Update on Fc receptor-like (FCRL) family: new immunoregulatory players in health and diseases

The role of double-negative B cells in the pathogenesis of systemic lupus erythematosus

B cells are essential to the pathophysiology of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), a chronic autoimmune illness. IgD-CD27-double negative B cells (DNB cells) are one of the aberrant B cell subsets linked to SLE that have attracted much scientific interest. There is growing evidence that DNB cells play a significant role in the development of the disease and are strongly linked to the activity of lupus. These cells play a pivotal role in the pathogenesis of SLE by producing a diverse array of autoantibodies, which form immune complexes that drive target organ damage. A comprehensive understanding of SLE pathophysiology necessitates in-depth investigation into DNB cells, not only to elucidate their mechanistic contributions but also to uncover novel therapeutic strategies. According to available data, treatments that target B cells have proven effective in managing SLE; nevertheless, a significant breakthrough in precision medicine for SLE may come from targeting DNB cells specifically. Despite growing interest in DNB cells, their precise characteristics, developmental trajectories, and regulatory mechanisms remain incompletely defined, posing significant challenges to the field. A comprehensive investigation of the regulatory mechanisms governing DNB cell differentiation and expansion in SLE may facilitate novel therapeutic discoveries. This review aims to provide an updated synthesis of current research on DNB cells, with a focus on their origins, developmental trajectories in SLE, and potential as precision therapeutic targets.

Identifying proteins and pathways associated with multimorbidity in 53,026 adults

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Multimorbidity, the coexistence of multiple chronic diseases, is a rapidly expanding global health challenge, carrying profound implications for patients, caregivers, healthcare systems, and society. Investigating the determinants and drivers underlying multiple chronic diseases is a priority for disease management and prevention.

METHOD

This prospective cohort study analyzed data from the 53,026 participants in the UK Biobank from baseline (2006 to 2010) across 13.3 years of follow-up. Using Cox proportional hazards regression model, we characterized shared and unique associations across 38 incident outcomes (31 chronic diseases, 6 system mortality and all-cause mortality). Furthermore, ordinal regression models were used to assess the association between protein levels and multimorbidity (0-1, 2, 3-4, or ≥ 5 chronic diseases). Functional and tissue enrichment analysis were employed for multimorbidity-associated proteins. The upstream regulators of above proteins were identified.

RESULTS

We demonstrated 972 (33.3 %) proteins were shared across at least two incident chronic diseases after Bonferroni correction (P < 3.42 × 10-7, 93.3 % of those had consistent effects directions), while 345 (11.8 %) proteins were uniquely linked to a single chronic disease. Remarkably, GDF15, PLAUR, WFDC2 and AREG were positively associated with 20-24 incident chronic diseases (hazards ratios: 1.21-3.77) and showed strong associations with multimorbidity (odds ratios: 1.33-1.89). We further identified that protein levels are explained by common risk factors, especially renal function, liver function, inflammation, and obesity, providing potential intervention targets. Pathway analysis has underscored the pivotal role of the immune response, with the top three transcription factors associated with proteomics being NFKB1, JUN and RELA.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results enhance the understanding of the biological basis underlying multimorbidity, offering biomarkers for disease identification and novel targets for therapeutic intervention.

FCRL1 and BAFF mRNA Expression as Novel Diagnostic and Prognostic Biomarkers in Diffuse Large B-Cell Lymphoma: Expression Signatures Predict R-CHOP Therapy Response and Survival

This study investigated the diagnostic, prognostic, and therapeutic significance of Fc receptor-like 1 (FCRL1) and B-cell activating factor (BAFF) mRNA expression in Egyptian patients with diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) undergoing the standard R-CHOP regimen (rituximab, cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, vincristine, and prednisone) using quantitative real-time PCR (RT-qPCR). The results demonstrated that FCRL1 and BAFF mRNA expression were significantly elevated in DLBCL patients compared to healthy controls. A strong positive correlation existed between BAFF and FCRL1 expression levels. Diagnostic performance assessed through combined ROC curve analysis revealed that BAFF, FCRL1, and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) achieved perfect diagnostic accuracy (AUC = 1.0), demonstrating 100% sensitivity, specificity, and predictive values. Further prognostic analysis using COX regression identified elevated FCRL1 expression as the most significant predictor of poor clinical outcomes. Kaplan-Meier survival analysis reinforced this finding, with high FCRL1 expression showing significant associations with reduced overall survival (OS, p = 0.031) and progression-free survival (PFS, p = 0.038). The study underscores the potential utility of BAFF and FCRL1 mRNA as diagnostic markers for DLBCL, with FCRL1 emerging as a promising prognostic marker and potential therapeutic target enabling more tailored treatment approaches for DLBCL, the most common type of B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma, and patients receiving R-CHOP therapy.

Immune Suppression and Rapid Invasion of Nile Tilapia Gills Following an Acute Challenge by Flavobacterium davisii

Flavobacterium davisii is one of the causative agents of columnaris disease, significantly impacting Nile tilapia aquaculture. This study examines the invasion and immune evasion mechanisms of a highly virulent F. davisii strain through transcriptomic profiling of tilapia gills following acute immersion. We identified 8192 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) at 2 h, 6 h, and 12 h post-infection. They are enriched in pathways related to oxidative stress, immune suppression, tissue necrosis, and bacterial infection. Notably, early overexpression of rhamnose-binding lectin and mucin genes facilitated bacterial adhesion. Key immune genes, including those encoding major histocompatibility complex (MHC), immunoglobulins (Ig), Toll-like receptors (TLRs), and chemokines, were downregulated, indicating immune suppression. Conversely, immune evasion genes such as Fc receptor-like (FcRL) and programmed death-ligand 1 (PDL1) were upregulated, along with genes associated with reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, leading to increased tissue damage. Additionally, the upregulation of fibroblast growth factor and collagen genes suggested active tissue repair. In conclusion, F. davisii rapidly invades its host by enhancing adhesion to gill tissues, suppressing immune function, and inducing tissue damage. These findings enhance our understanding of F. davisii infection mechanisms and support the future breeding of disease-resistant tilapia and the development of sustainable control strategies.

