Folic acid receptor-targeted solid lipid nanoparticles to enhance cytotoxicity of letrozole through induction of caspase-3 dependent-apoptosis for breast cancer treatment

Innovative lipid nanoparticles: A cutting-edge approach for potential renal cell carcinoma therapeutics

The kidney plays a crucial role in regulating homeostasis within the human body. Renal cell carcinoma (RCC) is the most common form of kidney cancer, accounting for nearly 90 % of all renal malignancies. Despite the availability of various therapeutic strategies, RCC remains a challenging disease due to its resistance to conventional treatments. Nanotechnology has emerged as a promising field, offering new opportunities in cancer therapeutics. It presents several advantages over traditional methods, enabling diverse biomedical applications, including drug delivery, prevention, diagnosis, and treatment. Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs), approximately 100 nm in size, are derived from a range of lipids and other biochemical compounds. these particulates are designed to overcome biological barriers, allowing them to selectively accumulate at diseased target sites for effective therapeutic action. Many pharmaceutically important compounds face challenges such as poor solubility in aqueous solutions, chemical and physiological instability, or toxicity. LNP technology stands out as a promising drug delivery system for bioactive organic compounds. This article reviews the applications of LNPs in RCC treatment and explores their potential clinical translation, identifying the most viable LNPs for medical use. With ongoing advancement in LNP-based anticancer strategies, there is a growing potential to improve the management and treatment of renal cancer.

Folic acid-conjugated long circulating co-encapsulated atorvastatin and quercetin solid lipid nanoparticles: pharmacokinetics and biodistribution in rats

Background: Solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) have emerged as effective carriers for the simultaneous delivery of two drugs. Moreover, the surface modification of SLNs enhances their targetability and minimizes side effects, rendering them a promising and dynamic strategy for addressing various life-threatening diseases. The assessment of pharmacokinetic parameters is a critical aspect of this approach. In the present study, we report the development and validation of an LC-MS/MS-based bioanalytical method for the quantification of Atorvastatin (ATR) and Quercetin (QUER) encapsulated in folic acid-modified SLNs as a drug delivery system to estimate their pharmacokinetics and tissue distribution. Method: FA-SLNs were synthesized by amide linkage formation (carbodiimide reaction) and tested for their haemocompatibility. Further, an LC-MS/MS method was developed on a C18 (3 × 100 mm, 2.7 μm) column using 0.1% v/v formic acid in water and acetonitrile as the mobile phase with a 0.3 mL min-1 flow rate. For detection, analytes were ionized using an electron spray ionization (ESI) source in multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) mode. MRM for the ATR (559.0 → 440.2) m/z and IS (482.1 → 257.8) m/z in positive polarity, and QUER (301.9 → 151.0) m/z in negative polarity were optimized. Results: Pharmacokinetics studies demonstrated an increase in the half-lives of ATR and QUER of about 6.4-fold and 5.7-fold, respectively, from FA-SLN compared to pure drugs. Further, the active targeting facilitated by FA conjugation showed increased mean residence time (MRT) and decreased clearance time, resulting in long circulation time without the enhanced retention of drugs in the tissues of rats. These findings underscore the potential of FA-modified ATR and QUER-loaded SLNs as an advanced drug delivery strategy in improving the therapeutic outcomes.

Optimization of atorvastatin and quercetin-loaded solid lipid nanoparticles using Box-Behnken design

Aim: The study explores the synergistic potential of atorvastatin (ATR) and quercetin (QUER)- loaded solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN) in combating breast cancer. Materials & methods: SLNs were synthesized using a high-shear homogenization method and optimized using Box-Behnken design. The SLNs were characterized and evaluated for their in vitro anticancer activity. Results: The optimized SLN exhibited narrow size distribution (PDI = 0.338 ± 0.034), a particle size of 72.5 ± 6.5 nm, higher entrapment efficiency (<90%), sustained release and spherical surface particles. The in vitro cytotoxicity studies showed a significant reduction in IC50 values on MDA-MB-231 cell lines. Conclusion: We report a novel strategy of repurposing well-known drugs and encapsulating them into SLNs as a promising drug-delivery system against breast cancer.

Folic Acid-Decorated Nanocrystals as Highly Loaded Trojan Horses to Target Cancer Cells

The nanocrystal (NC) technology has become one of the most commonly used strategies for the formulation of poorly soluble actives. Given their large specific surface, NCs are mainly used to enhance the oral absorption of poorly soluble actives. Differently from conventional nanoparticles, which require the use of carrier materials and have limited drug loadings, NCs' drug loading approaches 100% since they are formed of the pure drug and surrounded by a thin layer of a stabilizer. In this work, we report the covalent decoration of curcumin NCs with folic acid (FA) using EDC/NHS chemistry and explore the novel systems as highly loaded "Trojan horses" to target cancer cells. The decorated NCs demonstrated a remarkable improvement in curcumin uptake, exhibiting enhanced growth inhibition in cancer cells (HeLa and MCF7) while sparing healthy cells (J774A.1). Cellular uptake studies revealed significantly heightened entry of FA-decorated NCs into cancer cells compared to unmodified NCs while also showing reduced uptake by macrophages, indicating a potential for prolonged circulation in vivo. These findings underline the potential of NC highly loaded nanovectors for drug delivery and, in particular, for cancer therapies, effectively targeting folate receptor-overexpressing cells while evading interception by macrophages, thus preserving their viability and offering a promising avenue for precise and effective treatments.

Enhancing the efficacy of letrozole-loaded PEGylated nanoliposomes against breast cancer cells: In vitro study

Considering its overall impact on human health, letrozole (Let) has been described as having significant efficacy that could be improved by developing drug delivery systems. Considering the side effects of Let, this study aims to encapsulate Let in liposomes and PEGylated liposome nanoparticles (Lipo-Let-PEG) and evaluate the cytotoxic effects on the MCF-7 breast cancer cell line. For this purpose, the Lipo-Let-PEG formulation was designed and characterized by SEM, DLS, and FTIR methods, and the drug release from the optimized formulation and the stability of the optimized Lipo-Let-PEG were measured. Furthermore, the cytotoxicity and apoptotic studies were performed using MTT assay and flow cytometric analysis. According to the experimental data, the vesicle size and EE% were 170.05 ± 4.15 nm and 87.21 ± 1.36 %, respectively. The cumulative release from Lipo-Let-PEG at pH 5.4 and 7.4 was also approximately 60 % and 50 %, respectively. MTT results showed that Lip-Let-PEG produced more drug cytotoxicity than Lip-Let against MCF-7 cancer cells and was more compatible with normal cells. The results of apoptosis and cell cycle arrest using flow cytometry show that Lipo-Let-PEG caused the most significant increase in apoptotic rates and cell cycle arrest in cancer cells compared to other treated groups. In conclusion, Lipo-Let-PEG can be used as an anticancer agent by arresting cell cycle progression and inducing apoptosis, which can be applied in future studies to prevent breast cancer development.

