When Does Co-Rumination Facilitate Depression Contagion in Adolescent Friendships? Investigating Intrapersonal and Interpersonal Factors

Physiological synchrony in supportive discussions: An examination of co-rumination, relationship type, and heterogeneity

During times of stress, we look to close others for support. Social support conversations are critical for relationship maintenance and well-being. Yet, certain ways of talking about problems-such as co-ruminating-can exacerbate stress. Since social support and co-rumination are both dyadic processes, it is important to examine physiological responses during these conversations in a dyadic manner. Little research has examined physiological synchrony of the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) during social support conversations or co-ruminative conversations. The current research capitalizes on an experimental manipulation of co-rumination using a sample of close friends (147 dyads) and romantic partners (113 dyads) to examine physiological covariation in the context of support. Across both samples, dyads exhibited significant physiological covariation in pre-ejection period reactivity (PEP). Contrary to our hypothesis, dyads in the co-rumination condition did not show more covariation. Close friend dyads did, however, exhibit more covariation as compared to romantic dyads. We also found significant variability in physiological covariation across dyads, with a minority of dyads exhibiting negative covariation of PEP reactivity. The homogeneity of the samples limits the generalizability of the findings and highlights the need for more diverse samples in future work. These findings underline the need for further exploration into the mechanisms that contribute to distinct patterns of physiological synchrony, the conditions in which negative synchrony occurs, and what predicts especially strong positive synchrony. This work extends our understanding of physiological synchrony of the sympathetic nervous system during support conversations and emphasizes the importance of considering heterogeneity in physiological processes.

Effectiveness of a blended school-based mindfulness program for the prevention of co-rumination and internalizing problems in Dutch secondary school girls: a cluster randomized controlled trial

BACKGROUND

A growing body of literature indicates that adolescent girls who talk with close friends about interpersonal problems or worries in an excessive, speculative way, and with an intense focus on distress (i.e., co-rumination) are at heightened risk for developing internalizing symptoms and disorders as well as reduced friendship quality. However, to date, there are no prevention programs available that target high levels of co-rumination between adolescent girls. As such, we developed the blended school-based mindfulness prevention program Happy Friends, Positive Minds (HFPM) that targets co-rumination at the dyadic level, i.e., between two close female friends. The aim of this trial is to evaluate the effectiveness of HFPM to reduce co-rumination and internalizing problems and to enhance wellbeing and social-emotional behavior in Dutch adolescent girls.

METHODS

A cluster Randomized Controlled Trial (cRCT) will be conducted to evaluate HFPM effectiveness. We will recruit 160 female friendship dyads (n = 320 girls) aged 13 to 15 years who will be characterized by high levels of self-reported co-rumination. The cRCT has two arms: (1) an intervention condition in which 160 girls (80 friendship dyads) will receive the 14-week HFPM program in two consecutive cohorts (cohort 1 in academic year 2023/2024 and cohort 2 in academic year 2024/2025, and (2) a control condition in which 160 girls (80 dyads) will receive care-as-usual (CAU) in two consecutive cohorts (cohort 1 in academic year 2023/2024 and cohort 2 in academic year 2024/2025). Data will be collected at baseline (T0), during the program (T1;T2; T3), immediately after the program (T4), and at 1-year follow-up (T5). Participant-level self-reported risk for (early onset) depression and anxiety, self-reported and observed co-rumination, self- and friend-reported friendship quality, self-reported positive and negative affect, self-reported interpersonal responses to positive affect, and self-reported anhedonia symptoms will be the outcome variables.

DISCUSSION

This study will provide insights into the short-term and long-term effects of the HFPM program on girls' internalizing problems, wellbeing, and social-emotional behavior.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

International Standard Randomized Controlled Trials, identifier: ISRCTN54246670. Registered on 27 February 2023.

Interpersonal Factors, Peer Relationship Stressors, and Gender Differences in Adolescent Depression

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Compared to boys, girls value close relationships more. Thus, heightened affiliative proclivities may serve as a particularly salient psychosocial risk factor for depression in adolescent girls. The purpose of this review is to examine whether the preponderance of depression in girls is because of gender differences in interpersonal vulnerabilities and peer relationship stressors and/or in the associations between these factors and depression.

RECENT FINDINGS

Girls (vs. boys) exhibit higher levels of co-rumination and affective empathy, but not excessive reassurance-seeking. The prevalence of different forms of peer relationship stressors (e.g., peer victimization) varies by gender depending on the specific type. Evidence is mixed regarding gender differences in the association between peer victimization and depression. Gender differences in the association between peer victimization and depression not only depend on peer victimization subtype but also on the country. Most studies were conducted in non-clinical samples, highlighting the need for future research to assess major depressive disorder (not just depressive symptoms). Future research should also assess interpersonal factors (e.g., co-rumination) and peer relationship stressors together.