The Increased FCRL mRNA Expression in Patients with Graves' Disease Is Associated with Hyperthyroidism (But Not with Positive Thyroid Antibodies)

Background: Fc receptor-like (FCRL) genes play a role in the immune system by encoding proteins that function as receptors on the surface of immune cells. The clinical significance of FCRL gene expression in Graves' Disease (GD) and Graves' Orbitopathy (GO) remains unclear. We evaluated the expression of FCRL 2, 3, 4 mRNA in patients with GD and GO and its role in the development and activity of these diseases. Methods: Peripheral blood samples from patients with GD (n = 24) or GO (n = 49) hospitalized in the Department of Endocrinology and Metabolic Diseases, Medical University of Lodz, were collected. Expressions of FCRL2, FCRL3 and FCRL4 were measured by real-time PCR. Results: FCRL3 expression was higher in patients with GD compared to GO (1.375 vs. 0.673, p = 0.004) and, specifically, active GO (1.375 vs. 0.639, p = 0.005). Regarding FCRL4, mRNA expression was higher in GD compared to Control (3.078 vs. 0.916, p = 0.003), GO (3.078 vs. 1.178, p < 0.001), active GO (3.078 vs. 1.186, p = 0.002) and inactive GO (3.078 vs. 1.171, p = 0.008). In turn, FCRL4 mRNA expression was higher in patients with hyperthyroidism (subclinical + overt) than in euthyroid patients (2.509 vs. 0.995, p = 0.001 when the whole group of individuals was considered; 2.509 vs. 1.073, p = 0.004 when GO + GD was considered). Conclusions: The increased FCRL mRNA expression in patients with GD is associated with hyperthyroidism (but not with positive TSHRAbs), and our study is the first one to confirm this relationship.

Exploratory mass cytometry analysis reveals immunophenotypes of cancer treatment-related pneumonitis

Anticancer treatments can result in various adverse effects, including infections due to immune suppression/dysregulation and drug-induced toxicity in the lung. One of the major opportunistic infections is Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia (PCP), which can cause severe respiratory complications and high mortality rates. Cytotoxic drugs and immune-checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) can induce interstitial lung diseases (ILDs). Nonetheless, the differentiation of these diseases can be difficult, and the pathogenic mechanisms of such diseases are not yet fully understood. To better comprehend the immunophenotypes, we conducted an exploratory mass cytometry analysis of immune cell subsets in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid from patients with PCP, cytotoxic drug-induced ILD (DI-ILD), and ICI-associated ILD (ICI-ILD) using two panels containing 64 markers. In PCP, we observed an expansion of the CD16+ T cell population, with the highest CD16+ T proportion in a fatal case. In ICI-ILD, we found an increase in CD57+ CD8+ T cells expressing immune checkpoints (TIGIT+ LAG3+ TIM-3+ PD-1+), FCRL5+ B cells, and CCR2+ CCR5+ CD14+ monocytes. These findings uncover the diverse immunophenotypes and possible pathomechanisms of cancer treatment-related pneumonitis.

A liquid biomarker signature of inflammatory proteins accurately predicts early pancreatic cancer progression during FOLFIRINOX chemotherapy

BACKGROUND

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is often treated with FOLFIRINOX, a chemotherapy associated with high toxicity rates and variable efficacy. Therefore, it is crucial to identify patients at risk of early progression during treatment. This study aims to explore the potential of a multi-omics biomarker for predicting early PDAC progression by employing an in-depth mathematical modeling approach.

METHODS

Blood samples were collected from 58 PDAC patients undergoing FOLFIRINOX before and after the first cycle. These samples underwent gene (GEP) and inflammatory protein expression profiling (IPEP). We explored the predictive potential of exclusively IPEP through Stepwise (Backward) Multivariate Logistic Regression modeling. Additionally, we integrated GEP and IPEP using Bayesian Kernel Regression modeling, aiming to enhance predictive performance. Ultimately, the FOLFIRINOX IPEP (FFX-IPEP) signature was developed.

RESULTS

Our findings revealed that proteins exhibited superior predictive accuracy than genes. Consequently, the FFX-IPEP signature consisted of six proteins: AMN, BANK1, IL1RL2, ITGB6, MYO9B, and PRSS8. The signature effectively identified patients transitioning from disease control to progression early during FOLFIRINOX, achieving remarkable predictive accuracy with an AUC of 0.89 in an independent test set. Importantly, the FFX-IPEP signature outperformed the conventional CA19-9 tumor marker.

CONCLUSIONS

Our six-protein FFX-IPEP signature holds solid potential as a liquid biomarker for the early prediction of PDAC progression during toxic FOLFIRINOX chemotherapy. Further validation in an external cohort is crucial to confirm the utility of the FFX-IPEP signature. Future studies should expand to predict progression under different chemotherapies to enhance the guidance of personalized treatment selection in PDAC.

B cell clonality in cancer

Carcinogenesis in the process of long-term co-evolution of tumor cells and immune environment essentially becomes possible due to incorrect decisions made, remembered, and reproduced by the immune system at the level of clonal populations of antigen-specific T- and B-lymphocytes. Tumor-immunity interaction determines the nature of such errors and, consequently, delineates the possible ways of successful immunotherapeutic intervention. It is generally recognized that tumor-infiltrating B cells (TIL-B) can play both pro-tumor and anti-tumor roles. However, the exact mechanisms that determine the contribution of clonal B cell lineages with different specificities and functions remain largely unclear. This is due to the variability of cancer types, the molecular heterogeneity of tumor cells, and, to a large extent, the individual pattern of each immune response. Further progress requires detailed investigation of the functional properties and phenotypes of clonally heterogeneous B cells in relation to their antigenic specificities, which determine the functionality of both effector B lymphocytes and immunoglobulins produced in the tumor environment. Based on a real understanding of the role of clonal antigen-specific populations of B lymphocytes in the tumor microenvironment, we need to learn how to develop new methods of targeted immunotherapy, as well as adapt existing treatment options to the specific needs of different patients and patient subgroups. In this review, we will cover B cells functional diversity and their multifaceted roles in the tumor environment.

Impact of structural modifications of IgG antibodies on effector functions

Immunoglobulin G (IgG) antibodies are a critical component of the adaptive immune system, binding to and neutralizing pathogens and other foreign substances. Recent advances in molecular antibody biology and structural protein engineering enabled the modification of IgG antibodies to enhance their therapeutic potential. This review summarizes recent progress in both natural and engineered structural modifications of IgG antibodies, including allotypic variation, glycosylation, Fc engineering, and Fc gamma receptor binding optimization. We discuss the functional consequences of these modifications to highlight their potential for therapeutical applications.