Anti-NSCLC role of SCN4B by negative regulation of the cGMP-PKG pathway: Integrated utilization of bioinformatics analysis and in vitro assay validation

Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) is a malignant tumor with low overall cure and survival rates. Uncovering abnormally expressed genes is significantly important for developing novel targeted therapies in NSCLC. This study aimed to discover new differentially expressed genes (DEGs) of NSCLC. The DEGs of NSCLC were identified in eight data sets from Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database. The expression profiles and the prognostic significance of SCN4B in LUAD and LUSC were analyzed using GEPIA database. LinkedOmics was used to identify co-expressed genes with SCN4B, which were further subjected to KEGG pathway enrichment analysis. SCN4B-overexpressing plasmid (pcDNA/SCN4B) was transfected into A549 and NCI-H2170 cells to elevate the expression of SCN4B. MTT and TUNEL assays were performed to evaluate cell viability and apoptosis. Relying on the screened DEGs from GEO database, we identified that SCN4B was significantly downregulated in LUAD and LUSC. We confirmed the downregulation of SCN4B in NSCLC tissues using GEPIA database. SCN4B has a prognostic value in LUAD, but not LUSC. KEGG pathway enrichment analysis of SCN4B-related genes showed that cGMP-PKG signaling pathway might be involved in the role of SCN4B in NSCLC. Overexpression of SCN4B in A549 and NCI-H2170 cells inhibited the cell viability. Besides, SCN4B overexpression induced apoptosis of A549 and NCI-H2170 cells. SCN4B inhibited the expression of PKG1 and p-CREB in NSCLC cells. Moreover, the inhibitory effects of SCN4B on tumor malignancy were attenuated by the activator of PKG. In conclusion, integrated bioinformatical analysis proved that SCN4B was downregulated and had a prognostic significance in NSCLC. In vitro experimental studies demonstrated that SCN4B regulated NSCLC cells viability and apoptosis via inhibiting cGMP-PKG signaling pathway.

A comprehensive review on lipid nanocarrier systems for cancer treatment: fabrication, future prospects and clinical trials

Over the last few decades, cancer has been considered a clinical challenge, being among the leading causes of mortality all over the world. Although many treatment approaches have been developed for cancer, chemotherapy is still the most utilized in the clinical setting. However, the available chemotherapeutics-based treatments have several caveats including their lack of specificity, adverse effects as well as cancer relapse and metastasis which mainly explains the low survival rate of patients. Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) have been utilized as promising nanocarrier systems for chemotherapeutics to overcome the challenges of the currently applied therapeutic strategies for cancer treatment. Loading chemotherapeutic agent(s) into LNPs improves drug delivery at different aspects including specific targeting of tumours, and enhancing the bioavailability of drugs at the tumour site through selective release of their payload, thus reducing their undesired side effects on healthy cells. This review article delineates an overview of the clinical challenges in many cancer treatments as well as depicts the role of LNPs in achieving optimal therapeutic outcomes. Moreover, the review contains a comprehensive description of the many LNPs categories used as nanocarriers in cancer treatment to date, as well as the potential of LNPs for future applications in other areas of medicine and research.

Folate-assisted targeted photocytotoxicity of red-light-activable iron(III) complex co-functionalized gold nanoconjugates (Fe@FA-AuNPs) against HeLa and triple-negative MDA-MB-231 cancer cells

Photo-redox chemistry resulting from ligand to metal charge transfer in red-light-activable iron(III) complexes could be a potent strategic tool for next-generation photochemotherapeutic applications. Herein, we developed an iron(III) complex and folate co-functionalized gold nanoconjugate (Fe@FA-AuNPs) and thoroughly characterized it with NMR, ESI MS, UV-visible, EPR, EDX, XPS, powder X-ray diffraction, TEM and DLS studies. There was a remarkable shift in the SPR band of AuNPs to 680 nm, and singlet oxygen (1O2) and hydroxyl radicals were potently generated upon red-light activation, which were probed by UV-visible and EPR spectroscopic assays. Cellular uptake studies of the nanoconjugate (Fe@FA-AuNPs) revealed significantly higher uptake in folate(+) cancer cells (HeLa and MDA-MB-231) than folate(-) (A549) cancer cells or normal cells (HPL1D), indicating the targeting potential of the nanoconjugate. Confocal imaging indicated primarily mitochondrial localization. The IC50 values of the nanoconjugate determined from a cell viability assay in HeLa, MDA-MB-231, and A549 cells were 27.83, 39.91, and 69.54 μg mL-1, respectively in red light, while in the dark the values were >200 μg mL-1; the photocytotoxicity was correlated with the cellular uptake of the nanoconjugate. The nanocomposite exhibited similar photocytotoxicity (IC50 in red light, 37.35 ± 8.29 μg mL-1 and IC50 in the dark, >200 μg mL-1). Mechanistic studies revealed that intracellular generation of ROS upon red-light activation led to apoptosis in HeLa cells. Scratch-wound-healing assays indicated the inhibition of the migration of MDA-MB-231 cells treated with the nanoconjugate and upon photo-activation. Overall, the nanoconjugate has emerged as a potent tool for next-generation photo-chemotherapeutics in the clinical arena of targeted cancer therapy.

Folate-chitosan Coated Quercetin Liposomes for Targeted Cancer Therapy

BACKGROUND

Although quercetin exhibits promising anti-tumor properties, its clinical application is limited due to inherent defects and a lack of tumor targeting.

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to prepare and characterize active targeting folate-chitosan modified quercetin liposomes (FA-CS-QUE-Lip), and its antitumor activity in vitro and in vivo was also studied.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Box-Behnken Design (BBD) response surface method was used to select the optimal formulation of quercetin liposomes (QUE-LP). On this basis, FA-CS-QUE-LP was obtained by connecting folic acid chitosan complex (FA-CS) and QUE-LP. The release characteristics in vitro of QUE-LP and FA-CS-QUE-LP were studied. Its inhibitory effects on HepG2 cells were studied by the MTT method. The pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics in vivo were studied in healthy Wistar mice and S180 tumor-bearing mice, respectively.

RESULTS

The average particle size, zeta potential and encapsulation efficiency of FA-CS-QUELP were 261.6 ± 8.5 nm, 22.3 ± 1.7 mV, and 98.63 ± 1.28 %, respectively. FA-CS-QUE-LP had a sustained release effect and conformed to the Maloid-Banakar release model (R2=0.9967). The results showed that FA-CS-QUE-LP had higher inhibition rates on HepG2 cells than QUE-Sol (P < 0.01). There was a significant difference in AUC, t1/2, CL and other pharmacokinetic parameters among QUE-LP, FA-CS-QUE-LP, and QUE-Sol (P < 0.05). In in vivo antitumor activity study, the weight inhibition rate and volume inhibition rate of FA-CS-QUE-LP were 30.26% and 37.35%, respectively.

CONCLUSION

FA-CS-QUE-LP exhibited a significant inhibitory effect on HepG2 cells, influenced the pharmacokinetics of quercetin in mice, and demonstrated a certain inhibitory effect on S180 tumor-bearing mice, thus offering novel avenues for cancer treatment.

