Bioactive mushroom polysaccharides as antitumor: an overview

Metabolites from a Pleurotus tuber-regium collected in Madagascar

Pleurotus tuber-regium was isolated from a dead trunk of Raphia farinifera (Arecaceae) in a lowland moist forest in Antsohihy, Madagascar, and the species was confirmed by molecular analysis and morphological observations. The main bioactive metabolites of the mycelium extracts were identified by mass spectrometry techniques. Five structural diverse metabolites, tryptophol, pyroglutamic acid, prolyldiketopiperazine B, sporol and RKS-1778, were characterised by LC-MS qTOF analysis of the hydro-alcoholic extract. GC-MS analysis of both chloroform and ethyl acetate extracts revealed the presence of several saturated and -unsaturated fatty acids and their esters derivatives.

Structural characteization and anti-colorectal cancer activity of a fucogalactan purified from Ganoderma tsugae

Ganoderma tsugae, a traditional medicinal mushroom, exhibits anti-tumor properties; however, the effects of its polysaccharide on anti-colorectal cancer remain undetermined. Herein, a fucogalactan of Ganoderma tsugae (GTP-a2) was isolated and purified from its fruiting body. The molecular weight of GTP-a2 is 7.056 kDa, consisting of →6)-α-D-Galp-(1→ backbone with branches of α-L-Fucp-(1→, which is attached at C2. Subsequently, the anti-colorectal cancer activity and potential mechanism of GTP-a2 were investigated in azoxymethane/dextran sulfate sodium (AOM/DSS)-induced colitis-associated colorectal cancer (CAC) mice. GTP-a2 reduced colorectal tumor numbers and suppressed tumor development. Metabolite analysis of the colon revealed that GTP-a2 altered cancer-related metabolites, notably increasing ophiobolin A level. Combined with proteomics and biochemical detection data revealed that GTP-a2 regulated the levels of Aldh1a3 through the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR)/phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/protein kinase B (AKT) signaling pathway in vivo and in vitro. Additionally, GTP-a2 regulated immune function by inhibiting macrophage polarization to M1-like phenotype. These results suggest the potential application of GTP-a2 as a therapeutic agent for CAC.

Structural characteristics and potential antidepressant mechanism of a water-insoluble β-1,3-glucan from an edible fungus Wolfiporia cocos

A water-insoluble β-1,3-glucan (Wβ) with a molecular weight of 8.12 × 104 Da was extracted from an edible fungus Wolfiporia cocos. Its backbone was composed of 1,3-β-linked Glcp branched at the C-2, C-4, and C-6 positions, connecting more 1,3-β-linked Glcp with a triple helical structure. Wβ effectively ameliorated depressive symptoms, abnormality of neurotransmitters and inflammatory factors in chronic unpredictable mild stress (CUMS)-induced rats. Wβ also altered the composition of gut microbiota, especially Romboutsia, norank_f_Muribaculaceae and Ruminococcus. Integration of untargeted and targeted metabolomics and Western blotting analysis suggested that the short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) and tryptophan metabolites were the most important metabolites involved in Wβ mediation. Wβ significantly modulated the levels of 7 SCFAs and 7 tryptophan metabolites, as well as the protein expression of two related enzymes (indoleamine-2,3-dioxygenase: IDO; kynurenine-3-monooxygenase: KMO). Our results suggest that Wβ exerts its antidepressant effect by influencing neurotransmitters and inflammatory factors through interactions between the gut microbiota, SCFA and tryptophan metabolites. The findings offer new insights into water-insoluble polysaccharides, especially β-glucan in structure analysis and utilization, and provide evidence that Wβ, a novel glucan from the often-discarded water-insoluble part of Wolfiporia cocos, has potential application in antidepressant health products.

Isolation, structures, bioactivities, and applications of the polysaccharides from Boletus spp.: A review

Boletus spp., the edible mushrooms distributed in Europe, Asia, and North America, have been widely used as food and medicinal ingredients worldwide. Bioactive polysaccharides are highly abundant in Boletus spp., as demonstrated by modern phytochemical studies. The isolation, chemical properties, and bioactivities of polysaccharides from Boletus spp. have long been attracted by academics worldwide. However, there is still a lack of systematic tracking of research progress on Boletus polysaccharides (BPs), which is essential for researchers to understand their potential and gain a deeper insight into their functional mechanisms. In this review, we summarized the recent development of BPs, including the extraction and purification methods, physiochemical and structural features, bioactivities and functional mechanisms, the structure-activity relationship, and the potential applications. This review aims to provide researchers with a comprehensive understanding of the current progress and potential of BPs to assist their further investigations.

Growth and Yield Performance of Pleurotus ostreatus Cultivated on Agricultural Residues

Food insecurity and malnutrition are among the major problems in most developing nations recently. Mushroom cultivation is one of the promising strategies to overcome these challenges. The growth and productivity of mushrooms differ because of their wide range of cultivation substrates. Cultivating Pleurotus ostreatus on suitable substrates is one of the key factors affecting its growth and productivity. This study was, therefore, conducted to investigate the effect of cultivation substrates, namely straws of tef (Trt1), barley (Trt2), and wheat (Trt3), husks of faba bean (Trt4) and field pea (Trt5), and sawdust (Trt6) alone, and their mixture (1:1, w/w) (Trt7) on the growth and yield of P. ostreatus. Mycelial colonization, primordial formation, and days to first harvest were faster (13.00, 19.67, and 22.67 days) for the P. ostreatus cultivated on Trt7 whereas those grown on Trt6 were delayed (18.00, 27.00, and 29.67 days), respectively. Trt7 gave a higher (67.33) fruiting body/bunch and total yield (2001.70 g/bag). Biological efficiency was also significantly (p < 0.05) higher for Trt7 (238.64%). Strong relationships between cap diameter and mushroom yield (r = 0.84***), number of bunches (r = 0.76***), number of fruiting bodies (r = 0.80***), stipe length (r = 0.83***), and total yield (r = 0.84***) were among significant positive correlations observed. In conclusion, cultivating P. ostreatus on the Trt7 (mixed substrate) is recommended rather than using either of the residues alone.