Silencing of FCRLB by shRNA ameliorates MuSK-induced EAMG in mice

INTRODUCTION

Muscle specific kinase (MuSK) antibody positive myasthenia gravis (MG) often presents with a severe disease course and resistance to treatment. Treatment-refractory patients may respond to B cell depleting treatment methods. Our aim was to investigate whether inhibition of Fc receptor-like B (FCRLB) could effectively suppress autoimmunity without diminishing B cell counts in animal model of MG, a classical antibody-mediated autoimmune disease.

METHODS

Experimental autoimmune MG was induced in Balb/C mice with two s.c. immunizations with recombinant human MuSK in complete Freund's adjuvant. FCRLB was silenced with a lentiviral particle transported shRNA in myasthenic mice with a single i.p. injection during second MuSK-immunization. Control immunized mice received scrambled shRNA or saline. Mice were observed for clinical parameters for 28 days and at termination, anti-MuSK IgG, neuromuscular junction (NMJ) deposits, muscle AChR expression and lymph node B and T cell ratios were assessed by ELISA, immunofluorescence, immunoblotting and flow cytometry, respectively.

RESULTS

FCRLB shRNA-treated mice showed no muscle weakness or weight loss at termination. Also, they exhibited higher grip strength and muscle AChR levels, lower anti-MuSK IgG and NMJ IgG/C3 levels than control mice. Flow cytometry analysis showed that ratios of major effector lymph node B and T cell populations were not altered by FCRLB silencing. However, regulatory T and CD19 + CD5+ B cell ratios were decreased in FCRLB shRNA-group.

CONCLUSION

Our results provide evidence regarding involvement and therapeutic value of FCRLB in MuSK-MG. Silencing of FCRLB appears to substantially inhibit antibody production without interfering with survival of major lymphocyte populations.

Teleost leukocyte immune-type receptors

Leukocyte immune-type receptors (LITRs) are a large family of teleost immunoregulatory receptor-types belonging to the immunoglobulin superfamily. These immune genes are phylogenetically and syntenically related to Fc receptor-like protein genes (fcrls) present in other vertebrates, including amphibians, birds, mice, and man. In vitro-based functional analyses of LITRs, using transfection approaches, have shown that LITRs have diverse immunoregulatory potentials including the activation and inhibition of several innate immune effector responses such as cell-mediated killing responses, degranulation, cytokine secretion, and phagocytosis. The purpose of this mini review is to provide an overview of fish LITR-mediated immunoregulatory potentials obtained from various teleost model systems, including channel catfish, zebrafish, and goldfish. We will also describe preliminary characterization of a new goldish LITR-specific polyclonal antibody (pAb) and discuss the significance of this tool for further investigation of the functions of fish LITRs.

Systemic evaluation of lymphocyte-bound C4d and immunoglobulins for diagnosis and activity monitoring of Systemic Lupus Erythematosus

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the role of lymphocyte-bound C4d (LB-C4d: T-C4d, B-C4d) and immunoglobulins (LB-Igs: T-IgG, T-IgM, B-κ and B-λ) in the diagnosis and monitoring of SLE.

DESIGN & METHODS

The levels of C4d and Igs on peripheral lymphocytes were measured in 172 patients with SLE, 174 patients with other non-SLE inflammatory diseases and 100 healthy individuals. Immunobinding and blocking experiments were performed to characterize Igs from SLE patients to generate LB-C4d/Igs in vitro. Sixty-five patients with SLE were followed up longitudinally. Disease activity was assessed for each SLE patient.

RESULTS

Patients with SLE had the highest median LB-C4d/Igs levels. LB-C4d had a significant but weak positive association with LB-Igs, with correlation coefficients ranging from 0.008 to 0.316. Anti-cardiolipin IgG and anti-β2GP1 IgG, but not C3 and C4, were found to be closely associated with LB-C4d/Igs formation, with correlations as high as 0.337. Compared to anti-dsDNA, LB-C4d performed better in SLE diagnosis, while B-κ and B-λ performed better in disease activity monitoring.

CONCLUSIONS

Both autoantibodies and receptors on lymphocytes contribute to LB-C4d/Igs formation. LB-C4d/Igs could be used as reliable indicators for SLE diagnosis and activity monitoring.

The potential of FCRL genes as targets for cancer treatment: insights from bioinformatics and immunology

Cancer is a prevalent and dangerous disease that requires a multifaceted approach to treatment. The FCRL family gene has been linked to immune function and tumor progression. Bioinformatics may help unravel their role in cancer treatment. We conducted a comprehensive analysis of the FCRL family genes in pan-cancer using publicly available databases and online tools. Specifically, we examined gene expression, prognostic significance, mutation profiles, drug resistance, as well as biological and immunomodulatory roles. Our data were sourced from The Cancer Genome Atlas, Genotype-Tissue Expression, cBioPortal, STRING, GSCALite, Cytoscape, and R software. The expression of FCRL genes varies significantly across different tumor types and normal tissues. While high expression of most FCRL genes is associated with a protective effect in many cancers, FCRLB appears to be a risk factor in several types of cancer. Alterations in FCRL family genes, particularly through amplification and mutation, are common in cancers. These genes are closely linked to classical cancer pathways such as apoptosis, epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), estrogen receptor (ER) signaling, and DNA damage response. Enrichment analysis indicates that FCRL family genes are predominantly associated with immune cell activation and differentiation. Immunological assays demonstrate a strong positive correlation between FCRL family genes and tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs), immunostimulators, and immunoinhibitors. Furthermore, FCRL family genes can enhance the sensitivity of various anticancer drugs. The FCRL family genes are vital in cancer pathogenesis and progression. Targeting these genes in conjunction with immunotherapy could enhance cancer treatment efficacy. Further research is required to determine their potential as therapeutic targets.

Fc receptor-like 1 (FCRL1) is a novel biomarker for prognosis and a possible therapeutic target in diffuse large B-cell lymphoma

BACKGROUND

Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) is the most common subtype of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, which can involve various types of mature B-cells. Considering that the incidence of DLBCL has increased, additional research is required to identify novel and effective prognostic and therapeutic molecules. Fc receptor-like 1 (FCRL1) acts as an activation co-receptor of human B-cells. Aberrant expression of this molecule has been reported in a number of B-cell-related disorders. Moreover, the clinical significance and prognosis value of FCRL1 in DLBCL are not completely identified.