Novel Strategies Using Sagacious Targeting for Site-Specific Drug Delivery in Breast Cancer Treatment: Clinical Potential and Applications

For more than a decade, researchers have been working to achieve new strategies and smart targeting drug delivery techniques and technologies to treat breast cancer (BC). Nanotechnology presents a hopeful strategy for targeted drug delivery into the building of new therapeutics using the properties of nanomaterials. Nanoparticles are of high regard in the field of diagnosis and the treatment of cancer. The use of these nanoparticles as an encouraging approach in the treatment of various cancers has drawn the interest of researchers in recent years. In order to achieve the maximum therapeutic effectiveness in the treatment of BC, combination therapy has also been adopted, leading to minimal side effects and thus an enhancement in the quality of life for patients. This review article compares, discusses and criticizes the approaches to treat BC using novel design strategies and smart targeting of site-specific drug delivery systems.

Ameliorative anticancer effect of dendrimeric peptide modified liposomes of letrozole: In vitro and in vivo performance evaluations

Letrozole (LTZ) loaded dendrimeric nano-liposomes were prepared for targeted delivery to breast cancer cells. Surface modification with cationic peptide dendrimers (PDs) and a cancer specific ligand, transferrin (Tf), was attempted. Arginine-terminated PD (D-1) and Arginine-terminated, lipidated PD (D-2) were synthesized using Solid Phase Peptide Synthesis, purified by preparative HPLC and characterized using 1HNMR, MS and DSC analyses. Surface modification of drug loaded liposomes with Tf and/or PD was carried out. Formulations were characterized using FTIR, DSC, 1HNMR, XRD and TEM. Tf-conjugated LTZ liposomes (LTf) and Tf/D-2-conjugated LTZ liposomes (LTfD-2) showed greater cytotoxic potential (IC50 = 95.03 µg/mL and 23.75 µg/mL respectively) with enhanced cellular uptake in MCF7 cells compared to plain LTZ. Blocking studies of Tf (Tf-receptor mediated internalization) revealed decreased uptake of LTf and LTfD-2 confirming the role of Tf in uptake of Tf-conjugated liposomes. Intravenous treatment with LTfD-2 caused highest reduction in tumor volumes of female BALB/c-nude mice (145 mm3) compared to plain LTZ (605 mm3) and unconjugated LTZ liposomes (LP) (300 mm3). In vivo biodistribution studies revealed higher fluorescence in tumor tissue and liver of LTfD-2 treated mice than LTf or LP treatment. Immunohistochemical studies revealed greater apoptotic potential of LTfD-2 as indicated by TUNEL assay and ROS detection assay. The study reveals the superior therapeutic efficacy of the developed LTZ liposomal nanocarriers using PDs to enhance the transfection efficiency in addition to modifying the surface characteristics by attaching a targeting ligand for active drug targeting to breast cancer cells.

Material and Design Toolkit for Drug Delivery: State of the Art, Trends, and Challenges

The nanomaterial and related toolkit have promising applications for improving human health and well-being. Nanobased drug delivery systems use nanoscale materials as carriers to deliver therapeutic agents in a targeted and controlled manner, and they have shown potential to address issues associated with conventional drug delivery systems. They offer benefits for treating various illnesses by encapsulating or conjugating biological agents, chemotherapeutic drugs, and immunotherapeutic agents. The potential applications of this technology are vast; however, significant challenges exist to overcome such as safety issues, toxicity, efficacy, and insufficient capacity. This article discusses the latest developments in drug delivery systems, including drug release mechanisms, material toolkits, related design molecules, and parameters. The concluding section examines the limitations and provides insights into future possibilities.

Efficacy of copper nanoparticles encapsulated in soya lecithin liposomes in treating breast cancer cells (MCF-7) in vitro

Cancer is one of the leading causes of death, which has attracted the attention of the scientific world to the search for efficient methods for treatment. With the great development and regeneration of nanotechnology over the last 25 years, various nanoparticles in different structures, shapes and composites provide good potential for cancer therapy. There are several drugs approved by FDA used in breast cancer treatment like Cyclophosphamide, Doxorubicin Hydrochloride, Femara, Herceptin, etc. Each has several side effects as well as treatment, which limits the use of drugs due to heart failure, pulmonary dysfunction, or immunodeficiency. Recently, such side effects are greatly reduced by using innovative delivery techniques. Some drugs have been approved for use in cancer treatment under the concept of drug delivery, such as Doxil (liposomal loaded doxorubicin). The purpose of this study is to investigate the effect of copper nanoparticles (CuNPs) as a drug model for cancer treatment, either in their free form or encapsulated in Soy lecithin liposomes (SLP) from plant origin as a cheap source of lipids. CuNPs were prepared by the chemical reduction method and loaded onto SLP through the thin film hydration method. The drug model Cu/SLP was successfully combined. The characteristics of the free CuNPs, liposomes, and the combined form, zeta potential, size distribution, drug encapsulation efficiency (EE%), drug release profile, Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM), were checked, followed by an in vitro study on the breast cancer cell line Mcf-7 as a model for cytotoxicity evaluation. The optimal Cu/SLP had a particle mean size of 81.59 ± 14.93 nm, a negative zeta potential of - 50.7 ± 4.34 mV, loaded CuNPs showed an EE% of 78.9%, a drug release profile for about 50% of the drug was released after 6 h, and FTIR analysis was recorded. The cytotoxicity assay showed that the IC50 of Cu/SLP is smaller than that of free CuNPs. These results give clear evidence of the efficacy of using the combined Cu/SLP rather than CuNPs alone as a model drug carrier prepared from plant origin against cancer, both medically and economically.

Nanotechnology revolutionises breast cancer treatment: harnessing lipid-based nanocarriers to combat cancer cells

One of the most common cancers that occur in females is breast cancer. Despite the significant leaps and bounds that have been made in treatment of breast cancer, the disease remains one of the leading causes of death among women and a major public health challenge. The therapeutic efficacy of chemotherapeutics is hindered by chemoresistance and toxicity. Nano-based lipid drug delivery systems offer controlled drug release, nanometric size and site-specific targeting. Breast cancer treatment includes surgery, chemotherapy and radiotherapy. Despite this, no single method of treatment for the condition is currently effective due to cancer stem cell metastasis and chemo-resistance. Therefore, the employment of nanocarrier systems is necessary in order to target breast cancer stem cells. This article addresses breast cancer treatment options, including modern treatment procedures such as chemotherapy, etc. and some innovative therapeutic options highlighting the role of lipidic nanocarriers loaded with chemotherapeutic drugs such as nanoemulsion, solid-lipid nanoparticles, nanostructured lipid carriers and liposomes, and their investigations have demonstrated that they can limit cancer cell growth, reduce the risk of recurrence, as well as minimise post-chemotherapy metastasis. This article also explores FDA-approved lipid-based nanocarriers, commercially available formulations, and ligand-based formulations that are being considered for further research.

Overview of Solid Lipid Nanoparticles in Breast Cancer Therapy

Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs), composed of ionized lipids, helper lipids, and cholesterol, provide general therapeutic effects by facilitating intracellular transport and avoiding endosomal compartments. LNP-based drug delivery has great potential for the development of novel gene therapies and effective vaccines. Solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) are derived from physiologically acceptable lipid components and remain robust at body temperature, thereby providing high structural stability and biocompatibility. By enhancing drug delivery through blood vessels, SLNs have been used to improve the efficacy of cancer treatments. Breast cancer, the most common malignancy in women, has a declining mortality rate but remains incurable. Recently, as an anticancer drug delivery system, SLNs have been widely used in breast cancer, improving the therapeutic efficacy of drugs. In this review, we discuss the latest advances of SLNs for breast cancer treatment and their potential in clinical use.