Application of lentinan in suppression of Marek's disease virus infection

Marek's disease virus (MDV) is an extremely widespread avian immunosuppressive virus. In recent years, many reports have shown that there are still cases of MDV infection and immunosuppression after immunization with the vaccine. Consequently, there is a need to develop alternative complementary approaches for strengthening the efficacy of MDV prevention and control measures. Lentinan (LNT) is a macromolecular compound with immune-enhancing activity extracted from shiitake mushrooms. To explore the value and effectiveness of administering LNT through drinking water in the prevention and control of MDV, this study first observed the effects of high and low doses of LNT on weight gain, organ development, viral replication, and antibody titer of an avian influenza virus subtype H9 (AIV-H9) inactivated vaccine in specific pathogen-free (SPF) chicks infected with the wild strain of MDV. The results showed that both high and low doses of LNT significantly alleviated the weight gain retardation and liver and spleen enlargement caused by MDV infection, and significantly inhibited the replication of MDV in SPF chicks (P < 0.05), compared with the MDV-positive control group, both high and low doses of LNT significantly increased the antibody titer of AIV-H9 after immunization with inactivated AIV-H9 vaccine (P < 0.0001). On this basis, we also observed the effects of a chicken Marek's disease meq gene deletion live vaccine (SC9-1 strain), administered alone or in combination with LNT, on MDV infections of varying virulence in Hy-Line Brown chicks. The results showed that combined administration of LNT and the SC9-1 vaccine resulted in a significant alleviation of weight gain retardation and liver and spleen enlargement due to MDV infection (P < 0.05), as well as a significant inhibition of MDV replication and release in Hy-Line Brown chicks compared to the vaccine alone (P < 0.0001). These findings suggest that LNT not only alleviates the adverse effects of MDV infection in chickens but also enhances the efficacy of MDV vaccination, offering a potential auxiliary measure for controlling MDV infection.

Characteristics and Biological Activities of a Novel Polysaccharide R1 Isolated from Rubus chingii Hu

Raspberry (Rubus chingii Hu) is a Chinese herb that is rich in nutrients and has anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antioxidant, anti-allergic, hypoglycemic, and other effects. A water-soluble polysaccharide was extracted from raspberry by using hot water extraction then purified by DEAE-Sepharose Fast Flow column chromatography. The structural characteristics of the polysaccharide (R1) are as follows: the molar ratio of the monosaccharide composition is Ara:Gal:Xyl:Glc:Man = 31.15:27.64:13.61:13.48:10.60; the molecular weight is 32,580 Da; the methylation results show that 5-Araf is the main chain and there is a presence of 3,6-Galp, 4-Xylp, and 2,3,5-Araf branches, and that terminal Araf (T-Araf) is the major telomeric sugar. It contains α and β glycosidic bonds and is highly branched, with the presence of a helical structure. In the in vitro antioxidant assay, R1 showed the highest scavenging of superoxide anion radicals at 70.38%, followed by the scavenging of DPPH radicals at 52.9% and the scavenging of hydroxyl radicals at 29.28%. In immunomodulation and anti-cancer experiments, R1 did not significantly inhibit or promote RAW264.7 cells but was able to increase the expression of anti-inflammatory cytokines in a concentration-dependent manner. It also significantly inhibited cancer cell survival. R1 enhances immunity by limiting the proliferation of cancer cells primarily through direct inhibition while promoting the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines. These findings reveal the potential benefits of raspberry polysaccharides and provide evidence for developing immunologically functional products from raspberry polysaccharides.

New insights into signaling pathways of cancer prevention effects of polysaccharides from edible and medicinal mushrooms

BACKGROUND

Despite extensive efforts, empirical techniques have yielded limited progress in finding effective anticancer medications, with chemotherapy drugs often associated with drug resistance and serious side effects. Thus, there is a pressing need for novel agents with minimal adverse effects. Natural substances, widely used in treating various illnesses, including cancer, offer promising alternatives. Among these, mushrooms, rich in low molecular weight secondary metabolites, polysaccharides, and polysaccharide-protein complexes, have gained attention for their potential anticancer properties.

RESULTS

Mushroom polysaccharides have been found to impede oncogenesis and tumor metastasis by directly inhibiting tumor cell growth and indirectly enhancing immune system functions. These polysaccharides engage with numerous cell signaling pathways that influence cancer development and progression. They affect pathways that control cell survival, growth, and differentiation, and they also play a role in adjusting the tumor immune microenvironment.

CONCLUSION

This review highlights the potential of mushroom polysaccharides as promising anticancer agents due to their ability to modulate cell signaling pathways crucial for cancer development. Understanding the mechanisms underlying their effects on these pathways is essential for harnessing their therapeutic potential and developing novel strategies for cancer treatment.

Fabrication and optimization of chitosan-g-m-PEG-NH2 copolymer for advanced glioblastoma therapy using surface engineered lentinan loaded nanovesicles for nasal delivery

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) exhibits a high mortality with an incidence rate of 3-5 per 100,000 each year, which demands existence of newer approach for its treatment. The current study focuses on synthesis of novel lipidic nanovesicles (LNs) loaded with highly potent macromolecule Lentinan (LNT) and surface modified with methoxy poly (ethylene glycol; PEG) amine (m-PEG-NH2)-grafted-chitosan (CS) for intranasal delivery. The grafting procedure was optimized using Box Behnken design (BBD) to limit the use of organic solvents. The fabricated polymer showed enhanced aqueous solubility, biodegradability and mucoadhesion, resulting in higher nasal mucosa permeation (z = 53.52 μm). The presence of PEG enabled the sustained release of LNT till 48 h and assisted in achieving higher accumulation of LNT in CSF (41.7 ± 3.1 μg/mL) and a higher brain targeting potential of 96.3 ± 2.31 % (p < 0.05). In-vitro cellular studies showed the enhanced anti-GBM effect of LNT on U87 MG cells by reducing the cell viability (~2 times reduction in IC50 value) accompanied with large number of cells undergoing late apoptosis and death (p < 0.05) because of the higher cellular uptake (63.22 ± 3.01 ng/100 cells) of novel formulation. The copolymer comprising LNs were biocompatible, stable and can be used as an effective tool in the management of GBM.

Immunopotentiating effect of lentinan on chicks and its inhibitory effect on Marek's disease virus infection

Marek's disease virus (MDV) is a significant tumorigenic virus that causes severe immunosuppression in chickens. Lentinan (LNT) is an immunomodulator containing β-glucans and is widely used in areas such as antiviral, anticancer, and immune regulation. To investigate the immunomodulatory effects of LNT on specific pathogen-free (SPF) chicks and its potential to inhibit MDV infection, we conducted an MDV challenge experiment and observed the immune-enhancing effect of LNT on SPF chicks. The results showed that LNT promoted the growth and development of SPF chicks and induced the upregulation of cytokines such as Mx protein, interferon-γ (INF-γ), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), and interleukin-2 (IL-2). The specific gravity of CD4+ T-lymphocytes and CD8+ T-lymphocytes and their ratios were also significantly upregulated. Prophylactic use of LNT inhibited MDV replication in lymphocytes, liver, and spleen. It also alleviated MDV-induced weight loss and hepatosplenomegaly in SPF chicks. The present study confirms that LNT can enhance the levels of innate and cellular immunity in SPF chicks and contributes to the inhibition of MDV replication in vivo and mitigation of immune organ damage in chicks due to MDV infection. This provides an adjunctive measure for better control of MDV infection.

