of G. anatis in chickens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Surya Paudel
- Clinic for Poultry and Fish Medicine, Department of Farm Animals and Veterinary Public Health, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Austria
| | - Claudia Hess
- Clinic for Poultry and Fish Medicine, Department of Farm Animals and Veterinary Public Health, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Austria
| | - Patricia Wernsdorf
- Clinic for Poultry and Fish Medicine, Department of Farm Animals and Veterinary Public Health, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Austria
| | - Tobias Käser
- Institute of Immunology, Department of Pathobiology, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Austria
| | - Sarah Meitz
- Comparative Medicine, Messerli Research Institute, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Medical University Vienna and University Vienna, Austria
| | - Erika Jensen-Jarolim
- Comparative Medicine, Messerli Research Institute, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Medical University Vienna and University Vienna, Austria; Institute of Pathophysiology and Allergy Research, Center of Pathophysiology, Infectiology and Immunology, Medical University Vienna, Austria
| | - Michael Hess
- Clinic for Poultry and Fish Medicine, Department of Farm Animals and Veterinary Public Health, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Austria
| | - Dieter Liebhart
- Clinic for Poultry and Fish Medicine, Department of Farm Animals and Veterinary Public Health, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Austria.
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8
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Dar A, Tikoo S, Potter A, Babiuk LA, Townsend H, Gerdts V, Mutwiri G. CpG-ODNs induced changes in cytokine/chemokines genes expression associated with suppression of infectious bronchitis virus replication in chicken lungs. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2014; 160:209-17. [PMID: 25012000 PMCID: PMC7112892 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetimm.2014.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2014] [Revised: 05/07/2014] [Accepted: 05/12/2014] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
The process of virus replication in host cells is greatly influenced by the set of cytokines, chemokines and antiviral substances activated as a result of host–virus interaction. Alteration of cytokines profiles through manipulation of the innate immune system by innate immune stimulants may be helpful in inhibiting virus replication in otherwise permissive cells. The aim of present studies was to characterize innate immune responses capable of inhibiting infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) replication in chicken lungs after in ovo administration of CpG ODN. In our experiments, CpG ODN 2007 or PBS solution was injected on 18th embryonic day (ED) via the chorioallontoic route. CpG ODN and PBS inoculated embryos were challenged with virulent IBV on the 19th ED. Lung tissue samples from experimental chicks were analysed for cytokines/chemokines gene expression at 24 h, 48 h, and 72 h, post infection. Our data showed significant differential up-regulation of IFN-γ, IL-8 (CXCLi2) and MIP-1β genes and suppression of IL-6 gene expression being associated with inhibition of IBV replication in lungs tissue retrieved from embryos pre-treated with CpG ODN. It is expected that understanding of the innate immune modulation of target tissues by the virus and innate immune stimulants will be helpful in identification of valuable targets for development of novel, safe, effective and economical control strategies against IBV infection in chickens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arshud Dar
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Organization-International Vaccine Center, University of Saskatchewan, SK, Saskatoon, SK, Canada S7N 5E3.
| | - Suresh Tikoo
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Organization-International Vaccine Center, University of Saskatchewan, SK, Saskatoon, SK, Canada S7N 5E3
| | - Andy Potter
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Organization-International Vaccine Center, University of Saskatchewan, SK, Saskatoon, SK, Canada S7N 5E3
| | - Lorne A Babiuk
- University of Alberta, 2-51 South Academic Building, Edmonton, AB, Canada T6G 2G7
| | - Hugh Townsend
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Organization-International Vaccine Center, University of Saskatchewan, SK, Saskatoon, SK, Canada S7N 5E3
| | - Volker Gerdts
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Organization-International Vaccine Center, University of Saskatchewan, SK, Saskatoon, SK, Canada S7N 5E3
| | - George Mutwiri
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Organization-International Vaccine Center, University of Saskatchewan, SK, Saskatoon, SK, Canada S7N 5E3
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9
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Bíró É, Kocsis K, Nagy N, Molnár D, Kabell S, Palya V, Oláh I. Origin of the chicken splenic reticular cells influences the effect of the infectious bursal disease virus on the extracellular matrix. Avian Pathol 2011; 40:199-206. [DOI: 10.1080/03079457.2011.554797] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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10