A review of FDA approved drugs and their formulations for the treatment of breast cancer

Breast cancer is one of the most diagnosed solid cancers globally. Extensive research has been going on for decades to meet the challenges of treating solid tumors with selective compounds. This article aims to summarize the therapeutic agents which are either being used or are currently under approval for use in the treatment or mitigation of breast cancer by the US FDA, to date. A structured search of bibliographic databases for previously published peer-reviewed research papers on registered molecules was explored and data was sorted in terms of various categories of drugs used in first line/adjuvant therapy for different stages of breast cancer. We included more than 300 peer-reviewed papers, including both research and reviews articles, in order to provide readers an useful comprehensive information. A list of 39 drugs are discussed along with their current status, dose protocols, mechanism of action, pharmacokinetics, possible side effects, and marketed formulations. Another interesting aspect of the article included focusing on novel formulations of these drugs which are currently in clinical trials or in the process of approval. This exhaustive review thus shall be a one-stop solution for researchers who are working in the areas of formulation development for these drugs.

Nanomedicine in therapeutic warfront against estrogen receptor-positive breast cancer

Breast cancer (BC) is the most frequently diagnosed malignancy in women worldwide. Almost 70-80% of cases of BC are curable at the early non-metastatic stage. BC is a heterogeneous disease with different molecular subtypes. Around 70% of breast tumors exhibit estrogen-receptor (ER) expression and endocrine therapy is used for the treatment of these patients. However, there are high chances of recurrence in the endocrine therapy regimen. Though chemotherapy and radiation therapy have substantially improved survival rates and treatment outcomes in BC patients, there is an increased possibility of the development of resistance and dose-limiting toxicities. Conventional treatment approaches often suffer from low bioavailability, adverse effects due to the non-specific action of chemotherapeutics, and low antitumor efficacy. Nanomedicine has emerged as a conspicuous strategy for delivering anticancer therapeutics in BC management. It has revolutionized the area of cancer therapy by increasing the bioavailability of the therapeutics and improving their anticancer efficacy with reduced toxicities on healthy tissues. In this article, we have highlighted various mechanisms and pathways involved in the progression of ER-positive BC. Further, different nanocarriers delivering drugs, genes, and natural therapeutic agents for surmounting BC are the spotlights of this article.

Non-systemic Approaches for Ductal Carcinoma In Situ: Exploring the Potential of Ultra-flexible Combisomes as a Novel Drug Delivery Strategy-a Review

Ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS) is currently treated through breast-conserving surgery (lumpectomy), radiation therapy, breast-removing surgery (mastectomy), and hormone therapy to prevent further progression into invasive breast cancer and recurrence. Discrepancies concerning the prognosis of DCIS have sparked controversy about adequate treatment. Considering the severe medical and psychological consequences of mastectomy, developing a treatment approach that arrests the progression of DCIS to the invasive stage without affecting the non-cancerous cells is of utmost importance. In the current review, the problems associated with the diagnosis and management of DCIS have been thoroughly discussed. A summary of the route of administration and drug delivery systems to manage DCIS was also provoked. Innovative ultra-flexible combisomes were also proposed for the effective management of DCIS. Prevention is essential in managing the risk of DCIS and reducing the risk of progression to invasive breast cancer. While prevention is vital, it is not always possible to prevent DCIS, and in some cases, treatment may be necessary. Hence, this review recommends that ultra-flexible combisomes administered as a topical gel provide a non-systemic approach for managing DCIS and thus significantly minimize the side effects and costs associated with existing therapies.

Development and Characterization of Folic Acid-Conjugated Amodiaquine-Loaded Nanoparticles-Efficacy in Cancer Treatment

The objective of this study was to construct amodiaquine-loaded, folic acid-conjugated polymeric nanoparticles (FA-AQ NPs) to treat cancer that could be scaled to commercial production. In this study, folic acid (FA) was conjugated with a PLGA polymer followed by the formulation of drug-loaded NPs. The results of the conjugation efficiency confirmed the conjugation of FA with PLGA. The developed folic acid-conjugated nanoparticles demonstrated uniform particle size distributions and had visible spherical shapes under transmission electron microscopy. The cellular uptake results suggested that FA modification could enhance the cellular internalization of nanoparticulate systems in non-small cell lung cancer, cervical, and breast cancer cell types. Furthermore, cytotoxicity studies showed the superior efficacy of FA-AQ NPs in different cancer cells such as MDAMB-231 and HeLA. FA-AQ NPs had better anti-tumor abilities demonstrated via 3D spheroid cell culture studies. Therefore, FA-AQ NPs could be a promising drug delivery system for cancer therapy.

Evaluation of the parameters affecting the loading of anticancer drug Paclitaxel on coated gold nanoparticles for breast cancer treatment

The purpose of this study is the design and synthesis of gold nanoparticles (GNPs) conjugated with paclitaxel and to investigate the parameters affecting the stability of synthesised nanoparticles with drug delivery capability. Here, synthesised GNPs were coated with polyethylene glycol. Then these particles were conjugated with paclitaxel under different conditions and the physical and structural characteristics, as well as the factors affecting the loading of paclitaxel on nanoparticles, were evaluated by ultraviolet spectrophotometer, fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, transmission electron microscopy, dynamic light scattering and zeta potential apparatus. It was found that pegylated GNPs have a limited loading capacity at the time of 24 h of incubation and the Paclitaxel loading was observed to be pH dependent. The use of these particles in the treatment of breast cancer (MCF7) was also investigated using the MTT test. It was determined that the survival percentage of MCF7 cells in the presence of paclitaxel-bound nanoparticles decreases to about 55% at the maximum measured concentration (690 μM).

Synergistic effect of polymer functionalized graphene oxide system for breast cancer treatment

The multifaceted drug carrier system is an emerging trend in delivering chemotherapeutic drugs and photosensitizers for the synergistic effect. In this work, we have designed a functionalized graphene oxide (GO) based carrier system for combined chemo-photodynamic therapeutic effects. Doxorubicin (DOX) and rose bengal (RB) were entrapped on the surface of GO via hydrophobic and π-π stacking interactions. The functional group determination, crystalline properties, surface morphology, and hydrodynamic size were evaluated using FT-IR, XRD, SEM, TEM, AFM, and DLS analysis. At 24 h, the entrapment efficiency was 65 % DOX and 40.92 % RB, and the loading capacities were 16.9 % DOX and 5.68 % RB observed at 30 min. The drug release percentage was higher in pH-2.6 rather than in pH-5.5, 6.8, and 7.4 pH environments. The in-vitro toxicity analysis using the LDH assay reveals that the DOX and RB co-loaded carriers had a significant cytotoxic effect on MCF-7 cells, indicating that the carrier could improve the therapeutic efficacy of DOX. Morphological changes were studied using inverted light microscopy; the cells were irradiated with a laser 525 nm 10 J/cm² for 2 min 51 sec, and it was observed that the DOX and RB co-loaded carrier with laser-irradiated cells exposed the high-level morphological changes with the occurrence of apoptotic cell death. Compared to free DOX, the DOX/RB co-loaded carrier + laser had an efficient anticancer activity, as confirmed by DAPI staining cell uptake, flow cytometry, and intracellular ROS generation analysis. The DOX and RB co-loaded carrier clearly exhibits the RB-mediated photodynamic action on MCF-7 cells in response to external laser light irradiation. It permits an on-demand dual-payload release to trigger an instantaneous photodynamic and chemo treatment for cancer cell eradication. Finally, the ensuing dual-agent release is probable to successfully fight cancer via a synergistic effect.