A scoping review of the effects of mushroom and fungus extracts in rodent models of depression and tests of antidepressant activity

One of the most important developments in psychopharmacology in the past decade has been the emergence of novel treatments for mood disorders, such as psilocybin for treatment-resistant depression. Psilocybin is most commonly found in different species of mushroom; however, the literature on mushroom and fungus extracts with potential antidepressant activity extends well beyond just psilocybin-containing mushrooms, and includes both psychedelic and non-psychedelic species. In the current review, we systematically review the preclinical literature on mushroom and fungus extracts, and their effects of animal models of depression and tests of antidepressant activity. The PICO structure, PRISMA checklist and the Cochrane Handbook for systematic reviews of intervention were used to guide the search strategy. A scoping search was conducted in electronic databases PubMed, CINAHL, Embase and Web of Science. The literature search identified 50 relevant and suitable published studies. These included 19 different species of mushrooms, as well as seven different species of other fungi. Nearly all studies reported antidepressant-like effects of treatment with extracts. Treatments were most commonly delivered orally, in both acute and chronically administered studies to predominantly male rodents. Multiple animal models of depression were used, the most common being unpredictable chronic mild stress, while the tail suspension test and forced swim test were most frequently used as standalone antidepressant screens. Details on each experiment with mushroom and fungus species are discussed in detail, while an evaluation is provided of the strengths and weaknesses of these studies.

Structural characterization and immunomodulatory activity of a water-soluble polysaccharide from Poria cocos

In order to investigate the structural characteristics and immunomodulatory effects of Poria cocos polysaccharides, a water-soluble homogeneous polysaccharide (PCP-2) was isolated by water extraction and alcohol precipitation and further purified by Cellulose DEAE-52 and Sephacryl S-100HR column chromatography. PCP-2 is a heteropolysaccharide composed of glucose, galactose, mannose, and fucose in a molar ratio of 42.0: 35.0: 13.9: 9.1. It exhibits a narrow molecular weight distribution at 2.35 kDa with a branching degree of 37.1 %. The main chain types of PCP-2 include 1,3-β-D-Glc and 1,6-β-D-Glc as the backbone glucans and 1,6-α-D-Gal as the backbone heterogalactan. In vitro experiments demonstrate that PCP-2 directly stimulate RAW264.7 cell proliferation and secretion of inflammatory factors such as NO and TNF-α. In cyclophosphamide (CTX)-induced mice, it promotes the development of thymus and spleen immune organs, elevates the blood levels of IgG, IgA, IgM and CD3+CD4+ T cells, increases the intestinal villus height/ crypt depth ratio and improves gut barrier dysfunctions. These findings suggest that PCP-2 is a natural fungal polysaccharide with broad spectrum of immunoenhancing effects, which can significantly ameliorate the immunocompromised state.

A Review of Natural Polysaccharides: Sources, Characteristics, Properties, Food, and Pharmaceutical Applications

Natural polysaccharides, which are described in this study, are some of the most extensively used biopolymers in food, pharmaceutical, and medical applications, because they are renewable and have a high level of biocompatibility and biodegradability. The fundamental understanding required to properly exploit polysaccharides potential in the biocomposite, nanoconjugate, and pharmaceutical industries depends on detailed research of these molecules. Polysaccharides are preferred over other polymers because of their biocompatibility, bioactivity, homogeneity, and bioadhesive properties. Natural polysaccharides have also been discovered to have excellent rheological and biomucoadhesive properties, which may be used to design and create a variety of useful and cost-effective drug delivery systems. Polysaccharide-based composites derived from natural sources have been widely exploited due to their multifunctional properties, particularly in drug delivery systems and biomedical applications. These materials have achieved global attention and are in great demand because to their biochemical properties, which mimic both human and animal cells. Although synthetic polymers account for a substantial amount of organic chemistry, natural polymers play a vital role in a range of industries, including biomedical, pharmaceutical, and construction. As a consequence, the current study will provide information on natural polymers, their biological uses, and food and pharmaceutical applications.

Anatoluin A and B isolated from medicinal Tricholoma anatolicum are new cytotoxic ergostanoids against the most common cancers

Tricholoma anatolicum is an edible mushroom from the matsutake group growing under Cedar trees. Bioactivity-guided fractionation of Tricholoma anatolicum afforded two new (1 and 2), three known ergosterols (3-6), and four known (6-9) compounds. Structures were identified as anatoluin A (1), anatoluin B (2), 5α,6α-epoxy-ergosta-7,22-dien,3β-ol (3), ergosterol-endoperoxide (4), ergosterol,3β-ol (5), 3,5-dihydroxyfuran-2(5H)-one (6), mannitol (7), turanose (8), fumaric acid (9) using spectroscopic techniques. The cytotoxic activity of extract and isolated compounds was performed using MTT assay against MCF7, HT29, H1299, and HeLa cancerous cell lines while toxicity against PDF and L929 fibroblast healthy cell lines. The lipid peroxidation inhibitory and ABTS•+ scavenging activities were used to determine antioxidant activity. The polar extracts exhibited significant cytotoxic activity. The more perfect is that the extracts and isolated compounds (1-5) were inactive against PDF and L929 healthy cell lines. Compounds 1-3 and 4 exhibited noticeable cytotoxic activity, while 1-5 moderately inhibited lipid peroxidation.

Chemical Modification of Polysaccharides: A Review of Synthetic Approaches, Biological Activity and the Structure-Activity Relationship

Natural polysaccharides are macromolecular substances with great potential owing to their wide biological activity and low toxicity. However, not all polysaccharides have significant pharmacodynamic activity; hence, appropriate chemical modification methods can be selected according to the unique structural characteristics of polysaccharides to assist in enhancing and promoting the presentation of their biological activities. This review summarizes research progress on modified polysaccharides, including common chemical modification methods, the change in biological activity following modification, and the factors affecting the biological activity of chemically modified polysaccharides. At the same time, the difficulties and challenges associated with the structural modification of natural polysaccharides are also outlined in this review. Thus, research on polysaccharide structure modification is critical for improving the development and utilization of sugar products.