Does having vulnerable friends help vulnerable youth? The co-evolution of friendships, victimization, and depressive symptoms in Chinese adolescents' social networks

This study examined whether having vulnerable friends helps or hurts victimized and depressed (i.e., vulnerable) adolescents and whether this depends on classroom supportive norms. Students (n = 1461, 46.7% girls, 93.4% Han nationality) were surveyed four times from seventh and eighth grade (Mage  = 13 years) in 2015 and 2016 in Central China. Longitudinal social network analyses indicated that having vulnerable friends can both hurt and help vulnerable adolescents. Depressed adolescents with depressed friends increased in victimization over time. Victimized adolescents with victimized friends increased in victimization but decreased in depressive symptoms. These processes were most likely in classrooms with high supportive norms. Having friends and a supportive classroom may hurt vulnerable adolescents' social position but help victims' emotional development.

Depression Socialization in Early Adolescent Friendships: The Role of Baseline Depressive Symptoms and Autonomous Functioning

There is mixed evidence for depression socialization, a process by which friends affect each other's level of depressive symptoms. The current study examined whether adolescents' baseline depressive symptoms and three dimensions of autonomous functioning (autonomy, peer resistance, and friend adaptation) make adolescents more or less sensitive to depression socialization, and how these dimensions of autonomous functioning were connected. In this preregistered, two-wave longitudinal study, participants completed questionnaires on depressive symptoms, autonomy, and peer resistance and participated in a task to assess friend adaptation. Participants were 416 Dutch adolescents (Mage = 11.60, 52.8% girls) across 230 close friend dyads. In contrast to expectations, results showed no significant depression socialization nor significant moderation. Furthermore, autonomy and peer resistance were related but distinct constructs, and not related to friend adaptation. These findings suggest that there is no depression socialization in early adolescence, regardless of level of autonomous functioning.

Decomposing variance in co-rumination using dyadic daily diary data

It is unknown how co-rumination, or perseverating on problems or feelings with another person, unfolds in the daily lives of romantic couples. Using a variance decomposition procedure on data from a 14-day dyadic diary, we assessed how much variance in co-rumination was attributable to temporally stable and varying factors, as well as whether co-rumination is better measured as a couple-level or individual-level process. Within-person, within-couple fluctuations in co-rumination contributed most (~33%) to the total variance and summary scores based on these fluctuations were reliable. Stable between-couple differences accounted for ~14% of the total variance and could also be reliably assessed. However, within-couple agreement in co-rumination was low, such that the reliability at the level of within-couple change was inadequate. Research is needed to understand these divergent perceptions of co-rumination and potential downstream consequences. We conclude by considering how these results inform theory and can be applied to similar dyadic constructs.

Co-rumination and conversational self-focus: Adjustment implications of problem talk in adolescents' friendships

Friendships are central relationships during adolescence. Given the increased experience of stress during adolescence, friends are especially critical sources of support at this time. Although experiencing social support is related to well-being, adolescents' experiences sharing problems with friends is not always positive. In this chapter, we consider two forms of problematic talk, co-rumination and conversational self-focus. Co-rumination refers to conversations about problems that is excessive, repetitive, speculative, and focused on negative affect. Conversational self-focus refers to adolescents re-directing conversations about friends' problems to oneself. Both co-rumination and conversational self-focus are associated with depressive symptoms. However, whereas co-rumination draws friends together and is associated with positive friendship quality, adolescents who engage in conversational self-focus are increasingly rejected by friends. Directions for future research and applied implications of studying social support processes between friends are discussed.

Understanding the role of depressive symptoms in academic outcomes: A longitudinal study of college roommates

Rising rates of depression among adolescents raise many questions about the role of depressive symptoms in academic outcomes for college students and their roommates. In the current longitudinal study, we follow previously unacquainted roommate dyads over their first year in college (N = 245 dyads). We examine the role of depressive symptoms of incoming students and their roommates on their GPAs and class withdrawals (provided by university registrars) at the end of the Fall and Spring semesters. We test contagion between the roommates on both academic outcomes and depressive symptoms over time. Finally, we examine the moderating role of relationship closeness. Whereas students' own initial levels of depressive symptoms predicted their own lower GPA and more course withdrawals, they did not directly predict the academic outcomes of their roommates. For roommates who form close relationships, there was evidence of contagion of both GPAs and depressive symptoms at the end of Fall and Spring semesters. Finally, a longitudinal path model showed that as depressive symptoms spread from the student to their roommate, the roommate's GPA decreased. The current work sheds light on a common college experience with implications for the role of interventions to increase the academic and mental health of college students.