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Miura TA, Holmes KV. Host-pathogen interactions during coronavirus infection of primary alveolar epithelial cells. J Leukoc Biol 2009; 86:1145-51. [PMID: 19638499 PMCID: PMC2774885 DOI: 10.1189/jlb.0209078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Innate immune responses in coronavirus infections of the respiratory tract are analyzed in primary differentiated airway and alveolar epithelial cells. Viruses that infect the lung are a significant cause of morbidity and mortality in animals and humans worldwide. Coronaviruses are being associated increasingly with severe diseases in the lower respiratory tract. Alveolar epithelial cells are an important target for coronavirus infection in the lung, and infected cells can initiate innate immune responses to viral infection. In this overview, we describe in vitro models of highly differentiated alveolar epithelial cells that are currently being used to study the innate immune response to coronavirus infection. We have shown that rat coronavirus infection of rat alveolar type I epithelial cells in vitro induces expression of CXC chemokines, which may recruit and activate neutrophils. Although neutrophils are recruited early in infection in several coronavirus models including rat coronavirus. However, their role in viral clearance and/or immune‐mediated tissue damage is not understood. Primary cultures of differentiated alveolar epithelial cells will be useful for identifying the interactions between coronaviruses and alveolar epithelial cells that influence the innate immune responses to infection in the lung. Understanding the molecular details of these interactions will be critical for the design of effective strategies to prevent and treat coronavirus infections in the lung.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tanya A Miura
- Department of Microbiology, Molecular Biology, and Biochemistry, University of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho, USA
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11
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Kabell S, Igyártó BZ, Magyar A, Hajdú Z, Biró E, Bisgaard M, Oláh I. Impact of heterophil granulocyte depletion caused by 5-fluorouracil on infectious bursal disease virus infection in specific pathogen free chickens. Avian Pathol 2007; 35:341-8. [PMID: 16854650 DOI: 10.1080/03079450600821141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to investigate the influence of the cytostatic drug, 5-fluorouracil (5-FU), which causes depletion of heterophil granulocytes, on clinical symptoms and histological lesions during the progress of infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV) infection in chickens. The aim was to disclose the mechanism behind the clinical disease symptoms. Three groups of specific pathogen free chickens were used for the experiment. Chickens in groups 1 and 3 were pretreated with 5-FU, while chickens in group 2 were treated with a placebo. After 5 days, the chickens in groups 2 and 3 were inoculated with the classical IBDV strain F52/70. Bursae of Fabricius were sampled at fixed intervals, and the progress of the infection was monitored by various histological techniques and reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). We found correlation between histological observations and RT-PCR results. In the 5-FU pretreated chickens, IBDV caused only mild clinical symptoms, even though histological alterations similar to alterations caused by IBDV were still observed. The 5-FU pretreatment resulted in severe heterophil granulocyte depletion by days 2 and 3 after infection (post inoculation) and increased numbers of bursal secretory dendritic cells in the medulla of the follicles. IBDV infection seemed to induce fusion of secretory dendritic cells, resulting in formation of multinucleated giant cells, loaded with apoptotic B cells and virus particles associated with granules of bursal secretory dendritic cells. Our results indicate that the heterophil granulocytes together with the bursal secretory dendritic cells contribute to the outbreak and/or progress of clinical symptoms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susanne Kabell
- Danish Institute for Food and Veterinary Research, Hangøvej 2, DK-8200 Aarhus N, Denmark.
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12
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Bojesen AM, Nielsen OL, Christensen JP, Bisgaard M. In vivo studies of Gallibacterium anatis infection in chickens. Avian Pathol 2006; 33:145-52. [PMID: 15276980 DOI: 10.1080/03079450310001652059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
The aim of the present study was to investigate the pathology in normal or immunosuppressed chickens followed intravenous or intraperitoneal inoculation with a well-characterized strain of Gallibacterium anatis. Two groups of 30 15-week-old commercial brown laying chickens were used, having been screened and found negative for Gallibacterium organisms. One group was treated with 5-fluorouracil to promote heterophil depletion, while the other was saline treated. Ten days later 15 chickens from each group were inoculated either intravenously or intraperitoneally with 3.3 x 10(7) colony-forming units of G. anatis strain 12656-12. Subsets of chickens were sacrificed at 3, 12 or 24 h post-infection and examined for lesions. Livers and spleens were examined by culture and by fluorescent in situ hybridization. Intravenously infected birds showed severe septicaemic lesions in both the normal and immunosuppressed birds. Mortality was recorded only in the latter, with an overall rate of 73%. The intraperitoneally infected chickens of normal immune status showed various degrees of localized purulent peritonitis at the inoculation site, but in the immunosuppressed birds the entire peritoneum tended to be involved along with the abdominal organs. This was similar to previous descriptions of natural infections and may represent a useful infection model for detailed analysis of Gallibacterium virulence factors and pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anders Miki Bojesen
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology The Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University Stigbøjlen 4 DK-1870 Frederiksberg C, Denmark.