The benefits of edible mushroom polysaccharides for health and their influence on gut microbiota: a review

The gut microbiome is a complex biological community that deeply affects various aspects of human health, including dietary intake, disease progression, drug metabolism, and immune system regulation. Edible mushroom polysaccharides (EMPs) are bioactive fibers derived from mushrooms that possess a range of beneficial properties, including anti-tumor, antioxidant, antiviral, hypoglycemic, and immunomodulatory effects. Studies have demonstrated that EMPs are resistant to human digestive enzymes and serve as a crucial source of energy for the gut microbiome, promoting the growth of beneficial bacteria. EMPs also positively impact human health by modulating the composition of the gut microbiome. This review discusses the extraction and purification processes of EMPs, their potential to improve health conditions by regulating the composition of the gut microbiome, and their application prospects. Furthermore, this paper provides valuable guidance and recommendations for future studies on EMPs consumption in disease management.

Nutritional Value and Antioxidant, Antimicrobial and Cytotoxic Activity of Wild Macrofungi

Macrofungi are among the most promising sources of biologically active natural products with nutritional qualities and therapeutic values. In this work, the nutritional value of nine species of wild macrofungi from Ibague-Tolima (Colombia) was evaluated. In addition the antioxidant, antimicrobial and cytotoxic activities of an ethanol:water (70:30) extract of wild basidiomata were evaluated. The wild mushrooms' nutritional potential showed that the genus Pleurotus and Lentinus have the best protein percentages, with 18.4% and 18.5%. The nine extracts evaluated managed to stabilize the two radicals evaluated; however, lower IC₅₀ was found for Phellinus gilvus and Ganoderma australe extracts. The results showed that Trametes coccinea, Pleurotus floridanus and Ganoderma australe extracts were the most effective as antimicrobials, with high inhibition percentages against Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Klebsiella pneumoniae. Antifungal activity results against Rhizopus oryzae, Penicillium sp. and Aspergillus niger showed that the nine extracts were effective at the concentrations tested. Considering cell viability against isolated leukocytes, seven of the nine extracts showed percentages higher than 50% of cell viability. This research describes the nutritional value of nine wild macrofungi in Colombia and their potential for antimicrobial, cytotoxic and antioxidant activity.

Antiangiogenic potential of Lepista nuda extract suppressing MAPK/p38 signaling-mediated developmental angiogenesis in zebrafish and HUVECs

The medicinal properties of natural/edible plant products and their use are popular in traditional practice owing to their nutritional contents with little to no side effects. Lepista nuda (L. nuda), an edible mushroom (Clitocybe nuda, commonly known as blewit), has attracted researchers to evaluate its contents and the mechanism of its activities. In the current study, we focused on evaluating the antiangiogenic effects of L. nuda water extract on zebrafish development and in vitro human umbilical vein endothelial cell (HUVEC) tube formation. Bioactive components such as ergothioneine, eritadenine, and adenosine were identified and quantified by HPLC analysis. The L. nuda extract showed antiangiogenic properties and inhibited intersegmental vessel (ISV), caudal vein plexus (CVP), hyaloid vessel (HV), and subintestinal vessel (SIV) development in Tg (fli1: EGFP) zebrafish embryos. The expression of angiogenesis-related genes (vegfaa, kdrl, vegfba, flt1, kdr) was affected following L. nuda extract treatment. L. nuda extract attenuated in vitro HUVEC tube formation, migration, and invasion. Furthermore, inhibition of MAPK/p38 signaling and depletion of proangiogenic genes, including growth factors (fgf, ang2, and vegfa); primary and accessory receptors (tie2, vegfr2, and eng); MMPs (mmp1 and mmp2); and cytokines (il-1α, il-1β, il-6, and tnf-α) was observed in HUVECs following L. nuda treatment. An in vivo zebrafish xenograft assay showed that L. nuda extract inhibited HuCCT1 cell-induced SIV sprouting in HuCCT1-injected embryos. Collectively, the results suggest that L. nuda could be a potential inhibitor of angiogenesis limiting cancer progression.

Separation and Purification of Antioxidant Peptide from Fermented Whey Protein by Lactobacillus rhamnosus B2-1

In this study, a antioxidant activity peptide fraction was separated and purified from metabolites of whey protein fermented by Lactobacillus rhamnosus B2-1. The fermentation sample was separated by macroporous resin D101 and Sephadex G-15. The collected fractions were tested for antioxidant and antitumor activities. In order to test the antioxidant activity of fractions, Hydroxyl (·OH), 2,2'-azino-bis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid (ABTS), and Oxygen Radical Absorbance Capacity (ORAC) were used. The final purified peptide B11 showed highest ABTS and ·OH radical scavenging rate by 84.36±1.89% and 62.43±2.64%, respectively, and had an ORAC activity of 1,726.44± 2.76 μM Trolox equivalent/g. Further, the inhibitory effect of B11 on the proliferation of LoVo human colon cancer cells, KB and Cal-27 human oral cancer cells were enhanced with increasing concentrations of B11. B11 contains 51.421% amino acids, with Glu and Asp being the major constituents. In this study, we obtained peptide fraction B11 with antioxidant activity, which is promising for development.

Genoprotective activity of the Pleurotus eryngii mushrooms following their in vitro and in vivo fermentation by fecal microbiota

Pleurotus eryngii mushrooms are commercially cultivated and widely consumed due to their organoleptic properties, and the low caloric and high nutritional value. In addition, they contain various biologically active and health-promoting compounds; very recently, their genoprotective effect in Caco-2 cells after their fermentation by the human fecal microbiota was also documented. In the current study, the effect of P. eryngii pre- and post-fermentation supernatants in micronuclei formation was evaluated in human lymphocytes. In addition, the genoprotective properties of increasing concentrations of aqueous extracts from P. eryngii mushrooms (150, 300, 600 mg/kg) against the cyclophosphamide-induced DNA damage were studied in young and elderly female and male mice in bone marrow and whole blood cells. The ability of the highest dose (600 mg/kg) to regulate the main cellular signaling pathways was also evaluated in gut and liver tissues of female animals by quantifying the mRNA expression of NrF2, Nfkβ, DNMT1, and IL-22 genes. P. eryngii post-fermentation, but not pre-fermentation, supernatants were able to protect human lymphocytes from the mitomycin C-induced DNA damage in a dose-dependent manner. Similarly, genoprotection was also observed in bone marrow cells of mice treated by gavage with P. eryngii extract. The effect was observed in all the experimental groups of mice (young and elderly, male and female) and was more potent in young female mice. Overexpression of all genes examined was observed in both tissues, mainly among the elderly animals. In conclusion, P. eryngii mushrooms were shown to maintain genome integrity through protecting cells from genotoxic insults. These beneficial effects can be attributed to their antioxidant and immunomodulatory properties, as well as their ability to regulate the cell's epigenetic mechanisms and maintain cell homeostasis.