Developmental pathways of depressive symptoms via parenting, self-evaluation and peer relationships in young people from 3 to 17 years old: evidence from ALSPAC

PURPOSE

Self-evaluation and interpersonal factors are theoretically and empirically linked to depression in young people. An improved understanding of the multifactorial developmental pathways that explain how these factors predict depression could inform intervention strategies.

METHODS

Using structural equation modeling, this study explored whether self-evaluation and interpersonal factors were associated with adolescent depressive symptoms in a population-based sample (n = 11,921; Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children, ALSPAC), across four development stages: early and late childhood plus early and middle adolescence from 3 to 17 years old.

RESULTS

Early good parenting practices predicted self-esteem, fewer peer difficulties, good friendships and fewer depressive symptoms in late childhood development outcomes. Higher self-esteem and less negative self-concept mediated the effect of early good parenting practice on reduced depressive symptoms in middle adolescence. The hypothesized erosion pathway from depressive symptoms in late childhood via higher levels of negative self-concept in early adolescence to depressive symptoms in middle adolescence was also confirmed. Additionally, peer difficulties played a mediation role in developing depressive symptoms. Contrary to the hypothesis, poor friendships predicted fewer depressive symptoms. The analysis supported a developmental pathway in which good parenting practices in early childhood led to fewer peer difficulties in late childhood and to less negative self-concept in early adolescence, which in turn predicted fewer depressive symptoms in middle adolescence.

CONCLUSION

The social-developmental origin of youth depressive symptoms was supported via the effect of peer relationships in late childhood on self-evaluation in early adolescence.

Perceived Support from Best Friends and Depressive Symptoms During Adolescence: Disentangling Personal from Dyadic Level Effects

Support from best friends is an important interpersonal factor in adolescent depression development but is often studied from an individual perspective in which dyadic effects are overlooked. This study aims to a) test whether differences in support vary at the individual level and are related to individual differences in the development of depressive symptoms, whether these differences vary at the dyadic level and are related to dyadic depression symptom development, or both, b) explore whether these associations are moderated by initial levels of depressive symptoms on the individual and/or dyadic level. Data from 452 adolescents (Mage = 13.03), nested in 226 same-gender friendship dyads (60.6% boy-dyads) who participated in the RADAR-Y project were included. Best friends self-reported annually (2006-2008; 3 waves) on their own depressive symptoms and perceived support from their friend. Multilevel models showed no direct association between support and depression development on the individual or dyadic level. However, the initial level of dyads' depressive symptoms moderated the association between dyadic support and dyads' subsequent depression symptom development. When dyads experienced relatively more initial depressive symptoms, higher levels of dyadic support were associated with relative increasing dyadic depressive symptoms. When dyads experienced relatively few initial depressive symptoms, higher levels of dyadic support were associated with relative decreasing dyadic depressive symptoms. Findings suggest that support from best friends can either protect against or exacerbate the development of depressive symptoms for friends, depending on the initial level of depressive symptoms of the dyad.

Emotion transmission in peer dyads in middle childhood

This study investigated emotion transmission among peers during middle childhood. Participants included 202 children (111 males; race: 58% African American, 20% European American, 16% Mixed race, 1% Asian American, and 5% Other; ethnicity: 23% Latino(a) and 77% Not Latino(a); M_income  = $42,183, SD_income  = $43,889; M_age  = 9.49; English-speaking; from urban and suburban areas of a mid-Atlantic state in the United States). Groups of four same-sex children interacted in round-robin dyads in 5-min tasks during 2015-2017. Emotions (happy, sad, angry, anxious, and neutral) were coded and represented as percentages of 30-s intervals. Analyses assessed whether children's emotion expression in one interval predicted change in partners' emotion expression in the next interval. Findings suggested: (a) escalation of positive and negative emotion [children's positive (negative) emotion predicts an increase in partners' positive (negative) emotion], and (b) de-escalation of positive and negative emotion (children's neutral emotion predicts a decrease in partners' positive or negative emotion). Importantly, de-escalation involved children's display of neutral emotion and not oppositely valenced emotion.

Network analysis of depressive and anxiety symptoms in adolescents during and after the COVID-19 outbreak peak

BACKGROUND

This study examined the extent to which the network structure of anxiety and depression among adolescents identified during the peak of the COVID-19 pandemic could be cross-validated in a sample of adolescents assessed after the COVID-19 peak.

