Parental migration and disruptions in everyday life: reactions of left-behind children in Southeast Asia

Emotional and behavioural problems of left behind children in Lithuania: a comparative analysis of youth self-reports and parent/caregiver reports using ASEBA

BACKGROUND

Children being left behind (LBC) in their home countries due to parental emigration is a global issue. Research shows that parents' emigration negatively affects children's mental health and well-being. Despite a high number of LBC, there is a dearth of data from Eastern European countries. The present study aims to collect and analyse self-reported data on LBC emotional and behavioural problems and compare children's reports with those of parents/caregivers.

METHODS

A cross-sectional study was conducted in 24 Lithuanian schools, involving parents/caregivers and their children aged 12 to 17. We employed self-reported measures, including the Achenbach System of Empirically Based Assessment (ASEBA) tools - Child Behaviour Checklist (CBCL 6/18) and Youth Self Report (YSR 11/18), to evaluate the emotional and behavioural problems of the children. These instruments had been translated, standardised, and validated for the Lithuanian population. Data collection took place between January 2022 and April 2023. In addition to descriptive analysis, multivariate regression was used to adjust for various sociodemographic factors.

RESULTS

A total of 760 parents/caregivers and 728 of their children participated in the study. LBC exhibited higher total problem scores (57.7; 95% CI 52.0-63.4) compared to non-LBC (47.1; 95% CI 44.7-49.4). These differences were consistent across all YSR 11/18 problem scales. However, no significant differences were observed in CBCL 6/18 scores. Furthermore, LBC self-reported a higher total problem score (57.7; 95% CI 52.0-63.4) compared to their parents/caregivers (24.9; 95% CI 18.9-30.9), and this pattern persisted across all scales. Being female, having school-related problems and having LBC status were associated with higher YSR 11/18 scores in the multivariable regression, while female gender, living in rural areas, school-related problems, and having hobbies were associated with higher CBCL 6/18 scores.

CONCLUSION

This study highlights that LBC report more emotional and behavioural challenges than their non-LBC peers, while parent/caregiver assessments show lower problem scores for LBC. Gender, living environment, school-related issues, and engagement in hobbies have influenced these outcomes. These findings underscore the multifaceted nature of the experiences of LBC and the importance of considering various contextual factors in understanding and addressing their emotional and behavioural well-being.

A serial mediation model of negative life events on school adjustment of left-behind adolescents in rural china: the central role of hope and gratitude

Adjustment difficulties of school students are common and their school adjustment has gained wide concern in recent years. Negative life events (NLEs) hope, and gratitude have been associated with school adjustment. However, the potential effect of NLEs on hope and gratitude and whether hope and gratitude mediate the association between NLEs and school adjustment among high students have not been studied. Thus, this study aims to investigate the association between NLEs, hope and gratitude, and school adjustment in high school students in China. Additionally, the study aims to examine the mediating role of hope and gratitude in the association between NLEs and school adjustment. A total of 700 junior high school students in Guangxi Province (336 boys, 364 girls, M age = 15 years) completed the questionnaire. The results indicated significant mediating effects of hope and gratitude in the sequential positive association between NLEs and school adjustment. Furthermore, this study unraveled the complexity of the link between NLEs and school adjustment with the combination of hope and gratitude. The findings emphasized the importance of fostering hope and gratitude in left-behind adolescents to combat the negative consequences of NLEs. The study is also one of the first to investigate a serial mediation model to determine which NLEs influence Chinese left-behind adolescents' school adjustment.

Longitudinal associations between parental migration and children's psychological well-being in Southeast Asia: The roles of caregivers' mental health and caregiving quality

OBJECTIVE

This study investigates the longer-term effects of parental migration on the psychological well-being of children who stay behind in two major labor-sending countries in Southeast Asia, namely, Indonesia and the Philippines. Adopting the framework of the 'care triangle', we further examine how caregivers' mental health and caregiving quality moderate the associations between parental migration and children's psychological well-being.

METHODS

Using longitudinal data collected in 2008 and 2016/17, we assess children's psychological well-being during early childhood (aged 3-5 years) and again in adolescence (aged 11-13 years). We apply both fixed-effects and random-effects models, using the Hausman test to indicate the preferred model.

RESULTS

The findings indicate that there is no significant longer-term effect of parental migration on children's psychological well-being, but parental migration tends to show adverse effects on Filipino children's psychological well-being when they are cared for by a caregiver with poor mental health.