Mushroom-Derived Novel Selenium Nanocomposites’ Effects on Potato Plant Growth and Tuber Germination

Multicomponent materials, where nanosized selenium (Se) is dispersed in polymer matrices, present as polymer nanocomposites (NCs), namely, selenium polymer nanocomposites (SeNCs). Selenium as an inorganic nanofiller in NCs has been extensively studied for its biological activity. More ecologically safe and beneficial approaches to obtain Se-based products are the current challenge. Biopolymers have attained great attention with perspective multifunctional and high-performance NCs exhibiting low environmental impact with unique properties, being abundantly available, renewable, and eco-friendly. Composites based on polysaccharides, including beta-glucans from edible and medicinal mushrooms, are bioactive, biocompatible, biodegradable, and have exhibited innovative potential. We synthesized SeNCs on the basis of the extracellular polysaccharides of several medicinal mushrooms. The influence of bio-composites from mushrooms on potato plant growth and tuber germination were studied in two potato cultivars: Lukyanovsky and Lugovskoi. Bio-composites based on Grifola umbellata demonstrated the strongest positive effect on the number of leaves and plant height in both cultivars, without negative effect on biomass of the vegetative part. Treatment of the potato tubers with SeNC from Gr. umbellata also significantly increased germ length. Potato plants exposed to Se-bio-composite from Ganoderma lucidum SIE1303 experienced an increase in the potato vegetative biomass by up to 55% versus the control. We found earlier that this bio-composite was the most efficient against biofilm formation by the potato ring rot causative agent Clavibacter sepedonicus (Cms). Bio-composites based on Pleurotus ostreatus promoted increase in the potato root biomass in the Lugovskoi cultivar by up to 79% versus the control. The phytostimulating ability of mushroom-based Se-containing bio-composites, together with their anti-phytopathogenic activity, testifies in favor of the bifunctional mode of action of these Se-biopreparations. The application of stimulatory green SeNCs for growth enhancement could be used to increase crop yield. Thus, by combining myco-nanotechnology with the intrinsic biological activity of selenium, an unexpectedly efficient tool for possible applications of SeNCs could be identified.

Nano Drug Delivery System for Tumor Immunotherapy: Next-Generation Therapeutics

Tumor immunotherapy is an artificial stimulation of the immune system to enhance anti-cancer response. It has become a powerful clinical strategy for treating cancer. The number of immunotherapy drug approvals has been increasing in recent years, and many treatments are in clinical and preclinical stages. Despite this progress, the special tumor heterogeneity and immunosuppressive microenvironment of solid tumors made immunotherapy in the majority of cancer cases difficult. Therefore, understanding how to improve the intratumoral enrichment degree and the response rate of various immunotherapy drugs is key to improve efficacy and control adverse reactions. With the development of materials science and nanotechnology, advanced biomaterials such as nanoparticle and drug delivery systems like T-cell delivery therapy can improve effectiveness of immunotherapy while reducing the toxic side effects on non-target cells, which offers innovative ideas for improving immunity therapeutic effectiveness. In this review, we discuss the mechanism of tumor cell immune escape and focus on current immunotherapy (such as cytokine immunotherapy, therapeutic monoclonal antibody immunotherapy, PD-1/PD-L1 therapy, CAR-T therapy, tumor vaccine, oncolytic virus, and other new types of immunity) and its challenges as well as the latest nanotechnology (such as bionic nanoparticles, self-assembled nanoparticles, deformable nanoparticles, photothermal effect nanoparticles, stimuli-responsive nanoparticles, and other types) applications in cancer immunotherapy.

Mushrooms as Potential Sources of Active Metabolites and Medicines

Background

Mushrooms exist as an integral and vital component of the ecosystem and are very precious fungi. Mushrooms have been traditionally used in herbal medicines for many centuries.

Scope and Approach

There are a variety of medicinal mushrooms mentioned in the current work such as Agaricus, Amanita, Calocybe, Cantharellus, Cordyceps, Coprinus, Cortinarius, Ganoderma, Grifola, Huitlacoche, Hydnum, Lentinus, Morchella, Pleurotus, Rigidoporus, Tremella, Trametes sp., etc., which play a vital role in various diseases because of several metabolic components and nutritional values. Medicinal mushrooms can be identified morphologically on the basis of their size, color (white, black, yellow, brown, cream, pink and purple-brown, etc.), chemical reactions, consistency of the stalk and cap, mode of attachment of the gills to the stalk, and spore color and mass, and further identified at a molecular level by Internal Transcribed Spacer (ITS) regions of gene sequencing. There are also other methods that have recently begun to be used for the identification of mushrooms such as high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC), nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR), microscopy, thin-layer chromatography (TLC), DNA sequencing, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), chemical finger printing, ultra-performance liquid chromatography (UPLC), fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), liquid chromatography quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LCMS-TOF) and high-performance thin-layer chromatography (HPTLC). Lately, the matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) technique is also used for the identification of fungi.

Key Finding and Conclusion

Medicinal mushrooms possess various biological activities like anti-oxidant, anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, anti-aging, anti-tumor, anti-viral, anti-parasitic, anti-microbial, hepatoprotective, anti-HIV, anti-diabetic, and many others that will be mentioned in this article. This manuscript will provide future direction, action mechanisms, applications, and the recent collective information of medicinal mushrooms. In addition to many unknown metabolites and patented active metabolites are also included.

Oxidative Stress and Autophagy Are Important Processes in Post Ripeness and Brown Film Formation in Mycelium of Lentinula edodes

Lentinula edodes (Berk.) Pegler, the shiitake mushroom, is one of the most important mushrooms in the global mushroom industry. Although mycelium post ripeness and brown film (BF) formation are crucial for fruiting body initiation, the underlying molecular mechanisms of BF formation are largely unknown. In this study, proteomic quantification (relative and absolute) and metabolomic profiling of L. edodes were performed using isobaric tags and gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy, respectively. A total of 2,474 proteins were identified, which included 239 differentially expressed proteins. Notably, several proteins associated with autophagy were upregulated, including RPD3, TOR1, VAC8, VPS1, and VPS27. Transmission electron microscopy also indicated that autophagy occurred in post ripeness and BF formation. In time-dependent analysis of the metabolome, metabolites associated with oxidative stress and autophagy changed significantly, including mannitol, trehalose, myo-inositol, glucose, leucine, valine, glutamine, and 4-aminobutyric acid. Thus, oxidative stress and autophagy were important processes in post ripeness and BF formation in L. edodes, and new insights were gained into molecular mechanisms at proteome and metabolome levels.