METHODS

Two cross-sectional surveys were conducted between February 20 and 27, 2020 and between April 11 and 19, 2020, respectively. Depressive and anxiety symptoms were assessed using the 20-item Center for Epidemiological Studies-Depression and 7-item Generalized Anxiety Disorder, respectively. Anxiety-depression networks of the first and second assessments were estimated separately using a sparse Graphical Gaussian Model combined with the graphical least absolute shrinkage and selection operator method. A Network Comparison Test was conducted to assess differences between the two networks.

RESULTS

The most central symptoms in the first and second survey networks were Depressed affect and Nervousness. Compared with connections in the first survey network, connections in the second survey network analysis between Relax-Nervousness-Depressed affect-Interpersonal problems (diff, contrast: second survey-first survey. diff=-0.04, P = 0.04; diff=-0.03, P = 0.03; diff=-0.03, P = 0.04), and Irritability-Somatic complaints (diff=-0.04, P = 0.02) were weaker while connections of Somatic complaints-Nervousness (diff=0.05, P<0.001), Somatic complaints-Depressed affect (diff=0.03, P = 0.009), and Irritability-Control worry-Restlessness (diff=0.02, P = 0.03; diff=0.05, P = 0.02) were stronger.

CONCLUSIONS

Depressed affect emerged as a robust central symptom and bridge symptom across Anxiety-Depression networks. Considering the negative impact of depression and anxiety on daily life, timely interventions targeting depressed affect should be implemented to reduce the co-occurrence of anxious and depressive symptoms among adolescents during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Evaluating interactions between emotion regulation strategies through the interpersonal context of female friends

INTRODUCTION

There is a growing interest in examining how interpersonal relationships may shape associations between emotion regulation (ER) strategies and psychopathology.

METHODS

We used multilevel modeling to test if respondents' self-reported intrapersonal ER, friends' self-reported intrapersonal ER, and their interaction were associated with psychopathology in a sample of 120 female friend dyads.

RESULTS

Respondents' use of brooding rumination, expressive suppression, and worry were positively associated with respondent psychopathology. Friend reappraisal moderated the association between respondent reappraisal and respondent psychopathology. Consistent with an interference hypothesis, respondent cognitive reappraisal was only associated with respondent psychopathology when friend cognitive reappraisal was low. Consistent with a compensatory hypothesis, respondent reappraisal was primarily associated with respondent psychopathology when friend repetitive negative thought was high.

DISCUSSION

Results support the extension of models of ER strategy interactions from intrapersonal to interpersonal contexts. Future research is needed to replicate the interference and compensatory interactions observed in the data.

Childhood Emotional Abuse and Depression Among Adolescents: Roles of Deviant Peer Affiliation and Gender

Adolescent depression is a significant concern around the world. There is a pressing need to explore risk factors for this disorder to develop better interventions. Based on an integration of attachment theory, Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory, and relational theory, the current study aimed to examine (a) whether childhood emotional abuse (CEA) would be significantly and positively related to adolescents' depression, (b) whether deviant peer affiliation would mediate the relation between CEA and depression, and (c) whether gender would moderate the direct and indirect relations between CEA and adolescent's depression via deviant peer affiliation. Participants were 961 Chinese adolescents (M_age = 15.21 years, SD = 1.57). They completed questionnaires regarding demographics, CEA, other types of childhood maltreatment (i.e., physical abuse, sexual abuse, physical neglect, and emotional neglect), deviant peer affiliation, and depression. Results showed that CEA was positively related to adolescent depression even after controlling for other types of childhood maltreatment, and this relation was mediated by deviant peer affiliation. Furthermore, moderated mediation analyses indicated that gender moderated the relation between CEA and deviant peer affiliation, with the relation being stronger for girls than for boys. However, gender did not moderate the relation between deviant peer affiliation and depression, as well as the direct relation between CEA and depression. Results highlight that interventions aimed at reducing CEA may protect adolescents, especially girls from the risks of deviant peer affiliation and depression.

Contagious Depression: Automatic Mimicry and the Mirror Neuron System - A Review

Contagious depression is a theory proposing that depression can be induced or triggered by our social environment. This theory is based on emotional contagion, the idea that affective states can be transferred during social interaction, since humans can use emotional contagion to communicate feelings and emotions in conscious and unconscious ways. This review presents behavioral, physiological, and neuroanatomical aspects of two essential contagious depression mechanisms, automatic mimicry and the mirror neuron system.