METHODS

In this study, the expression levels of FCRL1 were determined in thirty patients with DLBCL and 15 healthy controls (HCs). In addition, the correlation between FCRL1 expressions with clinicopathological variables of DLBCL patients were examined. Then, the potential roles of FCRL1 in proliferation, apoptosis, and cell cycle distribution of B-cells from DLBCL patients were determined using flow cytometry analysis, after knockdown of this marker using retroviral short hairpin RNA interference. Quantitative real time-PCR, western blotting, and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay were also used to identify the possible effects of FCRL1 knockdown on the expression levels of BCL-2, BID, BAX, intracellular signaling pathway PI3K/p-Akt, and p65 nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) in the B-cells of DLBCL.

RESULTS

Statistical analysis revealed higher levels of FCRL1 expression in the B-cells of DLBCL patients compared to HCs at both protein and mRNA levels. A positive correlation was observed between the FCRL1 expression and some clinicopathological parameters of DLBCL patients. In addition, FCRL1 knockdown significantly decreased cell proliferation and stimulated apoptosis as well as G1 cell cycle arrest in the B-cells of DLBCL patients. The levels of p65 NF-κB and PI3K/p-Akt expressions were markedly reduced after knockdown of FCRL1 expression.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggested that FCRL1 could be a potential novel biomarker for prognosis and/or a possible effective therapeutic target for treatment of patients with DLBCL.

Novel Causal Plasma Proteins for Hypothyroidism: A Large-scale Plasma Proteome Mendelian Randomization Analysis

CONTEXT

Although several risk proteins for hypothyroidism have been reported in recent years, many more plasma proteins have not been tested.

OBJECTIVE

To determine potential mechanisms and novel causal plasma proteins for hypothyroidism using Mendelian randomization (MR).

METHODS

A large-scale plasma proteome MR analysis was conducted using protein quantitative trait loci (pQTLs) for 2297 plasma proteins. We classified pQTLs into 4 different groups. MR analyses were conducted within the 4 groups simultaneously. Significant proteins were discovered and validated in 2 different cohorts. Colocalization analysis and enrichment analysis were conducted using proteins found with MR.

RESULTS

Thirty-one proteins were identified in the discovery cohort. Among them, 13 were validated in the validation cohort. Nine of the 13 proteins are risk factors (ISG15, Fc receptor-like protein 2, tumor necrosis factor ligand superfamily member 14, Rab-2A, FcRL3, thrombomodulin, interferon [IFN]-lambda-1, platelet glycoprotein Ib alpha chain, IL-7RA) for hypothyroidism, whereas others are protective proteins (protein O-glucosyltransferase 1 [POGLUT1], tumor necrosis factor ligand superfamily, 3-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA hydrolase, transferrin receptor protein 1). Among the significant proteins, POGLUT1 strongly colocalized with expression quantitative trait loci from whole blood (posterior probability of colocalization [PP4] = 0.978) and the thyroid (PP4 = 0.978). Two different trans-pQTLs (rs2111485 PP4 = 0.998; rs35103715 PP4 = 0.998) for IFN-lambda-1 strongly colocalized with hypothyroidism in different chromosomes.

CONCLUSION

Thirteen various proteins were identified and validated to be associated with hypothyroidism using univariable MR. We reinforced and expanded the effect of IFN on hypothyroidism. Several proteins identified in this study could explain part of the association between the coagulation system and hypothyroidism. Our study broadens the causal proteins for hypothyroidism and provides the relationships between plasma proteins and hypothyroidism. The proteins identified in this study can be used as early screening biomarkers for hypothyroidism.

Mass cytometry identifies characteristic immune cell subsets in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid from interstitial lung diseases

Immune cells have been implicated in interstitial lung diseases (ILDs), although their phenotypes and effector mechanisms remain poorly understood. To better understand these cells, we conducted an exploratory mass cytometry analysis of immune cell subsets in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) from patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF), connective-tissue disease (CTD)-related ILD, and sarcoidosis, using two panels including 64 markers. Among myeloid cells, we observed the expansion of CD14⁺ CD36^hi CD84^hiCCR2^- monocyte populations in IPF. These CD14⁺ CD36^hi CD84^hi CCR2^- subsets were also increased in ILDs with a progressive phenotype, particularly in a case of acute exacerbation (AEx) of IPF. Analysis of B cells revealed the presence of cells at various stages of differentiation in BALF, with a higher percentage of IgG memory B cells in CTD-ILDs and a trend toward more FCRL5⁺ B cells. These FCRL5⁺ B cells were also present in the patient with AEx-IPF and sarcoidosis with advanced lung lesions. Among T cells, we found increased levels of IL-2R⁺ TIGIT⁺ LAG3⁺ CD4⁺ T cells in IPF, increased levels of CXCR3⁺ CD226⁺ CD4⁺ T cells in sarcoidosis, and increased levels of PD1⁺ TIGIT⁺ CD57⁺ CD8⁺ T cells in CTD-ILDs. Together, these findings underscore the diverse immunopathogenesis of ILDs.

Antibody Fc-chimerism and effector functions: When IgG takes advantage of IgA

Recent advances in the development of therapeutic antibodies (Abs) have greatly improved the treatment of otherwise drug-resistant cancers and autoimmune diseases. Antibody activities are mediated by both their Fab and the Fc. However, therapeutic Abs base their protective mechanisms on Fc-mediated effector functions resulting in the activation of innate immune cells by FcRs. Therefore, Fc-bioengineering has been widely used to maximise the efficacy and convenience of therapeutic antibodies. Today, IgG remains the only commercially available therapeutic Abs, at the expense of other isotypes. Indeed, production, sampling, analysis and related in vivo studies are easier to perform with IgG than with IgA due to well-developed tools. However, interest in IgA is growing, despite a shorter serum half-life and a more difficult sampling and purification methods than IgG. Indeed, the paradigm that the effector functions of IgG surpass those of IgA has been experimentally challenged. Firstly, IgA has been shown to bind to its Fc receptor (FcR) on effector cells of innate immunity with greater efficiency than IgG, resulting in more robust IgA-mediated effector functions in vitro and better survival of treated animals. In addition, the two isotypes have been shown to act synergistically. From these results, new therapeutic formats of Abs are currently emerging, in particular chimeric Abs containing two tandemly expressed Fc, one from IgG (Fcγ) and one from IgA (Fcα). By binding both FcγR and FcαR on effector cells, these new chimeras showed improved effector functions in vitro that were translated in vivo. Furthermore, these chimeras retain an IgG-like half-life in the blood, which could improve Ab-based therapies, including in AIDS. This review provides the rationale, based on the biology of IgA and IgG, for the development of Fcγ and Fcα chimeras as therapeutic Abs, offering promising opportunities for HIV-1 infected patients. We will first describe the main features of the IgA- and IgG-specific Fc-mediated signalling pathways and their respective functional differences. We will then summarise the very promising results on Fcγ and Fcα containing chimeras in cancer treatment. Finally, we will discuss the impact of Fcα-Fcγ chimerism in prevention/treatment strategies against infectious diseases such as HIV-1.