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13
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Abstract
The severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), which was first identified in 2003, is caused by a novel coronavirus: the SARS coronavirus (SARS-CoV). Many features of the infection indicate that an excessive, but perhaps 'normal', immune response contributes to SARS. Several coronaviruses cause diseases that result in considerable morbidity and mortality in animals. Some of these diseases are also immune mediated and provide insights into the pathogenesis of SARS. Feline infectious peritonitis virus (FIPV) causes a fatal, immune-mediated disease of felines. Macrophage infection, lymphocyte depletion and antibody-dependent disease enhancement are hallmarks of this disease. Infection with the murine coronavirus murine hepatitis virus (MHV) strain JHM results in immune-mediated demyelination. Similar to SARS, macrophage activation is a key component in the pathogenic process. Another strain of MHV, MHV-3, causes a fatal, fulminant hepatitis. MHV-3 infection of macrophages, with subsequent activation and induction of expression of a novel procoagulant, fibrinogen-like protein 2 (FGL2), is required for severe disease. Chickens that are infected with avian infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) develop respiratory and renal disease. An excessive innate immune response contributes to the pathogenic process in these animals. To develop effective therapies for SARS will require understanding of the contributions of direct injury by virus and of the host immune response to pathogenesis. This requires further studies of the interactions of SARS-CoV with its target cells and necessitates the development of an animal model that reproduces the pulmonary infection that is observed in infected humans.
At the end of 2002, the first cases of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) were reported, and in the following year, SARS resulted in considerable mortality and morbidity worldwide. SARS is caused by a novel species of coronavirus (SARS-CoV) and is the most severe coronavirus-mediated human disease that has been described so far. On the basis of similarities with other coronavirus infections, SARS might, in part, be immune mediated. As discussed in this Review, studies of animals that are infected with other coronaviruses indicate that excessive and sometimes dysregulated responses by macrophages and other pro-inflammatory cells might be particularly important in the pathogenesis of disease that is caused by infection with these viruses. It is hoped that lessons from such studies will help us to understand more about the pathogenesis of SARS in humans and to prevent or control outbreaks of SARS in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stanley Perlman
- Interdisciplinary Program in Immunology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, USA.
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14
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Bojesen AM, Petersen KD, Nielsen OL, Christensen JP, Bisgaard M. Pasteurella multocida Infection in Heterophil-Depleted Chickens. Avian Dis 2004; 48:463-70. [PMID: 15529968 DOI: 10.1637/7151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
The present study was aimed at elucidating the role of heterophil granulocytes during the initial infection with Pasteurella multocida subsp. multocida in chickens. Chickens (17 and 19 wk old) were depleted of their heterophil granulocytes by 5-fluorouracil treatment. When the heterophil blood counts were significantly reduced, the birds were inoculated intratracheally with 1.8-4.3 x 10(4) colony-forming units of P. multocida. Twelve, 24, or 48 hr postinoculation, the birds were euthanatized and examined for macroscopic and histologic lesions in the lungs. Bacterial invasion was determined by culture of P. multocida from the spleen. Recruitment of heterophils into the respiratory tract during infection was found to contribute considerably to the lung lesions in chickens and was found to mediate tissue damage, possibly allowing a more rapid systemic spread of P. multocida. However, during progression of the infection, the heterophil-mediated necrosis in chickens seemed to stimulate giant cell demarcation of infected lung tissue, which coincided with the clearance of P. multocida from the spleen, thus hampering further invasion. Consequently, heterophil activation plays a dual role for the outcome of a P. multocida infection in chickens, where it initially seems to promote invasion and systemic spread but subsequently helps limit the infection by giant cell formation and bacterial clearance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anders M Bojesen
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, The Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University, Frederiksberg C, Copenhagen, Denmark
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15
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Raj GD, Jones RC. Infectious bronchitis virus: Immunopathogenesis of infection in the chicken. Avian Pathol 1997; 26:677-706. [PMID: 18483939 PMCID: PMC7154304 DOI: 10.1080/03079459708419246] [Citation(s) in RCA: 120] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/1996] [Accepted: 02/21/1997] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
The immunopathogenesis of infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) infection in the chicken is reviewed. While infectious bronchitis (IB) is considered primarily a disease of the respiratory system, different IBV strains may show variable tissue tropisms and also affect the oviduct and the kidneys, with serious consequences. Some strains replicate in the intestine but apparently without pathological changes. Pectoral myopathy has been associated with an important recent variant. Several factors can influence the course of infection with IBV, including the age, breed and nutrition of the chicken, the environment and intercurrent infection with other infectious agents. Immunogenic components of the virus include the S (spike) proteins and the N nucleoprotein. The humoral, local and cellular responses of the chicken to IBV are reviewed, together with genetic resistance of the chicken. In long-term persistence of IBV, the caecal tonsil or kidney have been proposed as the sites of persistence. Antigenic variation among IBV strains is related to relatively small differences in amino acid sequences in the S1 spike protein. However, antigenic studies alone do not adequately define immunological relationships between strains and cross-immunisation studies have been used to classify IBV isolates into 'protectotypes'. It has been speculated that changes in the S1 protein may be related to differences in tissue tropisms shown by different strains. Perhaps in the future, new strains of IBV may arise which affect organs or systems not normally associated with IB.
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Affiliation(s)
- G D Raj
- Department of Veterinary Pathology, University of Liverpool, Neston, South Wirral, UK
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