When Friends Bring You Down: Peer Stress Proliferation and Suicidality

Peers play a significant role in adolescent mental well-being and suicidality. While social integration among peers is often assumed to benefit mental health, a growing literature recognizes that peer relationships can increase suicidality. Conceptualizing friends' disclosure of mental distress as a stressor on teens' own mental health clarifies how distressed peers relate to suicidal ideation given integration in key social contexts, such as school. This study applies the stress process to examine peer depression and self-harm disclosure as stressors predicting teens' suicidal ideation. Using cross-sectional data from an understudied context, youth in Saudi Arabia (n = 545, 50% female, mean age = 16.8), models find friends' disclosure of depression and self-harm are associated with adolescents' higher suicidal ideation net of their own depression. Teens who are more attached to school see higher risk of suicidality from friends' depression, while friends' self-harm predicts higher suicidality overall. Results challenge assumptions of uniformly beneficial social integration by indicating that friends' mental distress, particularly self-harm, can act as a stressor increasing youth suicidality.

Shyness and Psychological Maladjustment in Chinese Adolescents: Selection and Influence Processes in Friendship Networks

Few studies have been conducted to examine the role shyness plays in friendship selection and influences processes, particularly how befriending shy peers affects individual's psychological adjustment. To address these gaps, this study investigated the selection, de-selection, same behavior influence effects of shyness in the friendship network in Chinese adolescents using the longitudinal social network analysis. It also explored the possible pathways that transmit indirect influences of friends' shyness to individual's psychological maladjustments (i.e., loneliness and depressive symptoms). A sample of adolescents (N = 1254, 48.4% girls, M_age = 13.20 years at Time 1) were followed for three years in middle schools. The results showed that adolescents tended to befriend those who had similar shyness level during T1-T2 interval, but the friendships between shy friends were more likely to terminate during T2-T3 interval. Moreover, adolescents were found to become more similar with their friends in shyness over time. The study also found that friends' shyness at T1 would influence individual's loneliness at T3 via 1) increasing friends' loneliness at T2 or 2) increasing individual's shyness level at T2. Those two pathways, however, were not found for depressive symptoms. These findings indicate that shyness plays an important role in the friendship formation and dissolution and befriending shy peers may have implications for adolescents' development of shyness and loneliness.

Co-Rumination and Depressive Symptoms in Adolescence: Prospective Associations and the Mediating Role of Brooding Rumination

Although relationships between co-rumination and depressive symptoms have often been found, little research attention has been given to mechanisms underlying this association. The current study investigated brooding rumination as a mediator of the relationship between co-rumination and depressive symptoms. Analyses were performed on data of 1549 adolescents (53.4% girls; M_age = 12.93, range 9-17) using three waves of data with 1-year intervals. Mediated and indirect effects were investigated by means of cross-lagged analyses. The results indicated that co-rumination was not predictive of depressive symptoms 2 years later. However, co-rumination did have an indirect effect on prospective depressive symptoms through brooding rumination. Additional analyses looking into the directionality of effects showed that neither brooding rumination nor depressive symptoms were predictive of relative increases in one's tendency to co-ruminate. Multi-group analyses further showed that findings were not moderated by gender or age. The current study contributes to the growing literature on the role of interpersonal and intrapersonal affect-regulation styles in predicting depressive symptoms and suggests that passive and catastrophic problem talk with same-sex friends may get internalized into maladaptive and repetitive thinking patterns.

The endocrinology of female friendships: Cortisol and progesterone attunement after separation

Friendships constitute important relationships, and often function to reduce stress, but have been under-studied. In mother-child dyads, infants coordinate their stress response with their caregivers without experiencing the stressor themselves. The current study used a modified version of the Trier Social Stress Test to examine whether i) friends are physiologically attuned (i.e., cortisol and progesterone); ii) attunement differs as a function of social acceptance or rejection external to the dyad; and, iii) friends can 'catch' a stress response only through non-verbal cues. Friends showed both cortisol and progesterone attunement at the beginning of the study. Friends showed cortisol attunement across time and conditions. Friends' progesterone levels were significantly, but negatively associated across time and conditions. They did not, however, show a stress contagion as a result of one friend experiencing stress. These findings suggest that cortisol and progesterone play different roles in the attunement of stress and subsequent affiliation.

Puberty Initiates Cascading Relationships Between Neurodevelopmental, Social, and Internalizing Processes Across Adolescence

Adolescence is a period of dramatic developmental transitions-from puberty-related changes in hormones, bodies, and brains to an increasingly complex social world. The concurrent increase in the onset of many mental disorders has prompted the search for key developmental processes that drive changes in risk for psychopathology during this period of life. Hormonal surges and consequent physical maturation linked to pubertal development in adolescence are thought to affect multiple aspects of brain development, social cognition, and peer relations, each of which have also demonstrated associations with risk for mood and anxiety disorders. These puberty-related effects may combine with other nonpubertal influences on brain maturation to transform adolescents' social perception and experiences, which in turn continue to shape both mental health and brain development through transactional processes. In this review, we focus on pubertal, neural, and social changes across the duration of adolescence that are known or thought to be related to adolescent-emergent disorders, specifically depression, anxiety, and deliberate self-harm (nonsuicidal self-injury). We propose a theoretical model in which social processes (both social cognition and peer relations) are critical to understanding the way in which pubertal development drives neural and psychological changes that produce potential mental health vulnerabilities, particularly (but not exclusively) in adolescent girls.