High Expression of FCRLB Predicts Poor Prognosis in Patients With Colorectal Cancer

Background: Mining the prognostic biomarkers of colorectal cancer (CRC) has important clinical and scientific significance. The role of Fc receptor-like B (FCRLB) in solid tumors has never been reported or studied to our knowledge, and the prognostic role of FCRLB in CRC still awaits characterization.

Methods: The potential prognostic factor FCRLB was screened out through TCGA database analysis. Then, its expression and associations with clinicopathological variables were assessed in the TCGA CRC cohort. The prognostic value of FCRLB was examined with multiple methods, such as the Kaplan-Meier method, ROC curve, time-dependent ROC analysis, and prediction model nomograms. Then, functional enrichment and annotation among the high and low FCRLB groups were achieved utilizing GO and KEGG analyses and GSEA. Fresh CRC tissue samples obtained clinically were used for the preparation of the tissue microarray and for further validation.

Results: FCRLB was highly expressed in CRC tissues compared to normal tissues. Moreover, over-expression of FCRLB correlated with higher CEA levels, advanced T stage, N stage, M stage, AJCC stage, lymphatic invasion, perineural invasion, and incomplete resection (R1 and R2 resection). In addition, high expression of FCRLB was closely correlated to less favorable OS, DSS, and PFI. The analysis of CRC tissue microarray further confirmed the conclusion drawn from the TCGA data analysis.

Conclusion: FCRLB is notably up-regulated in CRC tissues and may serve as a potential biomarker of CRC.

Prominent B cell signature differentiates discoid from subacute cutaneous lupus erythematosus

While B cells account for a significant proportion of the lymphocytic infiltrate in discoid lupus erythematosus (DLE), their contribution to pathogenesis is unknown. In this study, we compare the immune landscape of 17 subjects with DLE to 21 subjects with subacute cutaneous lupus erythematosus (SCLE) using transcriptomic and histologic analyses of lesional skin. A few of the subjects (3/17 DLE, 5/21 SCLE) had concomitant systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). Using a modified Autoimmune Profiling Panel (NanoString), we demonstrate that B cell-specific genes, including canonical pan-B cell markers CD19 (p=0.0060), CD20 (p=0.0047), and CD79a (p=0.0201), are among the most upregulated genes in DLE. Numerous other genes encoding B cell-associated proteins, including immunoglobulins, B cell activating factor (BAFF) receptors, and Fc-receptor like (FCRL) family members, are similarly enriched. Relative cell type scoring reveals that among various inflammatory cell types, only B cells are more prevalent in DLE. Digital whole-image slide analysis of immunohistochemistry for B cells (CD20) and T cells (CD3) supports our gene expression findings of a disproportionately greater B cell infiltrate in DLE lesions. Overall, this study identifies a B cell-predominant signature unique to DLE and highlights the importance of studying the role of cutaneous B cells in DLE pathogenesis.

Differential expression of long non-coding RNAs under Peste des petits ruminants virus (PPRV) infection in goats

Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) characterized by fever, sore mouth, conjunctivitis, gastroenteritis, and pneumonia, is an acute, highly contagious viral disease of sheep and goats. The role of long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) in PPRV infection has not been explored to date. In this study, the transcriptome profiles of virulent Peste des petits ruminants virus (PPRV) infected goat tissues – lung and spleen were analyzed to identify the role of lncRNAs in PPRV infection. A total of 13,928 lncRNA transcripts were identified, out of which 170 were known lncRNAs. Intergenic lncRNAs (7625) formed the major chunk of the novel lncRNA transcripts. Differential expression analysis revealed that 15 lncRNAs (11 downregulated and 4 upregulated) in the PPRV infected spleen samples and 16 lncRNAs (13 downregulated and 3 upregulated) in PPRV infected lung samples were differentially expressed as compared to control. The differentially expressed lncRNAs (DElncRNAs) possibly regulate various immunological processes related to natural killer cell activation, antigen processing and presentation, and B cell activity, by regulating the expression of mRNAs through the cis- or trans-regulatory mechanism. Functional enrichment analysis of differentially expressed mRNAs (DEmRNAs) revealed enrichment of immune pathways and biological processes in concordance with the pathways in which correlated lncRNA-neighboring genes were enriched. The results suggest that a coordinated immune response is raised in both lung and spleen tissues of the goat through mRNA-lncRNA crosstalk.

The Identification of Blood Biomarkers of Chronic Neuropathic Pain by Comparative Transcriptomics

In this study, we recruited 50 chronic pain (neuropathic and nociceptive) and 43 pain-free controls to identify specific blood biomarkers of chronic neuropathic pain (CNP). Affymetrix microarray was carried out on a subset of samples selected 10 CNP and 10 pain-free control participants. The most significant genes were cross-validated using the entire dataset by quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR). In comparative analysis of controls and CNP patients, WLS (P = 4.80 × 10^–7), CHPT1 (P = 7.74 × 10^–7) and CASP5 (P = 2.30 × 10^–5) were highly significant, whilst FGFBP2 (P = 0.00162), STAT1 (P = 0.00223), FCRL6 (P = 0.00335), MYC (P = 0.00335), XCL2 (P = 0.0144) and GZMA (P = 0.0168) were significant in all CNP patients. A three-arm comparative analysis was also carried out with control as the reference group and CNP samples differentiated into two groups of high and low S-LANSS score using a cut-off of 12. STAT1, XCL2 and GZMA were not significant but KIR3DL2 (P = 0.00838), SH2D1B (P = 0.00295) and CXCR31 (P = 0.0136) were significant in CNP high S-LANSS group (S-LANSS score > 12), along with WLS (P = 8.40 × 10^–5), CHPT1 (P = 7.89 × 10^–4), CASP5 (P = 0.00393), FGFBP2 (P = 8.70 × 10^–4) and FCRL6 (P = 0.00199), suggesting involvement of immune pathways in CNP mechanisms. None of the genes was significant in CNP samples with low (< 12) S-LANSS score. The area under the receiver operating characteristic (AUROC) analysis showed that combination of MYC, STAT1, TLR4, CASP5 and WLS gene expression could be potentially used as a biomarker signature of CNP (AUROC − 0.852, (0.773, 0.931 95% CI)).