Nanoparticles in Drug Delivery: From History to Therapeutic Applications

Current research into the role of engineered nanoparticles in drug delivery systems (DDSs) for medical purposes has developed numerous fascinating nanocarriers. This paper reviews the various conventionally used and current used carriage system to deliver drugs. Due to numerous drawbacks of conventional DDSs, nanocarriers have gained immense interest. Nanocarriers like polymeric nanoparticles, mesoporous nanoparticles, nanomaterials, carbon nanotubes, dendrimers, liposomes, metallic nanoparticles, nanomedicine, and engineered nanomaterials are used as carriage systems for targeted delivery at specific sites of affected areas in the body. Nanomedicine has rapidly grown to treat certain diseases like brain cancer, lung cancer, breast cancer, cardiovascular diseases, and many others. These nanomedicines can improve drug bioavailability and drug absorption time, reduce release time, eliminate drug aggregation, and enhance drug solubility in the blood. Nanomedicine has introduced a new era for drug carriage by refining the therapeutic directories of the energetic pharmaceutical elements engineered within nanoparticles. In this context, the vital information on engineered nanoparticles was reviewed and conferred towards the role in drug carriage systems to treat many ailments. All these nanocarriers were tested in vitro and in vivo. In the coming years, nanomedicines can improve human health more effectively by adding more advanced techniques into the drug delivery system.

Albumin-Based Zn (II)-Quercetin Enzyme Mimic Scavenging ROS for Protection against Cardiotoxicity Induced by Doxorubicin

Doxorubicin (DOX) is a chemotherapeutic agent that can cause cardiotoxicity leading to progressive, chronic, life-threatening cardiomyopathy, called DOX-induced cardiomyopathy (DIC). DIC is a fatal cardiomyopathy with a worse prognosis compared to other cardiomyopathies and limits the use of DOX in malignancies due to its cardiotoxicity. DIC has been proven to be associated with reactive oxygen species (ROS)-induced side effect damage in cardiac myocytes. Currently, scavenging of reactive oxygen species is a practical strategy to reduce chemotherapy-associated DIC. Although quercetin has already been reported to have superior antioxidant activity, its clinical application is severely limited due to its rapid degradation and poor tissue absorption. Herein, we reported the preparation of a novel enzyme mimic via coordinated albumin, Zinc Ion (Zn²⁺) and quercetin. The enzyme mimics were capable of simultaneously increasing the biocompatibility and efficiently overcame the drawbacks of free quercetin, and were achieved by long circulation in vivo. Most importantly, these quercetin-based enzyme mimics had no effect on the antioxidant activity of quercetin. These beneficial therapeutic properties, together with high drug-carrying capacity and redox stimuli, will significantly improve quercetin's alleviation of chemotherapeutic cardiotoxicity without causing significant side effects. Therefore, nanoparticles of albumin-based Zn (II)-Quercetin have a promising clinical application as an effective agent for mitigating the cardiotoxicity of chemotherapy.

Ligand conjugated lipid-based nanocarriers for cancer theranostics

Cancer is one of the major health-related issues affecting the population worldwide and subsequently accounts for the second-largest death. Genetic and epigenetic modifications in oncogenes or tumor suppressor genes affect the regulatory systems that lead to the initiation and progression of cancer. Conventional methods, including chemotherapy/radiotherapy/appropriate combinational therapy and surgery, are being widely used for theranostics of cancer patients. Surgery is useful in treating localized tumors, but it is ineffective in treating metastatic tumors, which spread to other organs and result in a high recurrence rate and death. Also, the therapeutic application of free drugs is related to substantial issues such as poor absorption, solubility, bioavailability, high degradation rate, short shelf-life, and low therapeutic index. Therefore, these issues can be sorted out using nano lipid-based carriers (NLBCs) as promising drug delivery carriers. Still, at most, they fail to achieve site targeted drug delivery and detection. This can be achieved by selecting a specific ligand/antibody for its cognate receptor molecule expressed on the surface of cancer cell. In this review, we have mainly discussed the various types of ligands used to decorate NLBCs. A list of the ligands used to design nanocarriers to target malignant cells has been extensively undertaken. The approved ligand decorated lipid-based nanomedicines with their clinical status has been explained in tabulated form to provide a wider scope to the readers regarding ligand coupled NLBCs. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Receptor-Mediated Targeting in Breast Cancer through Solid Lipid Nanoparticles and Its Mechanism

Nanoparticles have gained prominence in many areas and domains worldwide, such as metallic NP, carbon dots, quantum dots, polymeric NP, nano-suspension, nanocrystals, solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN), etc. and have been applied in the field of medicine as nanomedicine with promising results. Rise in cancer mortality rate has been an issue for a long time with female breast cancer as one of the most detected cancers. No permanent treatment has been developed till date could combat breast cancer with minimum side effects that are not long-lasting as there is no proper technique through which the anticancer drugs can recognize benign or malignant or normal cells that causes systematic toxicity. Advancement in technology has led to the discovery of many biological pathways and mechanisms. Tumor cells or cancer cells overexpress some high-affinity receptors that can be targeted to deliver the anticancer drugs at specific site using these pathways and mechanisms. Solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN) are among some of the excellent drug delivery systems, especially stealth SLN (sSLN). SLN, when conjugated with a ligand (called as sSLN), has affinity and specificity towards a specific receptor, and can deliver the drug in breast cancer cells overexpressing the receptors. Using this technique, various investigations have reported better anti-breast cancer activity than simple SLN (non-conjugated to ligand or no receptor targeting). This review includes the investigations and data on receptor-mediated targeting in breast cancer from 2010 to 2021 by searching different databases. Overall, information on SLN in different cancers is reviewed. In vivo investigations, pharmacokinetics, biodistribution, and stability are discussed to describe the efficacy of sSLN. Investigations included in this review demonstrate that sSLN delivers the drug by overcoming the biological barriers and shows enhanced and better activity than non-conjugated SLN which also verifies that a lesser concentration of drug can show anti-breast cancer activity. The efficacy of medicines could be increased with lower cancer deaths through stealth-SLN. Due to the low cost of synthesis, biocompatibility and easy to formulate, more study is needed in vitro and in vivo so that this novel technique could be utilized in the treatment of human breast cancer.