Puberty and Transdiagnostic Risks for Mental Health

Puberty in girls represents a notable period of vulnerability for different psychological disorders. The research literature has primarily considered external and contextual factors that might explain these rises in symptomatology. In the present study, we investigate relations of pubertal status and timing with individual cognitive, emotional, and behavioral tendencies, commonly identified as transdiagnostic processes, in a sample of N = 228 girls (M_age  = 11.75 years). We also test whether these transdiagnostic processes mediate associations of pubertal status and pubertal timing with depressive symptoms. Results support greater endorsement of rumination, co-rumination, negative urgency, and both anxious and angry rejection sensitivity in girls with more advanced pubertal status, as well as in girls with early pubertal timing. Higher levels of transdiagnostic processes fully mediated associations of pubertal status and timing with depressive symptoms at significant and marginally significant levels, respectively. Although the data are cross-sectional, these findings offer promising preliminary evidence that transdiagnostic processes represent an important mental health risk in early adolescent girls.

Why Family Communication Matters: the Role of Co-rumination and Topic Avoidance in Understanding Post-Disaster Mental Health

Although families can be a source of support post-disaster, depending on how they communicate about their stress, their attempts at support can be helpful or harmful. This study explored the moderating role of topic avoidance and co-rumination on post-disaster mental health (MH) in a sample of 485 parent-child dyads following severe floods affecting Texas. Parents (69.0% female) and their oldest child between the ages of 10-19 years (M = 13.75 years, SD = 2.56) completed online surveys approximately one-year post-flooding. Participants reported their flood exposure, life stressors since the disaster, topic avoidance, co-rumination, and MH symptoms (posttraumatic stress symptoms [PTSS], depression, anxiety). Structural equation models tested a moderated-mediation model of whether communication processes moderated the associations of flood exposure and life stressors on MH. They did not moderate the association of flood exposure to PTSS, but did have a moderating role for depression and anxiety. At low levels of topic avoidance, there was no association between flood exposure and child anxiety or depression. However, at mean and high levels of topic avoidance, there was a significant, positive association between flood exposure and child anxiety and depression. Co-rumination impacted both parents and children. For parents, there was no association between flood exposure and depression or anxiety when co-rumination was low or mean-level. However, flood exposure increased risk for depression and anxiety at high levels of co-rumination. A similar pattern emerged for children. Results for life stressors were nuanced. Overall, this suggests that communication can influence post-disaster MH.

Co-Rumination Moderates the Relation between Emotional Competencies and Depressive Symptoms in Adolescents: a Longitudinal Examination

Research suggests co-rumination during adolescence has developmental tradeoffs that result in elevated self-disclosure and intimacy between friends but also can be associated with increases in depression (Rose et al. 2007; Rose 2002). The current study further examined this paradox by assessing the role of emotional competencies in co-rumination as they predict depressive symptoms over a 2-year period. We tested whether co-rumination moderated the relation between emotional awareness and emotion regulation and depressive symptoms in reciprocated best friend dyads. At Time 1, 202 adolescents (101 same-sex best friend dyads; M_age = 12.68, 52.5% girls, 76.6% White, middle-class) reported on their emotional competencies (i.e., emotional awareness and perceptions of their friend's anger and sadness regulation), and depressive symptoms as well as engaged in a discussion task where co-rumination was observed. Multilevel modeling (Actor-Partner Interdependence Modeling) was used to account for similarity within friend dyads. The results indicated that when girls engaged in high levels of co-rumination, poor emotional awareness was related to greater depressive symptoms in their friend. Regarding the analyses of emotion regulation, at high levels of co-rumination, Friend A's perceptions of stronger anger regulation by Friend B predicted fewer depressive symptoms in Friend A. Stronger sadness regulation in Friend B at high levels of co-rumination predicted fewer depressive symptoms in Friend B. Our findings highlight the potentially adaptive nature of emotional competencies that may ameliorate the negative sequelae of co-rumination as adolescents are afforded the opportunity to discuss problems, better understand their emotions, skills that are then associated with fewer depressive symptoms over time.