Cell death induction by mycelium extracts from Pleurotus spp. on cervical cancer cell lines

Mushrooms have health benefits, including anti-tumoral properties. We evaluated the cytotoxic and cell death induction effects of water-soluble extracts of Pleurotus ostreatus and Pleurotus eryngii mycelium in the cervical cancer cell lines HeLa (HVP18⁺) and SiHa (HVP16⁺) as well as the non-tumoral cell line HaCaT. Both Pleurotus extracts presented similar protein patterns from 190 to 10 kDa and displayed protease activity on a gelatine substrate. The mycelium extracts of both Pleurotus strains induced a dose-dependent cytotoxic effect on HPV⁺ cells IC₅₀ 65 µg), whereas HaCaT cells were less susceptible (IC₅₀ 90 µg). The cytotoxic effect at the IC₅₀ concentration was not associated with apoptosis, the activation of Caspases-3/7 was not significantive; only P. eryngii induced a moderate (1.2-fold) increase in SiHa cells. Pleurotus extracts induced autophagy, mainly in SiHa cells (4.3-fold). Neither extracts induced changes in p53 protein expression, suggesting that the cytotoxic effect could be due to p53-independent pathways.

Current emerging trends in antitumor activities of polysaccharides extracted by microwave- and ultrasound-assisted methods

This overview highlighted the in vitro and in vivo antitumor effects of polysaccharides extracted by ultrasound- and microwave-assisted solvent extraction methods. The polysaccharide fragments with stronger antiproliferation, antitumoral, and anticarcinoma effects can be identified through purification, fractionation, and bio-analytical assessments. Most of the extracted glucan-based polysaccharides in a dose-dependent manner inhibited the growth of human cancer cell types with cell death-associated morphological changes. Glucans, glucogalactans, and pectins without any cytotoxicity on normal cells showed the antitumor potential by the apoptosis induction and the inhibition of their tumorigenesis, metastasis, and transformation. There is a significantly high association among antiproliferative activities, structural features (e.g., molecular weight, monosaccharide compositions, and contents of sulfate, selenium, and uronic acid), and other bio-functionalities (e.g., antiradical and antioxidant) of isolated polysaccharides. The evaluation of structure-activity relationships of antitumor polysaccharides is an intriguing step forward to develop highly potent anticancer pharmaceuticals and foods without any side effects.

Two new compounds from edible mushroom Sarcomyxa edulis

Chemical investigation of the edible mushroom Sarcomyxa edulis led to the isolation of one new highly degraded sterol (1), and one new β-carboline alkaloid (2), along with nine known compounds (3-11) for the first time from this mushroom. The structures of new compounds were elucidated using HR-ESI-MS data and NMR spectroscopy. In addition, anti-inflammatory activity of new compounds was evaluated against lipopolysaccharide-induced NO production in RAW 264.7 macrophages. Compound 2 exhibited a good anti-inflammatory activity with IC₅₀ value of 9.88 ± 0.48 μM, and compound 1 exhibited a weak inhibitory effect with IC₅₀ value of 71.36 ± 5.11 μM.

Bioactives from Mushroom: Health Attributes and Food Industry Applications

It is well-known that the utilization of mushrooms as therapeutic agents is not new. Over the past years, they have been used by local individuals as food, as well as medicines, throughout the world. Nowadays, mushrooms are excessively used in the medicine, pharmacy, food, and fermentation fields as well. Wild mushrooms are of particular interest, especially Trametes versicolor (commonly known as turkey mushrooms) due to their various uses in the food and pharmaceutical industries. They represent not only a huge storehouse of vitamins, minerals, and dietary fiber, but they are also an important source of bioactive polysaccharides. They are widely used in traditional oriental therapies. The fruiting bodies are used in the preparation of health tonics and tea. The present review is necessary to explore more about this mushroom-like classical taxonomy, morphology, nutritional value, bioactivity, various health attributes, mechanism of bioactive components against various diseases, and food applications. The influence of processing processes on the nutritional properties and bioactivity of the fungus is discussed. Potential bioactive components promising health attributes of Trametes versicolor are extensively described. Additionally, several in vivo and in vitro studies have demonstrated the beneficial effects of polysaccharopeptides (PSP) and Polysaccharide-K (PSK) on the aspects related to immune function and inflammation, also presenting an anticancerous effect. Moreover, PSP and PSK were successfully described to decrease several life-threatening diseases. The potential food applications of Trametes versicolor were detailed to signify the effective utilization of the mushroom in functional food formulation.

Cognition of polysaccharides from confusion to clarity: when the next "omic" will come?

With the accelerated pace of modern life, people are facing more and more health pressure. The study of polysaccharides seemed a good choice as a potential treasure trove. Polysaccharides, one of the four basic substances (proteins, nucleic acids, lipids and carbohydrates) that constitute life activities, are obviously an underrated macromolecular substance with great potential. Compared with protein and nucleic acid, the research of polysaccharides is still in the primary stage. The relationship between structure and function of polysaccharides is not clear. In this review, we highlighted the main methods of extraction, purification and structure identification of polysaccharides; summarized their biological activities including immunoregulation, hypoglycemic, anti-tumor, anti-virus, anti-coagulation, and so on. Particularly, the relationship between their structures and activities was described. In addition, the applications of polysaccharides in health food, medicine and cosmetics were also reviewed. This review can help polysaccharide researchers quickly understand the whole process of polysaccharides research, and also provide a reference for the comprehensive utilization of polysaccharides. We need to standardize the research of polysaccharides to make the experimental data more universal, and take it as important references in the review process. Glycomic may appear as the next "omic" after genomic and proteomic in the future. This review provides support for the advancement of glycomics.

An α-D-galactan and a β-D-glucan from the mushroom Amanita muscaria: Structural characterization and antitumor activity against melanoma

Polysaccharides α-D-galactan (GAL-Am) and β-D-glucan (GLC-Am) were obtained from Amanita muscaria fruiting bodies. They were purified using different methodologies, such as Fehling precipitation (for both fractions), freeze-thawing process and ultrafiltration (for GLC-Am). Results showed that the GAL-Am has (1 → 6)-linked Galp main chain branched at O-2 by terminal Galp units and has not been previously reported. Besides, GLC-Am has (1 → 3)-linked Glcp in the main chain, substituted at O-6 by (1 → 6)-linked β-Glcp units. Both are water-soluble, with 9.0 × 10³ g/moL and 1.3 × 10⁵ g/moL, respectively. GAL-Am and GLC-Am presented a selective proliferation reduction against B16-F10 melanoma cell line, not affecting non tumoral BALB/3T3 fibroblast cell line. Furthermore, both fractions reduced clonogenic capacity of melanoma cell line over an extended period of time. These results were obtained without modulations in B16-F10 cell adhesion, reinforcing the biological activities towards cell proliferation impairment and eliciting these polysaccharides as promising compounds to further exploration of their antimelanoma properties.