Transcriptomic analysis revealed increased expression of genes involved in keratinization in the tears of COVID-19 patients

Recent studies have focused their attention on conjunctivitis as one of the symptoms of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Therefore, tear samples were taken from COVID-19 patients and the presence of SARS-CoV-2 was evidenced using Real Time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction. The main aim of this study was to analyze mRNA expression in the tears of patients with COVID-19 compared with healthy subjects using Next Generation Sequencing (NGS). The functional evaluation of the transcriptome highlighted 25 genes that differ statistically between healthy individuals and patients affected by COVID-19. In particular, the NGS analysis identified the presence of several genes involved in B cell signaling and keratinization. In particular, the genes involved in B cell signaling were downregulated in the tears of COVID-19 patients, while those involved in keratinization were upregulated. The results indicated that SARS-CoV-2 may induce a process of ocular keratinization and a defective B cell response.

Molecular and functional profiling identifies therapeutically targetable vulnerabilities in plasmablastic lymphoma

Plasmablastic lymphoma (PBL) represents a rare and aggressive lymphoma subtype frequently associated with immunosuppression. Clinically, patients with PBL are characterized by poor outcome. The current understanding of the molecular pathogenesis is limited. A hallmark of PBL represents its plasmacytic differentiation with loss of B-cell markers and, in 60% of cases, its association with Epstein-Barr virus (EBV). Roughly 50% of PBLs harbor a MYC translocation. Here, we provide a comprehensive integrated genomic analysis using whole exome sequencing (WES) and genome-wide copy number determination in a large cohort of 96 primary PBL samples. We identify alterations activating the RAS-RAF, JAK-STAT, and NOTCH pathways as well as frequent high-level amplifications in MCL1 and IRF4. The functional impact of these alterations is assessed using an unbiased shRNA screen in a PBL model. These analyses identify the IRF4 and JAK-STAT pathways as promising molecular targets to improve outcome of PBL patients.

Plasmablastic lymphoma (PBL) is an aggressive lymphoma subtype characterized by poor prognosis but the molecular knowledge of the disease is limited. Here, the authors perform whole exome sequencing and copy number determination of primary samples highlighting IRF4 and JAK-STAT pathways as therapeutic targets for PBL.

Whole-genome sequencing of brown-marbled grouper (Epinephelus fuscoguttatus) provides insights into adaptive evolution and growth differences

The brown-marbled grouper (Epinephelus fuscoguttatus) is an important species of fish in the coral reef ecosystem and marine aquaculture industry. In this study, a high-quality chromosome-level genome of brown-marbled grouper was assembled using Oxford Nanopore technology and Hi-C technology. The GC content and heterozygosity were approximately 42% and 0.35%, respectively. A total of 230 contigs with a total length of 1047 Mb and contig N50 of 13.8 Mb were assembled, and 228 contigs (99.13%) were anchored into 24 chromosomes. A total of 24,005 protein-coding genes were predicted, among which 23,862 (99.4%) predicted genes were annotated. Phylogenetic analysis showed that brown-marbled grouper and humpback grouper were clustered into one clade that separated approximately 11-23 million years ago. Collinearity analyses showed that there was no obvious duplication of large fragments between chromosomes in the brown-marbled grouper. Genomes of the humpback grouper and giant grouper showed a high collinearity with that of the brown-marbled grouper. A total of 305 expanded gene families were detected in the brown-marbled grouper genome, which is mainly involved in disease resistance. In addition, a genetic linkage map with 3061.88 cM was constructed. Based on the physical and genetic map, one growth-related quantitative trait loci was detected in 32,332,447 bp of chromosome 20, and meox1 and etv4 were considered candidate growth-related genes. This study provides pivotal genetic resources for further evolutionary analyses and artificial breeding of groupers.

Molecular Mechanisms of Resistance to Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors in Melanoma Treatment: An Update

Over the past decade, immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICI) have revolutionized the treatment of advanced melanoma and ensured significant improvement in overall survival versus chemotherapy. ICI or targeted therapy are now the first line treatment in advanced melanoma, depending on the tumor v-raf murine sarcoma viral oncogene homolog B1 (BRAF) mutational status. While these new approaches have changed the outcomes for many patients, a significant proportion of them still experience lack of response, known as primary resistance. Mechanisms of primary drug resistance are not fully elucidated. However, many alterations have been found in ICI-resistant melanomas and possibly contribute to that outcome. Furthermore, some tumors which initially responded to ICI treatment ultimately developed mechanisms of acquired resistance and subsequent tumor progression. In this review, we give an overview of tumor primary and acquired resistance mechanisms to ICI and discuss future perspectives with regards to new molecular targets and combinatorial therapies.

Variants of Novel Immunomodulatory Fc Receptor Like 5 Gene Are Associated With Multiple Sclerosis Susceptibility in the Polish Population

Fc receptors have been shown to play a role in several autoimmune diseases. We aimed to test, for the first time, whether some of the single nucleotide variants in the FCRL5 gene were associated with multiple sclerosis (MS) susceptibility and clinical manifestations in the Polish population. The case-control study included 94 individuals with MS and 160 healthy subjects. We genotyped two single nucleotide variants of the FCRL5 gene: rs2012199 and rs6679793. The age of onset, disease duration, and clinical condition of the MS subjects were analyzed. For statistical analysis, we used the chi-squared test confirmed with Fisher's exact test. We observed the significant differences in the distribution of investigated FCRL5 genotypes between MS subjects and healthy controls. The CC and CT genotypes, as well as the C allele of rs2012199, were significantly more common in the MS subjects, as were genotypes AA and AG, and allele A of rs6679793. We noted that decreased MS susceptibility was associated with the T allele rs2012199 (OR = 0.37, p = 0.0002) and G allele rs6679793 (OR = 0.6, p = 0.02). Our results support the role of the FCRL5 locus in MS predisposition and extend the evidence of its influence on autoimmunity.