Peer Socialization of Non-Suicidal Self-Injury in Adolescents' Close Friendships

Non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI), or self-harming behavior without intent to die (Nock Current Directions in Psychological Science, 18, 78-83, 2009), is associated with distress and impairment across domains, including increased risk for suicidality (Kiekens et al. Journal of Affective Disorders, 239, 171-179, 2018). In adolescence, prevalence of NSSI is high (Swannell et al. Suicide and Life-threatening Behavior, 44, 273-303, 2014), and peer influence regarding NSSI is thought to be strong (Brechwald and Prinstein Journal of Research on Adolescence, 21, 166-79, 2011). Although concern regarding "clusters" of NSSI has long been documented, peer socialization of NSSI in adolescence is understudied. This paper tests peer influence on NSSI frequency within adolescent friendship dyads. Emotion regulation difficulties and friendship quality were evaluated as factors that may influence susceptibility to peer influence effects. Adolescents (N = 196, M age = 15.68, 69.9% female, 87.6% White) nested within 93 friendship dyads reported on their own NSSI frequency, difficulties in emotion regulation, and friendship quality at three time points spaced 3 months apart. Cross-lagged Actor-Partner Interdependence Models examined peer influence effects over time. Friends' Time 1 frequency of NSSI uniquely predicted adolescents' own NSSI frequency over 3 and 6 months, controlling for initial similarity among friends as well as individual risk factors for NSSI. Peer influence effects were strongest in adolescents with higher levels of emotion regulation difficulty but did not vary as a function of friendship quality. Friends' NSSI frequency is a significant and unique predictor of increases in adolescents' own NSSI frequency over time. Implications for interventions that leverage the important developmental context of peer relationships are discussed.

The relative impacts of disclosure and secrecy: the role of (perceived) target response

This review examines the current trends in understanding the impact of individuals' decisions to either disclose information or continue to conceal it. As a whole, the evidence points to a relative benefit of disclosure over secret-keeping, but with clear cases, in which disclosure may be harmful. Advances in knowledge about factors that shape that impact, new research on the role verbal rumination with a partner following disclosure, and attention to the role of communal coping as an outcome of traumatic disclosures are addressed. In addition, recent re-conceptualization of secret-keeping, and investigations into the burden experienced by confidants are reviewed. Finally, a call for greater attention to the culture-specific impacts of disclosure decisions is made.

Adolescents’ perceived mattering to parents and friends: Testing cross-lagged associations with psychosocial well-being

Mattering is the tendency to view the self as significant to other people. Theoretically, mattering has been proposed to promote psychosocial well-being. Although prior research has found positive associations between mattering to parents and psychosocial well-being among adolescents, extant studies have not clarified whether perceptions of mattering predict psychosocial well-being or the other way around. Thus, the direction of the association needs verification. The purpose of this study was to examine the direction of associations between adolescents’ mattering to parents and friends and adolescents’ depressive symptoms and problem behaviors using cross-lag models. A two-wave annual survey assessed mattering to family and friends, depressive symptoms, and problem behaviors of students in grades 6 to 9 ( N = 164; 56.1% girls) in a school district in western Canada (Time 1 age range = 11 to 15 years; mean age = 12.23; standard deviation = 1.07). Structural equation modeling was used to assess concurrent, auto-regressive, and cross-lagged associations between mattering and psychosocial well-being. Mattering to mother, father, and friends was assessed in separate models. Significant lags were found only between mattering to friends and depressive symptoms and problem behaviors, with positive associations suggesting a form of socialization through mattering. With one exception, mattering to parents was not directly associated with psychosocial well-being over time. However, gender moderated the association between mattering to mother (Time 1), depressive symptoms (Time 2), problem behaviors (Time 1), and mattering to mother (Time 2). Taken together, these results suggest that mattering may not be as strongly protective of adolescent well-being as previously suggested.

Parent reports of adolescents and young adults perceived to show signs of a rapid onset of gender dysphoria

PURPOSE

In on-line forums, parents have reported that their children seemed to experience a sudden or rapid onset of gender dysphoria, appearing for the first time during puberty or even after its completion. Parents describe that the onset of gender dysphoria seemed to occur in the context of belonging to a peer group where one, multiple, or even all of the friends have become gender dysphoric and transgender-identified during the same timeframe. Parents also report that their children exhibited an increase in social media/internet use prior to disclosure of a transgender identity. Recently, clinicians have reported that post-puberty presentations of gender dysphoria in natal females that appear to be rapid in onset is a phenomenon that they are seeing more and more in their clinic. Academics have raised questions about the role of social media in the development of gender dysphoria. The purpose of this study was to collect data about parents’ observations, experiences, and perspectives about their adolescent and young adult (AYA) children showing signs of an apparent sudden or rapid onset of gender dysphoria that began during or after puberty, and develop hypotheses about factors that may contribute to the onset and/or expression of gender dysphoria among this demographic group.