CONCLUSIONS

The two-country comparison demonstrates the complexities of understanding the gender-based influences of parental migration on children's psychological well-being. The findings also highlight the caregiver's role in maintaining frequent communications with migrant parents within the care triangle, which is crucial to children's well-being.

Parental migration and left-behind children in Georgia - school teachers' experience and perception: a qualitative study

INTRODUCTION

Georgia, like other Eastern European countries, showed a dramatic increase of international labour emigration after becoming independent in 1991. The collapse of the Soviet Union caused economic instability, unemployment and poverty resulting in labour migration. Since then, thousands of children have been left behind in the care of extended family members while their parents work abroad. The aim of this study is to explore schoolteachers' perceptions on parental migration and left-behind children (LBC) in Georgia as schoolteachers are the main contact persons for LBC and their caregivers.  METHODS: We conducted six focus-group discussions with public school teachers, namely class-tutors and six in-depth interviews with school principals from two migrant sending regions. We applied reflexive thematic analysis to systematically analyse the data and identify main and sub-themes. The contextual model of family stress underpins this study.

RESULTS

We identified the following themes expressed by both, teachers, and school principals: social and economic impact of migrant labour and relationships between schools and migrant families. School teachers and principals acknowledged some positive aspects of migrant labour, but primarily perceived parental migration as a negative experience for children leading to problems in mental health, well-being, and academic performance. Structural factors, lack of support and lack of community involvement were expressed to further worsen the situation. Teachers saw themselves as one of the main supporters for LBC while they described the role of caregivers ranging from caring to unhelpful or even destructive. School principals stated mitigating the situation by regular meetings with class tutors, extra-tutoring for LBC, psychological counselling, and developing/enacting internal guidelines.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest that LBCs and transnational families could benefit from the provision of psychological services at schools.

Long-term effects of left-behind experience on adult depression: Social trust as mediating factor

Background

Despite much attention paid to the mental health of left-behind children, there has not been sufficient research on whether and how left-behind experiences have long-term effects on adults among the general population. This paper aims to evaluate the long-term effects of left-behind experience on adult psychological depression.

Methods

By using the China Labor-force Dynamics Survey in 2018 (CLDS 2018), we assessed depression by the Center for Epidemiological Studies, Depression Scale (CES-D) and used a cut-off score of 20 for detecting depression (Yes = 1, No = 0). The Binomial logistic regression was used to compare the odds ratio across groups. We used the KHB method in the mediation analysis, to measure the indirect effect of social trust on the relationship between left-behind experience and depression.

Results

The rate of depression (χ2 = 17.94, p < 0.001) for the children who have left-behind experience (LBE) (10.87%) was higher than the children who have non-left-behind experience (N-LBE) (6.37%). The rate of social trust (χ2 = 27.51, p < 0.001) of LBE (65.70%) was lower than N-LBE (75.05%). Compared with the other three groups, left-behind experience occurred in preschool (OR = 2.07, p < 0.001, 95% CI = [1.45, 2.97]) was more likely to suffer from depression. The indirect effect of social trust (OR = 1.06, p < 0.01, 95% CI = [1.02, 1.10]) is significantly on the relationship between LBE and psychological depression, with the total effect (OR = 1.71, p < 0.001, 95% CI = [1.27, 2.31]) and direct effect (OR = 1.62, p < 0.01, 95% CI = [1.20, 2.18]) are both significantly. The proportion of indirect effect in the total effect is 10.69%.

Conclusion

The left-behind experience that occurred in childhood has a significantly negative effect on adult psychological depression, in which preschool left-behind experience played the most critical role. Social trust is the mediating factor associated with left-behind experience and psychological depression. To mitigate the long-term effects of the left-behind experience on psychological depression, parents need to be prudent about the decision-making of migration in the preschool stage of their children. and subsequent policies should strengthen social work targeting vulnerable youth groups especially those with left-behind experience at an early age in terms of their psychological depression.

The Impact of Parent-Child Attachment on School Adjustment in Left-behind Children Due to Transnational Parenting: The Mediating Role of Peer Relationships

In China’s eastern coastal areas, the transnational parenting of left-behind children creates a distinct form of left-behind child. Previous research has indicated that children who have been left behind have a low degree of school adjustment. The major purpose of this research was to investigate the impact of parent–child attachment on school adjustment in children left behind by migrant parents, as well as the mediating role of peer relationships in this process. The parent–child attachment section of the Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment (IPPA), the Adaptation subscale of the Adolescent Mental Health Quality Questionnaire—Chinese Version (AMHQQ-C), and the Student Peer Relationship Scale (SPRC) were used to survey 405 left-behind children in grades 3–6 of seven elementary schools in the hometowns of overseas Chinese parents from Zhejiang Province. It was discovered that, compared to non-left-behind children, left-behind children showed lower levels of parent–child attachment and school adjustment, while peer relationships appeared polarized. In addition, parent–child attachment and peer relationships considerably predicted the level of school adjustment in children left behind due to transnational parenting. More importantly, the mediation analysis revealed a partial mediating effect of peer relationships on the linkages between parent–child attachment and school adjustment among children who were left behind in transnational foster care.