Bioactive components of mushrooms: Processing effects and health benefits

Mushrooms have been recognized for their culinary attributes for long and were relished in the most influential civilizations in history. Currently, they are the focus of renewed research because of their therapeutic abilities. Nutritional benefits from mushrooms are in the form of a significant source of essential proteins, dietary non-digestible carbohydrates, unsaturated fats, minerals, as well as various vitamins, which have enhanced its consumption, and also resulted in the development of various processed mushroom products. Mushrooms are also a crucial ingredient in traditional medicine for their healing potential and curative properties. The literature on the nutritional, nutraceutical, and therapeutic potential of mushrooms, and their use as functional foods for the maintenance of health was reviewed, and the available literature indicates the enormous potential of the bioactive compounds present in mushrooms. Future research should be focused on the development of processes to retain the mushroom bioactive components, and valorization of waste generated during processing. Further, the mechanisms of action of mushroom bioactive components should be studied in detail to delineate their diverse roles and functions in the prevention and treatment of several diseases.

Inhibitory effect of triterpenoids from the mushroom Inonotus obliquus against α-glucosidase and their interaction: Inhibition kinetics and molecular stimulations

Bioassay-guided fractionation led to the isolation of a series of triterpenoids (1-46) including 12 new ones (1-12) from the mushroom Inonotus obliquus. The structures of all the compounds were elucidated by spectroscopic analysis as well as by comparison with literature data. Triterpenoids 1-3, 6, 7, 16, 24, 25, 27, 38, 43, 44 and 46 showed strong α-glucosidase inhibition, with IC₅₀ values from 11.5 to 81.8 μM. Their structure-activity relationships were discussed. Inonotusol F (24) showed the strongest inhibitory activity and it presented noncompetitive inhibition against α-glucosidase. Molecular docking and molecular dynamics stimulation further demonstrated that GLU302 and PHE298 were key amino acids for the inhibition of inonotusol F (24) towards α-glucosidase. This study indicates the vital role of triterpenoids in explaining hypoglycemic effect of Inonotus obliquus and provides important evidence for further development and utilization of this mushroom.

Mushrooms are potential foods against cancer: identified by molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulation

Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor (EGFR) is a promising drug target for the discovery of cancer chemotherapeutics. EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitors become resistant due to mutation after a certain period of clinical application. The objective of the present study is to identify edible mushrooms as EGFR inhibitors. Structure-based VS of mushroom compounds using Autodock Vina in PyRx, re-docking of top scored hits using Autodock 4.2 were performed. Molecular dynamics (MD) was carried out with top hits to investigate the dynamic nature of the active site followed by MMPBSA binding energy calculation and ADME study. Analysis of MD results revealed the stability of Ag_76, Ag_77, Ag_88 and Ag_340 in the active site of EGFR as potential binders. Comparison of docking and MD results with known inhibitors also claimed the effectiveness of these hits. The sources of these potential hits are Polyozellus multiplex, Sarcodon imbricatus, and Cortinarius purpurascens, which may be effective as anti-cancer food after in vitro studies.

Identification of the Antidepressant Function of the Edible Mushroom Pleurotus eryngii

Pleurotus eryngii produces various functional molecules that mediate physiological functions in humans. Recently, we observed that P. eryngii produces molecules that have antidepressant functions. An ethanol extract of the fruiting body of P. eryngii was obtained, and the extract was purified by XAD-16 resin using an open column system. The ethanol eluate was separated by HPLC, and the fraction with an antidepressant function was identified. Using LC-MS, the molecular structure of the HPLC fraction with antidepressant function was identified as that of tryptamine, a functional molecule that is a tryptophan derivative. The antidepressant effect was identified from the ethanol extract, XAD-16 column eluate, and HPLC fraction by a serotonin receptor binding assay and a cell-based binding assay. Furthermore, a forced swimming test (FST) showed that the mice treated with purified fractions of P. eryngii exhibited decreased immobility time compared with nontreated mice. From these results, we suggest that the extract of P. eryngii has an antidepressant function and that it may be employed as an antidepressant health supplement.

Approaches to Investigate Selective Dietary Polysaccharide Utilization by Human Gut Microbiota at a Functional Level

The human diet is temporally and spatially dynamic, and influenced by culture, regional food systems, socioeconomics, and consumer preference. Such factors result in enormous structural diversity of ingested glycans that are refractory to digestion by human enzymes. To convert these glycans into metabolizable nutrients and energy, humans rely upon the catalytic potential encoded within the gut microbiome, a rich collective of microorganisms residing in the gastrointestinal tract. The development of high-throughput sequencing methods has enabled microbial communities to be studied with more coverage and depth, and as a result, cataloging the taxonomic structure of the gut microbiome has become routine. Efforts to unravel the microbial processes governing glycan digestion by the gut microbiome, however, are still in their infancy and will benefit by retooling our approaches to study glycan structure at high resolution and adopting next-generation functional methods. Also, new bioinformatic tools specialized for annotating carbohydrate-active enzymes and predicting their functions with high accuracy will be required for deciphering the catalytic potential of sequence datasets. Furthermore, physiological approaches to enable genotype-phenotype assignments within the gut microbiome, such as fluorescent polysaccharides, has enabled rapid identification of carbohydrate interactions at the single cell level. In this review, we summarize the current state-of-knowledge of these methods and discuss how their continued development will advance our understanding of gut microbiome function.

β-Glucans as a panacea for a healthy heart? Their roles in preventing and treating cardiovascular diseases

Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are the leading cause of death worldwide. Factors increasing the risks for CVD development are related to obesity, diabetes, high blood cholesterol, high blood pressure and lifestyle. CVD risk factors may be treated with appropriate drugs, but prolonged can use cause undesirable side-effects. Among the natural products used in complementary and alternative medicines, are the β-ᴅ-glucans; biopolymers found in foods (cereals, mushrooms), and can easily be produced by microbial fermentation. Independent of source, β-glucans of the mixed-linked types [(1 → 3)(1 → 6)-β-ᴅ-glucans - fungal, and (1 → 3)(1 → 4)-β-ᴅ-glucans - cereal] have widely been studied because of their biological activities, and have demonstrated cardiovascular protective effects. In this review, we discuss the roles of β-ᴅ-glucans in various pathophysiological conditions that lead to CVDs including obesity, dyslipidemia, hyperglycemia, oxidative stress, hypertension, atherosclerosis and stroke. The β-glucans from all of the sources cited demonstrated potential hypoglycemic, hypocholesterolemic and anti-obesogenicity activities, reduced hypertension and ameliorated the atherosclerosis condition. More recently, β-glucans are recognized as possessing prebiotic properties that modulate the gut microbiome and impact on the health benefits including cardiovascular. Overall, all the studies investigated unequivocally demonstrated the dietary benefits of consuming β-glucans regardless of source, thus constituting a promising panaceutical approach to reduce CVD risk factors.