Self-assembled hydrogel nanocube for stimuli responsive drug delivery and tumor ablation by phototherapy against breast cancer

The shape and responsiveness of nanoengineered delivery carriers are crucial characteristics for the rapid and efficient delivery of therapeutics. We report on a novel type of micrometer-sized hydrogel particles of controlled shape with dual pH and redox sensitivity for intracellular delivery of anticancer drugs and phototherapy. The cubical HA-DOP-CS-PEG networks with disulfide links are obtained by cross-linking HA-DOP-CS-PEG with cystamine. The pH-triggered hydrogel swelling/shrinkage was not only affords effective doxorubicin release. It also actively provides the endosomal/lysosomal escape, redox-triggered drug release. The hydrogels degrade rapidly to low molecular weight chains in the presence of the typical intracellular concentration of glutathione. Drug-loaded cube particles found to be 12% more cytotoxic. ICG and DOX-loaded hydrogel cubes demonstrate 90% cytotoxicity when incubated with MCF-7 cancer cells for 24 and 48 h, respectively. This approach integrates the advantages of pH sensitivity, enzymatic degradation, and shape-regulated internalization for novel types of "intelligent" three-dimensional networks with programmable behavior for controlled delivery of therapeutics.

Recent progress in antibody-based therapeutics for triple-negative breast cancer

INTRODUCTION

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is a subtype of severely aggressive breast cancer that lacks the expression of oestrogen receptor (ER), progesterone receptor and human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) and is highly metastatic and related to a poor prognosis. Current standard treatments are still limited to systemic chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and surgical resection. More effective treatments are urgently needed.

AREAS COVERED

The immunogenicity of TNBC has provided opportunities for the development of targeted immunotherapy. In this review, we focus on the recent development in antibody-based drug modalities, including angiogenesis inhibitors, immune checkpoint inhibitors, antibody-drug conjugates, immunoconjugates, T cell-redirecting bispecific antibodies and CAR-T cells, and their mechanisms of action in TNBC.

EXPERT OPINION

At present, the treatment of TNBC is still a major challenge that needs to be addressed. Novel immunotherapies are promising opportunities for improving the management of this aggressive disease.

Nanomedicine-Based Delivery Strategies for Breast Cancer Treatment and Management

Breast cancer is one of the most common types of cancer among women globally. It is caused by mutations in the estrogen/progesterone receptors and conventional treatment methods are commonly utilized. About 70–80 percent of individuals with the early-stage non-metastatic disease may be cured. Conventional treatment is far less than the optimal ratio, as demonstrated through the high mortality rate of women with this cancer. However, conventional treatment methods like surgery, radiotherapy, and chemotherapy are not as effective as expected and lead to concerns about low bioavailability, low cellular uptake, emerging resistance, and adverse toxicities. A nanomedicine-based approach is a promising alternative for breast cancer treatment. The present era is witnessing rapid advancements in nanomedicine as a platform for investigating novel therapeutic applications and modern intelligent healthcare management strategies. This paper focuses on nanomedicine-based therapeutic interventions that are becoming more widely accepted for improving treatment effectiveness and reducing undesired side effects in breast cancer patients. By evaluating the state-of-the-art tools and taking the challenges involved into consideration, various aspects of the proposed nano-enabled therapeutic approaches have been discussed in this review.

Folate functionalized chitosan nanoparticles as targeted delivery systems for improved anticancer efficiency of cytarabine in MCF-7 human breast cancer cell lines

Anticancer drug cytarabine, has been widely used for treating haematological malignancies while it has minimal activity against solid tumours, which demands continuous infusion leading to high dose cytarabine toxicity. In this study, folate conjugated chitosan nanoparticles (FCCNP) were used for targeted delivery of cytarabine in breast adenocarcinoma cell lines by making use of the overexpressed folate receptors on the surface of MCF-7. Folate was conjugated to chitosan using carbodiimide. FCCNPs show spherical morphology with a size of<50 nm. Zeta potential of + 45.2 mV and PDI of 0.98 from DLS measurement confirms a stable monodisperse nanoformulation. Cytotoxicity was studied in folate receptor positive, MCF-7 and folate receptor negative, A-549 cell lines. Increased cellular uptake of the drug incorporated nanoparticles was confirmed in MCF-7 cells with fluorophore, squaraine 650 compared to A-549 cells. The relative fold of expression of genes involved in apoptosis such as bax, cyt c and cas 9 were upregulated. The present in vitro study confirms improved cytotoxicity of cytarabine folate conjugated chitosan nanoparticles in MCF-7 cells.

Lipid-Based Nanoparticles for Targeted Delivery of the Anti-Cancer Drugs: A Review

Abstract:

Cancer is one of the main reasons for mortality worldwide. Chemotherapeutic agents have been effectively designed to increase certain patients' survival rates, but ordinarily designed chemotherapeutic agents necessarily deliver toxic chemotherapeutic drugs to healthy tissues, resulting in serious side effects. Cancer cells can often acquire drug resistance after repeated dosing of current chemotherapeutic agents, restricting their efficacy. Given such obstacles, investigators have attempted to distribute chemotherapeutic agents using targeted drug delivery systems (DDSs), especially nanotechnology-based DDSs. Lipid-Based Nanoparticles (LBNPs) are a large and complex class of substances that have been utilized to manage a variety of diseases, mostly cancer. Liposomes seem to be the most frequently employed LBNPs, owing to their high biocompatibility, bioactivity, stability, and flexibility; howbeit Solid Lipid Nanoparticles (SLNs) and Non-structured Lipid Carriers (NLCs) have lately received a lot of interest. Besides that, there are several reports that concentrate on novel therapies via LBNPs to manage various forms of cancer. In the present research, the latest improvements in the application of LBNPs have been shown to deliver different therapeutic agents to cancerous cells and have been demonstrated LBNPs also can be a quite successful candidate in cancer therapy for subsequent use.

Preparation of Liposomal Raloxifene-Graphene Nanosheet and Evaluation of Its In Vitro Anticancer Effects

BACKGROUND

In current years, researchers have shown their prime interest in developing multifunctional drug delivery systems, especially against cancers, for effective anticancer outcomes.

METHODOLOGY

Raloxifene (RLX) loaded liposomal-graphene nanosheet (GNS) was developed. The novelty of this work was to enhance the solubilization of RLX and improvement of its bioavailability in the disease area. So, the selection of optimized formula design of experiment was implemented which produced the desired formula with the particle size of 156.333 nm. Further, encapsulation efficiency, in vitro release, and thermodynamic stability of optimized formulation were evaluated. The optimized formulation exhibited prolonged release of RLX for a longer period of 24 h, which can minimize the dose-related toxicity of the drug. Furthermore, optimized formulation demonstrated remarkable thermodynamic stability in terms of phase separation, creaming, and cracking.

RESULTS

The cytotoxicity study on the A549 cell line exhibited significant (P < .05) results in favor of optimized formulation than the free drug. The apoptotic activity was carried out by Annexin V staining and Caspase 3 analysis, which demonstrated remarkable promising results for optimized liposomal formulation.

CONCLUSION

From the findings of the study, it can be concluded that the novel optimized liposomal formulation could be pondered as a novel approach for the treatment of lung cancer.