Effects of the Family Solidarity on Romanian Left behind Children

In families that have at least one parent working outside the country’s borders, known in the literature as transnational families, family solidarity is undergoing changes. The aim of this paper is to explore the process of transforming family solidarity in the context of migration and to identify the effects of the family solidarity on children left behind. A qualitative research methodology was employed consisting in 24 in-depth interviews with parents and grandparents from transnational families, in the two Romanian regions with the highest number of children left behind and with high poverty rates. Our results show that the decrease of material and financial support provided from the parent left abroad has great implications for the feeling of unity with the family and for the material and emotional well-being of children. The risk factors for the children are a lack of financial support, which translates to material deprivation and creates the context for school dropout, lack of emotional support, and poor closeness between the child and departed parent, which relate to a disrupting emotional experience for the children. Findings provide new insights in capturing the relationship between family solidarity and the well-being of the child.

Psychosocial resilience among left-behind adolescents in rural Thailand: A qualitative exploration

When parents migrate, they often leave children behind with relatives. Despite being at higher risk of socio-emotional problems, many left-behind children have good health and social outcomes, suggesting their resilience. We sought to understand how adolescents with internal and international migrant parents build resilience in Thailand. We conducted qualitative interviews with 24 adolescents aged 10-19, and six caregivers, parents and community leaders. Interviews were transcribed, translated and analysed, drawing on techniques from grounded theory. We found that resilience was built in a context where for many families, migration was a financial necessity and the parent-child relationship was mainly phone-based. Adolescents built resilience using three key 'resources': warmth (love and understanding), financial support and guidance. Adolescents with insecure parent or caregiver relationships, or with caring responsibilities for relatives, were less likely to have access to these resources. These adolescents sought emotional and financial independence, prioritised friendships and identified role models to obtain key resources and build resilience. The findings indicate practical and psychosocial barriers to building resilience among left-behind adolescents in Thailand. Further work could explore pathways to mental illness in this population, interventions that build peer networks and caregiver-child relationships and the use of technology to support remote parenting.

Societal Narratives on Caregivers in Asia

Although there has been an increase in awareness of the struggles experienced by caregivers, discourse on caregiving remains confined mostly to academia, policy circles or the family unit. There have been suggestions that public discourse on informal caregiving dwells overwhelmingly on the outsize toll it takes on the health of caregivers. However, few studies have examined societal narratives on caregivers-a gap our study aims to fill. We leveraged an online media database of 12 billion words collated from over 30 million articles to explore societal narratives on caregivers in six Asian countries. Computational linguistics and statistical analysis were applied to study the content of narratives on caregivers. The prevalence of societal narratives on caregivers was highest in Singapore-five times higher than Sri Lanka, which evidenced the lowest prevalence. Findings reveal that the inadequacies of institutional care as well as the need to train and empower caregivers are pressing issues that need to be prioritized on the policy agenda in Asia. Of broader significance, the diverse capabilities across Asia present opportunities for cross-country learning and capacity-building.

Children's Behavioral Agency within Families in the Context of Migration: A Systematic Review

Migration may lead to changing power dynamics between parents and children in families. Children may change their behavior in order to exercise agency to respond to migration of family members or themselves. This systematic review seeks to understand how children exercise agency within families in the context of migration. The authors searched ten databases to collect English-written articles published in academic journals in or after 2010. The studies were coded to generate a quality indicator. 65 Articles with moderate and strong quality were included in this review, including 41 qualitative studies, 16 quantitative studies, and 8 mixed-methods studies. Children and adolescents with demographically and culturally diverse backgrounds were analyzed in these studies. The systematic review shows that children have different levels of behavioral agency in the migration decision-making process; they also exercise agency in different aspects of family life. For example, left-behind children exercise agency in care provision and information nondisclosure, and migrant children in media and language brokering. Children's behavioral agency is place-specific. Adults working with children need to pay more attention to children's behavioral agency in order to support children's healthy development and facilitate their adaptation in the context of migration.