Expression profile of Fc receptor-like molecules in patients with IgA nephropathy

BACKGROUND

Fc receptor-like (FCRL) molecules were considered to play a role in the pathogenesis of certain autoimmune diseases. Nonetheless, the clinical significance of FCRLs in IgA nephropathy (IgAN) remains unclear.

OBJECTIVE

This study is aimed at investigating the expression levels of FCRLs molecules in IgAN patients and determining its relevance to disease activity.

METHODS

The mRNA expression levels of FCRLs were determined in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) of 42 IgAN patients and 48 healthy controls by quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR). FCRLs proteins expression in B cells of 25 IgAN patients, 14 patients with non-IgAN glomerulonephritis, and 29 healthy controls were detected by Flow cytometry. The Spearman correlation test was used to assess the correlation of FCRLs expression with clinical parameters of IgAN patients.

RESULTS

Our results indicated significant down-regulation of FCRL2 and FCRL3 mRNA levels in IgAN patients compared to healthy subjects. Surface protein expression of FCRLs molecules confirmed the qRT-PCR results. But FCRL2 and FCRL3 protein levels did not correlate with clinicopathologic phenotypes of IgAN patients. However, we found a significant positively correlation of FCRL2 and FCRL3 mRNA expression with the core 1 β1,3-galactosyltransferase (C1GALT1) and its molecular chaperone (Cosmc) mRNA levels in IgAN patients.

CONCLUSIONS

FCRL2 and FCRL3 expression levels in IgAN patients are significantly decreased and correlated with CIGALT1 and Cosmc mRNA expression.

Identification of distinct LRC- and Fc receptor complex-like chromosomal regions in fish supports that teleost leukocyte immune-type receptors are distant relatives of mammalian Fc receptor-like molecules

Leukocyte immune-type receptors (LITRs) are a large family of immunoregulatory receptor-types originally identified in the channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus (Ip)LITRs). Phylogenetic analyses of LITRs show that they share distant evolutionary relationships with important mammalian immunoregulatory receptors belonging to the Fc receptors family and the leukocyte receptor complex (LRC), but their syntenic relationships with these immunoglobulin superfamily members have not been investigated. To further examine the possible evolutionary connections between teleost LITRs and various mammalian immunoregulatory receptor-types, we surveyed the genomic databases of representative vertebrate taxa and our results show that teleost LITRs generally exist in large genomic clusters, which are linked to vangl2, arhgef11, and slam family genes, features that are also shared by amphibian and mammalian Fc receptor-like molecules (FCRLs). Moreover, detailed phylogenetic comparisons between the individual Ig-like domains of LITRs and mammalian FCRLs shows that these receptors share related Ig-like domains indicative of their common ancestry. However, contrary to our previous reports, no supportive evidence for phylogenetic relationships between the Ig-like domains of LITRs with the Ig-like domains of LRC-encoded mammalian immunoregulatory receptors was found. We also identified an LRC-like region in the zebrafish genome, but no expanded litr-related genes were located in this region. Similarly, no lilr-related genes were found in spotted gar, a representative basal ray-finned fish. Finally, two distantly related fcrls and an LRC-like gene were identified in the elephant shark genome, suggesting that the loss of an immunoregulatory receptor-containing LRC region may be unique to ray-finned fish.

Age-associated B Cells Appear in Patients with Granulomatous Lung Diseases

Rationale: A subpopulation of B cells (age-associated B cells [ABCs]) is increased in mice and humans with infections or autoimmune diseases. Because depletion of these cells might be valuable in patients with certain lung diseases, the goal was to find out if ABC-like cells were at elevated levels in such patients.Objectives: To measure ABC-like cell percentages in patients with lung granulomatous diseases.Methods: Peripheral blood and BAL cells from patients with sarcoidosis, beryllium sensitivity, or hypersensitivity pneumonitis and healthy subjects were analyzed for the percentage of B cells that were ABC-like, defined by expression of CD11c, low levels of CD21, FcRL 1-5 (Fc receptor-like protein 1-5) expression, and, in some cases, T-bet.Measurements and Main Results: ABC-like cells in blood were at low percentages in healthy subjects and higher percentages in patients with sarcoidosis as well as at high percentages among BAL cells of patients with sarcoidosis, beryllium disease, and hypersensitivity pneumonitis. Treatment of patients with sarcoidosis led to reduced percentages of ABC-like cells in blood.Conclusions: Increased levels of ABC-like cells in patients with sarcoidosis may be useful in diagnosis. The increase in percentage of ABC-like cells in patients with lung granulomatous diseases and decrease in treated patients suggests that depletion of these cells may be valuable.

Development and Validation of the B Cell-Associated Fc Receptor-like Molecule-Based Prognostic Signature in Skin Cutaneous Melanoma

Methods

461 patients with CM from The Cancer Genome Atlast- (TCGA-) CM cohort and 290 pateints from the GSE65904 cohort were enrolled. Student's t-test was used to compare the differences, and Pearson's correlation coefficient was employed to evaluate associations. The Kaplan-Meier (K-M) survival analysis was used to evaluate overall survival (OS). The multivariate Cox regression was conducted to generate the FCRL prognostic signature. GSEA analysis and TIMER were employed to study the potential mechanisms.

Result

Patients with Breslow's depth high or equal to 3 cm had the lower expression of FCRL1-6 (all, P < 0.05), which indicates poor OS, as well as age, stage, and Breslow's depth subgroups (all, P < 0.001). The overall FCRL1-6 prognostic signature was generated in the TCGA cohort (K-M, P < 0.001; area under the curve (AUC), 0.649 for 3-year OS) and validated in the GSE65904 cohort (K-M, P < 0.001; AUC, 0.659 for 3-year OS). The GSEA results revealed that high expression of FCRLs indicated activated immune-associated pathways, and FCRLs are positively associated with the infiltration of B cells.