Scorpion Venom-Functionalized Quercetin Phytosomes for Breast Cancer Management: In Vitro Response Surface Optimization and Anticancer Activity against MCF-7 Cells

Breast cancer is a dangerous type of cancer in women. Quercetin (QRT), a naturally occurring flavonoid, has wide biological effects including antioxidant, anticarcinogenic, anti-inflammatory, antiallergic, and antiviral activities. The anticancer activity is considered the most valuable effect of QRT against several types of cancer, including prostate, liver, lung, colon, and breast cancer. Scorpion venom peptides (SV) has been found to induce apoptosis and aggravate cancer cells, making it a promising anticancer agent. QRT, SV, and Phospholipon® 90H (PL) were incorporated in a nano-based delivery platform to assess QRT's cellular uptake and antiproliferative efficacy against a lung cancer cell line derived from human breast cancer cells MCF-7. Several nanovesicles were prepared and optimized, using four-factor Box-Behnken, in an experimental design. The optimized phytosomes showed vesicle size and zeta potential values of 116.9 nm and 31.5 mV, respectively. The IC50 values revealed that MCF-7 cells were significantly more sensitive to the optimized QRT formula than the plain formula and raw QRT. Cell cycle analysis revealed that optimized QRT formula treatment resulted in significant cell cycle arrest at the S phase. The results also indicated that treatment with QRT formula significantly increased caspase-9, Bax, Bcl-2, and p53 mRNA expression, compared with the plain formula and QRT. In terms of the inflammatory markers, the QRT formula significantly reduced the activity of TNF-α and NF-κB, in comparison with the plain formula and QRT only. Overall, the findings from the study proved that a QRT formulation could be a promising therapeutic approach for the treatment of breast cancer.

Enhanced Doxorubicin Delivery in Folate-Overexpressed Breast Cancer Cells Using Mesoporous Carbon Nanospheres

Nanoparticle-based drug delivery reveals the safety and effectiveness and avoids premature drug release from the nanocarrier. These nanoparticles improve the bioavailability and stability of the drug against chemical and enzymatic degradation and facilitate targeted drug delivery. Herein, targeted folic acid-conjugated oxidized mesoporous carbon nanospheres (Ox-MPCNPs) were successfully fabricated and developed as antitumoral doxorubicin delivery for targeted breast cancer therapy. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy studies confirmed that the doxorubicin was successfully bound on the Ox-MPCNP through hydrogen bonding and π-π interactions. X-ray diffraction studies showed that the synthesized doxorubicin-loaded Ox-MPCNP is semi-crystalline. The surface morphology of the synthesized doxorubicin-loaded Ox-MPCNP (DOX/Ox-MPCNP-Cys-PAsp-FA) was studied by scanning electron microscopy and high-resolution transmission electron microscopy, which demonstrates a sphere-shaped morphology. The cytotoxic effects of DOX/Ox-MPCNP-Cys-PAsp-FA were studied in MCF-7 breast cancer cells using the CytoTox96 assay kit. The study confirmed the cytotoxic effects of the synthesized nanospheres in vitro. Moreover, DOX/Ox-MPCNP-Cys-PAsp-FA-treated cells displayed efficient cell apoptosis and cell death in flow cytometry analysis. The mitochondrial fragmentation and nucleus damages were further confirmed by fluorescence microscopy. Thus, the approach used to construct the DOX/Ox-MPCNP-Cys-PAsp-FA carrier provides excellent opportunities for the targeted treatment of breast cancer.

Receptor-Mediated Targeted Delivery of Surface-ModifiedNanomedicine in Breast Cancer: Recent Update and Challenges

Breast cancer therapeutic intervention continues to be ambiguous owing to the lack of strategies for targeted transport and receptor-mediated uptake of drugs by cancer cells. In addition to this, sporadic tumor microenvironment, prominent restrictions with conventional chemotherapy, and multidrug-resistant mechanisms of breast cancer cells possess a big challenge to even otherwise optimal and efficacious breast cancer treatment strategies. Surface-modified nanomedicines can expedite the cellular uptake and delivery of drug-loaded nanoparticulate constructs through binding with specific receptors overexpressed aberrantly on the tumor cell. The present review elucidates the interesting yet challenging concept of targeted delivery approaches by exploiting different types of nanoparticulate systems with multiple targeting ligands to target overexpressed receptors of breast cancer cells. The therapeutic efficacy of these novel approaches in preclinical models is also comprehensively discussed in this review. It is concluded from critical analysis of related literature that insight into the translational gap between laboratories and clinical settings would provide the possible future directions to plug the loopholes in the process of development of these receptor-targeted nanomedicines for the treatment of breast cancer.

An evaluative in vitro investigation of the delivery of cytarabine with RGD decorated solid lipid nanoparticles

AIM

To synthesise cytarabine-loaded SLNs modified with the RGD peptide as a ligand, suitable for effective cancer therapy.

METHODS

SLNs were synthesised by the high shear, hot homogenisation technique. A 2 level 3 factor analysis was used in optimisation. Particle size, zeta potential, poly-dispersion index and surface morphology were measured. Drug encapsulation, drug release, release kinetics, nanoparticle stability and chemical structure were determined. LIVE/DEAD® Fluorescence Assay was used to qualify cytotoxicity and Tryphan Blue assay to quantify.

RESULTS

Cyt-SLNs exhibited a size of 161 ± 2.25 nm, a PDI of 0.49 ± 0.15 and a zeta potential of -19.8 mV. Entrapment fell at 88.87 ± 0.02% and release at 83.5 ± 0.95%. The in vitro release kinetics pointed towards a diffusion-based drug release mechanism. SLNs remained stable for 60 d. Cytotoxicity studies revealed that conjugation of the ligand with the RDG peptide resulted in a significant decrease in cell viability in both cell lines.

CONCLUSION

Overall, the study suggests that RGD-SLN-cyt can be used for effective cancer therapy.

Biosynthesis and characterisation of solid lipid nanoparticles and investigation of toxicity against breast cancer cell line

Solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) comprise non-toxic surface-active lipidic agents combined with appropriate ratios of drugs or essential oils. The goal of this research was to investigate the effects of the SLN synthesised using essential oils of Foeniculum vulgare on the MCF-7 breast cancer cell line. SLNs were prepared by homogenisation and ultrasound techniques and characterised by dynamic light scattering (DLS), zeta potential assessment, and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl tetrazolium bromide assay (MTT assay), flow-cytometry, and Acridine-Orange assay were employed for assessing the biological activities of the SLNs. The average particle size was 55.43 nm and the net surface charge was -29.54 ± 11.67 mV. TEM showed that the mean particle size was 33.55 nm and the synthesised SLNs had a uniform round morphology. The MTT assay showed that the prepared SLNs had high toxicity against MCF-7 cells and low toxicity against normal HUVECs cells. Flow-cytometry revealed a noteworthy rise in the subG1 peak of the cell cycle in the cancer cells treated with SLNs compared to the controls, indicating apoptosis in cancer cells. The results also showed discolouration in SLNs-treated cells, which further confirmed the induction of apoptosis and the toxicity of the SLNs against MCF-7 cells.