METHODS

For this descriptive, exploratory study, recruitment information with a link to a 90-question survey, consisting of multiple-choice, Likert-type and open-ended questions was placed on three websites where parents had reported sudden or rapid onsets of gender dysphoria occurring in their teen or young adult children. The study’s eligibility criteria included parental response that their child had a sudden or rapid onset of gender dysphoria and parental indication that their child’s gender dysphoria began during or after puberty. To maximize the chances of finding cases meeting eligibility criteria, the three websites (4thwavenow, transgender trend, and youthtranscriticalprofessionals) were selected for targeted recruitment. Website moderators and potential participants were encouraged to share the recruitment information and link to the survey with any individuals or communities that they thought might include eligible participants to expand the reach of the project through snowball sampling techniques. Data were collected anonymously via SurveyMonkey. Quantitative findings are presented as frequencies, percentages, ranges, means and/or medians. Open-ended responses from two questions were targeted for qualitative analysis of themes.

RESULTS

There were 256 parent-completed surveys that met study criteria. The AYA children described were predominantly natal female (82.8%) with a mean age of 16.4 years at the time of survey completion and a mean age of 15.2 when they announced a transgender-identification. Per parent report, 41% of the AYAs had expressed a non-heterosexual sexual orientation before identifying as transgender. Many (62.5%) of the AYAs had reportedly been diagnosed with at least one mental health disorder or neurodevelopmental disability prior to the onset of their gender dysphoria (range of the number of pre-existing diagnoses 0–7). In 36.8% of the friendship groups described, parent participants indicated that the majority of the members became transgender-identified. Parents reported subjective declines in their AYAs’ mental health (47.2%) and in parent-child relationships (57.3%) since the AYA “came out” and that AYAs expressed a range of behaviors that included: expressing distrust of non-transgender people (22.7%); stopping spending time with non-transgender friends (25.0%); trying to isolate themselves from their families (49.4%), and only trusting information about gender dysphoria from transgender sources (46.6%). Most (86.7%) of the parents reported that, along with the sudden or rapid onset of gender dysphoria, their child either had an increase in their social media/internet use, belonged to a friend group in which one or multiple friends became transgender-identified during a similar timeframe, or both.

CONCLUSION

This descriptive, exploratory study of parent reports provides valuable detailed information that allows for the generation of hypotheses about factors that may contribute to the onset and/or expression of gender dysphoria among AYAs. Emerging hypotheses include the possibility of a potential new subcategory of gender dysphoria (referred to as rapid-onset gender dysphoria) that has not yet been clinically validated and the possibility of social influences and maladaptive coping mechanisms. Parent-child conflict may also explain some of the findings. More research that includes data collection from AYAs, parents, clinicians and third party informants is needed to further explore the roles of social influence, maladaptive coping mechanisms, parental approaches, and family dynamics in the development and duration of gender dysphoria in adolescents and young adults.

Qualitative Exploration of the Potential for Adverse Events When Using an Online Peer Support Network for Mental Health: Cross-Sectional Survey

BACKGROUND

Online peer support networks are a growing area of mental health support for offering social connection, identity, and support. However, it has been reported that not all individuals have a positive experience on such networks. The potential for adverse events within a moderated online peer support network is a new area of research exploration.

OBJECTIVE

The objective of the study was to determine if use of an online moderated peer networks leads to adverse events for users.

METHODS

Four biannual online surveys (October 2014 to March 2016) were conducted by a large national UK mental health charity, with users of their online peer support network exploring personal safety, moderation, experiences on the site, and how the site could be improved. Data were analyzed using thematic analysis by 2 independent researchers using a priori themes: negative experiences of moderation, social exclusion, contagion, negative interactions with other users, online relationships, co-rumination and collusion, and other.

RESULTS

In total, 2353 survey responses were logged with 197 (8.37%) documenting an adverse event of negative experience. A dominant theme of negative experiences of moderation emerged (73/197, 37.1%) with evidence of social exclusion (50/197, 25.4%). Reading user posts was shown to be a cause of worry and distress for a few users, and analysis highlighted several instances of depressogenic and emotional contagion as well as some limited evidence of behavioral contagion (46/197, 23.4%). Very limited evidence of co-rumination (1/197, 0.5%) and no evidence of collusion were identified.

CONCLUSIONS

Evidence of adverse events was identified at low levels in the sample of respondents, although we have no comparison data to indicate if levels are low compared with comparable platforms. Not all users of online peer support networks find them wholly beneficial. Research must explore what works for whom. The next stage of service development should consider which users may be likely to receive no benefit, or even deteriorate, as a result of using the service.