Conclusion

Highly expressed FCRLs were observed associated with a favourable OS of CM. FCRL1-6-based prediction signature could act as a biomarker to predict the prognosis of patients with CM.

Harnessing the immune system via FcγR function in immune therapy: a pathway to next-gen mAbs

The human fragment crystallizable (Fc)γ receptor (R) interacts with antigen‐complexed immunoglobulin (Ig)G ligands to both activate and modulate a powerful network of inflammatory host‐protective effector functions that are key to the normal physiology of immune resistance to pathogens. More than 100 therapeutic monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) are approved or in late stage clinical trials, many of which harness the potent FcγR‐mediated effector systems to varying degrees. This is most evident for antibodies targeting cancer cells inducing antibody‐dependent killing or phagocytosis but is also true to some degree for the mAbs that neutralize or remove small macromolecules such as cytokines or other Igs. The use of mAb therapeutics has also revealed a “scaffolding” role for FcγR which, in different contexts, may either underpin the therapeutic mAb action such as immune agonism or trigger catastrophic adverse effects. The still unmet therapeutic need in many cancers, inflammatory diseases or emerging infections such as severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS‐CoV‐2) requires increased effort on the development of improved and novel mAbs. A more mature appreciation of the immunobiology of individual FcγR function and the complexity of the relationships between FcγRs and antibodies is fueling efforts to develop more potent “next‐gen” therapeutic antibodies. Such development strategies now include focused glycan or protein engineering of the Fc to increase affinity and/or tailor specificity for selective engagement of individual activating FcγRs or the inhibitory FcγRIIb or alternatively, for the ablation of FcγR interaction altogether. This review touches on recent aspects of FcγR and IgG immunobiology and its relationship with the present and future actions of therapeutic mAbs.

Fc Receptor-Like 1 as a Promising Target for Immunotherapeutic Interventions of B-Cell-Related Disorders

BACKGROUND

Human B-cell responses are regulated through synergy between a collection of activation and inhibitory receptors. Fc receptor-like (FCRL) molecules have recently been identified as co-receptors that are preferentially expressed in human B-cells, which may also play an important role in the regulation of human B-cell responses. FCRL1 is a member of the FCRL family molecules with 2 immunoreceptor tyrosine-based activation motifs (ITAMs) in its cytoplasmic tail. This study aimed to investigate the regulatory roles of FCRL1 in human B-cell responses.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The regulatory potential of FCRL1 in human B-cell through knockdown of FCRL1 expression in the Ramos and Daudi Burkitt lymphoma (BL) cell lines by using the retroviral-based short hairpin ribonucleic acid (shRNA) delivery method. The functional consequences of FCRL1 knockdown were assessed by measuring the proliferation, apoptosis, and the expression levels of Bcl-2, Bid, and Bax genes as well as phosphoinositide-3 kinase/-serine-threonine kinase AKT (PI3K/p-AKT) pathway in the BL cells, using the quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and flow cytometry analysis. The NF-κB activity was also measured by the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA).

RESULTS

FCRL1 knockdown significantly decreased cell proliferation and increased apoptotic cell death in the BL cells. There was a significant reduction in the extent of the Bcl-2 gene expression in the treated BL cells compared with control cells. On the contrary, FCRL1 knockdown increased the expression levels of Bid and Bax genes in the treated BL cells when compared with control cells. In addition, the extent of the PI3K/p-AKT expression and phosphorylated-p65 NF-κB activity was significantly decreased in the treated BL cells compared with control cells.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that FCRL1 can play a key role in the activation of human B-cell responses and has the potential to serve as a target for immunotherapy of FCRL1 positive B-cell-related disorders.

Prognostic significance of Fc receptor-like 1 in patients with chronic lymphocytic leukemia, hairy cell leukemia, and various B-cell non-Hodgkin's lymphoma

Fc receptor-like 1 (FCRL1) positively regulates B-cell responses and may involve in the pathogenesis of B-cell malignancies. This study examined the expression pattern of FCRL1 in B-cell non-Hodgkin's lymphoma patients using real-time PCR and flow cytometry. The results revealed higher levels of FCRL1 expression in diffuse large B-cell lymphoma, hairy cell leukemia, and Burkitt lymphoma patients compared with control groups. There was a significant reduction in the levels of FCRL1 expression in chronic lymphocytic leukemia and mantle cell lymphoma patients compared with healthy individuals. These findings suggest FCRL1 as an excellent marker for the prognosis or immunotherapy of B-cell malignancies.

The Ligands for Human IgG and Their Effector Functions

Activation of the humoral immune system is initiated when antibodies recognize an antigen and trigger effector functions through the interaction with Fc engaging molecules. The most abundant immunoglobulin isotype in serum is Immunoglobulin G (IgG), which is involved in many humoral immune responses, strongly interacting with effector molecules. The IgG subclass, allotype, and glycosylation pattern, among other factors, determine the interaction strength of the IgG-Fc domain with these Fc engaging molecules, and thereby the potential strength of their effector potential. The molecules responsible for the effector phase include the classical IgG-Fc receptors (FcγR), the neonatal Fc-receptor (FcRn), the Tripartite motif-containing protein 21 (TRIM21), the first component of the classical complement cascade (C1), and possibly, the Fc-receptor-like receptors (FcRL4/5). Here we provide an overview of the interactions of IgG with effector molecules and discuss how natural variation on the antibody and effector molecule side shapes the biological activities of antibodies. The increasing knowledge on the Fc-mediated effector functions of antibodies drives the development of better therapeutic antibodies for cancer immunotherapy or treatment of autoimmune diseases.

Impact of Genetic Polymorphisms on Human Immune Cell Gene Expression

While many genetic variants have been associated with risk for human diseases, how these variants affect gene expression in various cell types remains largely unknown. To address this gap, the DICE (database of immune cell expression, expression quantitative trait loci [eQTLs], and epigenomics) project was established. Considering all human immune cell types and conditions studied, we identified cis-eQTLs for a total of 12,254 unique genes, which represent 61% of all protein-coding genes expressed in these cell types. Strikingly, a large fraction (41%) of these genes showed a strong cis-association with genotype only in a single cell type. We also found that biological sex is associated with major differences in immune cell gene expression in a highly cell-specific manner. These datasets will help reveal the effects of disease risk-associated genetic polymorphisms on specific immune cell types, providing mechanistic insights into how they might influence pathogenesis (https://dice-database.org).