Polyethylene oxide-polyacrylic acid-folic acid (PEO-PAAc) nanogel as a 99m Tc targeting receptor for cancer diagnostic imaging

Nanoparticles are frequently used as targeting delivery systems for therapeutic and diagnostic radiopharmaceuticals. Polyethylene oxide-polyacrylic acid (PEO-PAAc) nanogel was prepared via γ-radiation-induced polymerization. Variable factors affecting nanoparticles size were investigated. The nanogel was radiolabeled with the imaging radioisotope ^99m Tc and finally conjugated with folic acid to target folate receptor actively. PEO-PAAc-folic acid gel was characterized by dynamic light scattering (DLS) and atomic force microscopy (AFM). Biodistribution was studied in normal mice and solid tumor-bearing mice via intravenous and intratumor injections of the radiolabeled PEO-PAAc-folic acid nanogel. Results of biodistribution showed high selective uptake of the prepared complex in tumor muscle compared with normal muscle for both intravenous and intratumor injections. The T/NT ratio was found to be 6.186 and 294.5 for intravenous and intratumor injections, respectively. Consequently, ^99m Tc-PEO-PAAc-folic acid complex could be a promising agent for cancer diagnostic imaging.

Glimpse into Cellular Internalization and Intracellular Trafficking of Lipid-Based Nanoparticles in Cancer Cells

Lipid-based nanoparticles as drug delivery carriers have been mainly used for delivery of anti-cancer therapeutic agents. Lipid-based nanoparticles, due to their smaller particle size and similarity to cell membranes, are readily internalized into cancer cells. Interestingly, cancer cells also overexpress receptors for specific ligands including folic acid, hyaluronic acid, and transferrin on their surface. This allows the use of these ligands for surface modification of the lipid-based nanoparticle. These modifications then allow the specific recognition of these ligand-coated nanoparticles by their receptors on cancer cells allowing the targeted gradual intracellular accumulation of the functionalized nanoplatforms. These interactions could eventually enhance the internalization of desired drugs via increasing ligand-receptor mediated cellular uptake of the nanoplatforms. The cellular internalization of the nanoplatforms also varies and depends on their physicochemical properties including particle size, zeta potential, and shape. The cellular uptake is also influenced by the types of ligand internalization pathway utilized by cells such as phagocytosis, macropinocytosis, and multiple endocytosis pathways. In this review, we will classify and discuss lipid based nanoparticles engineered to express specific ligands, and are recognized by their receptors on cancer cell, and their cellular internalization pathways. Moreover, the intracellular fate of nanoparticles decorated with specific ligands and the best internalization pathways (caveolae mediated endocytosis) for safe cargo delivery will be discussed.

Super Magnetic Niosomal Nanocarrier as a New Approach for Treatment of Breast Cancer: A Case Study on SK-BR-3 and MDA-MB-231 Cell Lines

In the present study, a magnetic niosomal nanocarrier for co-delivery of curcumin and letrozole into breast cancer cells has been designed. The magnetic NiCoFe2O4 core was coated by a thin layer of silica, followed by a niosomal structure, allowing us to load letrozole and curcumin into the silica layer and niosomal layer, respectively, and investigate their synergic effects on breast cancer cells. Furthermore, the nanocarriers demonstrated a pH-dependent release due to the niosomal structure at their outer layer, which is a promising behavior for cancer treatment. Additionally, cellular assays revealed that the nanocarriers had low cellular uptake in the case of non-tumorigenic cells (i.e., MCF-10A) and related high viability but high cellular uptake in cancer cell lines (i.e., MDA-MB-231 and SK-BR-3) and related low viability, which is evidenced in their high cytotoxicity against different breast cancer cell lines. The cytotoxicity of the letrozole/curcumin co-loaded nanocarrier is higher than that of the aqueous solutions of both drugs, indicating their enhanced cellular uptake in their encapsulated states. In particular, NiCoFe2O4@L-Silica-L@C-Niosome showed the highest cytotoxicity effects on MDA-MB-231 and SK-BR-3 breast cancer cells. The observed cytotoxicity was due to regulation of the expression levels of the studied genes in breast cancer cells, where downregulation was observed for the Bcl-2, MMP 2, MMP 9, cyclin D, and cyclin E genes while upregulation of the expression of the Bax, caspase-3, and caspase-9 genes was observed. The flow cytometry results also revealed that NiCoFe2O4@L-Silica-L@C-Niosome enhanced the apoptosis rate in both MDA-MB-231 and SK-BR-3 cells compared to the control samples. The findings of our research show the potential of designing magnetic niosomal formulations for simultaneous targeted delivery of both hydrophobic and hydrophilic drugs into cancer cells in order to enhance their synergic chemotherapeutic effects. These results could open new avenues into the future of nanomedicine and the development of theranostic agents.

TPGS and chondroitin sulfate dual-modified lipid-albumin nanosystem for targeted delivery of chemotherapeutic agent against multidrug-resistant cancer

Multidrug resistance (MDR) remains the primary issue leading to the failure of chemotherapy. In this study, a d-α-tocopherol polyethylene 1000 glycol succinate (TPGS) and chondroitin sulfate (CS) dual-modified lipid-albumin nanosystem was constructed for targeted delivery of paclitaxel (PTX) in treating MDR cancer. The obtained nanosystem (TLA/PTX@CS) had an average size of around 176 nm and a negative zeta potential of around -18 mV. TPGS was confirmed to improve the intracellular accumulation of PTX and facilitate the mitochondrial-targeting of lipid-albumin nanosystem. Functionalized with the outer CS shell, TLA/PTX@CS entered MDR breast cancer (MCF-7/MDR) cells via CD44 receptor-mediated endocytosis. CS shell was degraded by concentrated hyaluronidase in the lysosomes, thereby releasing PTX into cytoplasm and inhibiting cell proliferation. In vivo studies revealed that TLA/PTX@CS possessed prolonged blood circulation, resulting in elevated tumor accumulation, excellent antitumor efficacy with a tumor inhibition ratio of 75.3%, and significant survival benefit in MCF-7/MDR tumor-bearing mice. Hence, this TPGS and CS dual-modified lipid-albumin nanosystem provides a promising strategy for targeted delivery of chemotherapeutic drug and reversal of MDR in cancer treatment.

Cancer Nanopharmaceuticals: Physicochemical Characterization and In Vitro/In Vivo Applications

Physicochemical, pharmacokinetic, and biopharmaceutical characterization tools play a key role in the assessment of nanopharmaceuticals' potential imaging analysis and for site-specific delivery of anti-cancers to neoplastic cells/tissues. If diagnostic tools and therapeutic approaches are combined in one single nanoparticle, a new platform called nanotheragnostics is generated. Several analytical technologies allow us to characterize nanopharmaceuticals and nanoparticles and their properties so that they can be properly used in cancer therapy. This paper describes the role of multifunctional nanoparticles in cancer diagnosis and treatment, describing how nanotheragnostics can be useful in modern chemotherapy, and finally, the challenges associated with the commercialization of nanoparticles for cancer therapy.

Folate mediated targeted delivery of cinnamaldehyde loaded and FITC functionalized magnetic nanoparticles in breast cancer: in vitro, in vivo and pharmacokinetic studies

FiCF NPs induced apoptosis in breast cancer cells, exhibited safety, reduced tumor burden in mice due to increased pharmacological efficacy.