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s40894-021-00175-0.

Effect of mental resilience of left-behind children on self-esteem and emotional processing bias and social coping styles

BACKGROUND

The long-term separation of parents and children as well as the incomplete family structure affect the mental health development of left-behind children and the formation of healthy personality, good interpersonal relationships and positive coping styles in adulthood. At present, there is insufficient empirical investigations on the mental resilience of left-behind children.

OBJECTIVE

It is aimed to understand the mental health of left-behind children and explore the characteristics of mental resilience, self-esteem and emotional processing bias, as well as social coping styles.

METHODS

The random sampling method is used to select the left-behind children as the research subject. The general demographic information questionnaire, RSCA (Resilience Scale for Chinese Adolescent), emotional self-rating scale, SES (Self-Esteem Scale), and coping style questionnaire are used for the survey. Also, the experiments on cognitive processing bias effects of self-esteem and emotion are further carried out.

RESULTS

There are differences in demographic variables in mental resilience, self-esteem level, emotional level, and social coping styles. The low mental resilience group shows a processing bias towards low praise words, while the high mental resilience group shows a processing bias towards high praise words. At a low level of self-esteem, there is an interaction between mental resilience and self-esteem on low praise words. Mental resilience has a significant effect on the cognitive processing bias of emotion. Under the induction of positive emotions, the high mental resilience group responds significantly more slowly to the negative words than the low mental resilience group. Under the induction of negative emotions, the high mental resilience group responds significantly faster to the negative words than the low mental resilience group.

CONCLUSIONS

Promoting the mental health education of left-behind children can start from enhancing positive emotions, reducing negative emotions, developing high self-esteem, and improving mature coping styles.

The situation and well-being of custodial grandparents in Myanmar: Impacts of adult children's cross-border and internal migration

Custodial care for grandchildren left behind by migrant parents is an important contribution made by grandparents for their families and societies, given rising migration flows and increasing prominence of skipped-generation households in low- and middle-income countries. Yet, little is known about the scope and consequences of custodial grandparenting in developing settings. Analyzing unique data from the 2017 Myanmar Grandparents Caring for Grandchildren Survey, this study examines the extent to which the middle generation's cross-border and internal migration are associated with caregiving intensity, perception towards grandchild care, and psychological well-being among grandparents. Results suggest limited negative impacts of the middle generation's migration on the situation and well-being of grandparent caregivers. Custodial grandparents, particularly those caring for children of cross-border migrant mothers, experience heightened caregiving responsibilities and perceived difficulties in grandchild care. Nevertheless, all else equal, the middle generation's migration is not significantly associated with grandparents' psychological well-being. Remittances from migrant children and care support from non-coresident family members are found to reduce grandparents' caregiving intensity, improve caregiving perception, and lower psychological distress. In sum, findings echo Myanmar's widespread norms of grandchild care provision by grandparents and underscore mutual interdependence across generations, as evidenced in the importance of remittances from migrant children and informal care support networks in determining the well-being of Myanmar grandparents. This study extends current theoretical perspectives that emphasize custodial grandparenting either as a response to family crises or as a household strategy to facilitate middle-generation migration. Instead, our evidence suggests that, when conceptualizing custodial grandparenting practices in developing settings, it is instructive to consider not only opportunities but also challenges and ambivalent situations associated with the middle generation's diverse migration patterns.

Effects of International Labour Migration on the Mental Health and Well-Being of Left-Behind Children: A Systematic Literature Review

Labour migration is a challenge for the globalised world due to its long-term effects such as the formation of transnational families. These families, where family members of migrant workers are “left-behind”, are becoming a common phenomenon in many low- and middle-income countries. Our systematic literature review investigated the effects of international parental labour migration on the mental health and well-being of left-behind children. Following the PRISMA guidelines, we performed searches in PubMed, PsychINFO, Web of Science, Cochrane Library and Google Scholar, resulting in 30 finally included studies. We found that mental health and well-being outcomes of left-behind children differed across and sometimes even within regions. However, only studies conducted in the Americas and South Asia observed purely negative effects. Overall, left-behind children show abnormal Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire scores and report higher levels of depression and loneliness than children who do not live in transnational families. Evidence from the studies suggests that gender of the migrant parent, culture and other transnational family characteristics contribute to the well-being and mental health of left-behind children. Further research utilising longitudinal data is needed to better understand the complex and lasting effects on left-behind children.