Polysaccharides; Classification, Chemical Properties, and Future Perspective Applications in Fields of Pharmacology and Biological Medicine (A Review of Current Applications and Upcoming Potentialities)

Polysaccharides are essential macromolecules which almost exist in all living forms, and have important biological functions, they are getting more attention because they exhibit a wide range of biological and pharmacological activities, such as anti-tumour, immunomodulatory, antimicrobial, antioxidant, anticoagulant, antidiabetic, antiviral, and hypoglycemia activities, making them one of the most promising candidates in biomedical and pharmaceutical fields. Polysaccharides can be obtained from many different sources, such as plants, microorganisms, algae, and animals. Due to their physicochemical properties, they are susceptible to physical and chemical modifications leading to enhanced properties, which is the basic concept for their diverse applications in biomedical and pharmaceutical fields. In this review, we will give insight into the most recent updated applications of polysaccharides and their potentialities as alternatives for traditional and conventional therapies. Challenges and limitations for polysaccharides in pharmaceutical utilities are discussed as well.

Phenolic compounds from the sclerotia of Inonotus obliquus

Three phenolic compounds (±1 and 2) including a pair of new enantiomers were isolated from the sclerotia of Inonotus obliquus. Their structures were assigned by extensive spectroscopic analyses. All the compounds were evaluated for the neuroprotective activity against oxidative damage on human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells induced by H₂O₂. Compound 2 showed remarkable neuroprotective effect and significantly improved the cell viability of SH-SY5Y cells treated by H₂O₂.

Structure identification, antitumor activity and mechanisms of a novel polysaccharide from Ramaria flaccida (Fr.) Quél

It is an important aspect of current cancer research to search for effective and low-toxicity anticancer drugs and adjuvants. Polysaccharides, as immunomodulators, can improve the immune function of the body, kill tumor cells directly and prevent tumor development by increasing the resistance of the body to carcinogenic factors. The aim of the present study was to identify natural polysaccharide compounds with novel structure and antitumor activity via the separation and analysis of polysaccharide components from Ramaria flaccida (Fr.) Quél. (RF-1). In the present study, high-performance gel permeation chromatography, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and nuclear magnetic resonance were used to identify the structure of polysaccharides from RF-1. Subsequently, the antitumor activity and mechanism of RF-1 were studied by establishing an in vivo S180 tumor model, and by using Illumina sequencing technology and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The present results revealed that the average molecular weight of RF-1 was 17,093 Da and that RF-1 was composed of the monosaccharides glucose and galactose, with a 2:1 ratio. The main chain of RF-1 consisted of (1→6, 2)-α-D-galactopyranose and (1→6, 4)- α-D-glucopyranose. One of the branched chains was linked to 4-O of the main glucose chain by (1→6)-α-D-glucopyranose and next linked by one (→4)-β-D-glucopyranose. The other two branched chains were both linked to 2-O of the main glucose chain by one (→4)-β-D-glucopyranose. In addition, RF-1 inhibited the growth of S180 tumors in vivo. When the concentration of RF-1 was 20 mg/kg, the inhibition rate of S180 tumors in mice was 48.4%. Compared with the blank control group, 1,971 differentially expressed genes were identified, of which 818 were upregulated and 1,153 were downregulated in the RF-1 group. A Gene Ontology enrichment analysis generated 47,091 assignments to biological processes, 5,250 assignments to cellular components, and 6,466 assignments to molecular functions. Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathway enrichment analysis revealed that the Wnt and MAPK signaling pathways were significantly enriched. The number of differentially annotated genes in these two pathways was 19 and 33, respectively. Additionally, ELISA results revealed that the protein levels of interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and VEGF receptor in the RF-1 group were significantly downregulated compared with the S180 blank control group (P<0.01).

Natural products and their derivatives: Promising modulators of tumor immunotherapy

A wealth of evidence supports the role of tumor immunotherapy as a vital therapeutic option in cancer. In recent decades, accumulated studies have revealed the anticancer activities of natural products and their derivatives. Increasing interest has been driven toward finding novel potential modulators of tumor immunotherapy from natural products, a hot research topic worldwide. These works of research mainly focused on natural products, including polyphenols (e.g., curcumin, resveratrol), cardiotonic steroids (e.g., bufalin and digoxin), terpenoids (e.g., paclitaxel and artemisinins), and polysaccharide extracts (e.g., lentinan). Compelling data highlight that natural products have a promising future in tumor immunotherapy. Considering the importance and significance of this topic, we initially discussed the integrated research progress of natural products and their derivatives, including target T cells, macrophages, B cells, NKs, regulatory T cells, myeloid‐derived suppressor cells, inflammatory cytokines and chemokines, immunogenic cell death, and immune checkpoints. Furthermore, these natural compounds inactivate several key pathways, including NF‐κB, PI3K/Akt, MAPK, and JAK/STAT pathways. Here, we performed a deep generalization, analysis, and summarization of the previous achievements, recent progress, and the bottlenecks in the development of natural products as tumor immunotherapy. We expect this review to provide some insight for guiding future research.

Heterobasidion annosum Induces Apoptosis in DLD-1 Cells and Decreases Colon Cancer Growth in In Vivo Model

Application of substances from medicinal mushrooms is one of the interesting approaches to improve cancer therapy. In this study, we commenced a new attempt in the field of Heterobasidion annosum (Fr.) Bref. sensu lato to further extend our knowledge on this basidiomycete fungus. For this purpose, analysis of the active substances of Heterobasidion annosum methanolic extract and also its influence on colorectal cancer in terms of in vitro and in vivo experiments were performed. In vivo studies on mice were conducted to verify its acute toxicity and to further affirm its anticancer potential. Results indicated that all the most common substances of best known medicinal mushrooms that are also responsible for their biological activity are present in tested extracts. In vitro tests showed a high hemocompatibility and a significant decrease in viability and proliferation of DLD-1 cells in a concentration-dependent manner of Heterobasidion annosum extract. The studies performed on xenograft model of mice showed lower tendency of tumor growth in the group of mice receiving Heterobasidion annosum extract as well as mild or moderate toxicity. Obtained results suggest beneficial potential of Heterobasidion annosum against colon cancer as cytotoxic agent or as adjuvant anticancer therapy.