Toward multifaceted roles of sucrose in the regulation of stomatal movement

Activation of three targets by a TAL effector confers susceptibility to bacterial blight of cotton

Bacterial transcription activator-like effectors (TALEs) promote pathogenicity by activating host susceptibility (S) genes. To understand the pathogenicity and host adaptation of Xanthomonas citri pv. malvacearum (Xcm), we assemble the genome and the TALE repertoire of three recent Xcm Texas isolates. A newly evolved TALE, Tal7b, activates GhSWEET14a and GhSWEET14b, different from GhSWEET10 targeted by a TALE in an early Xcm isolate. Activation of GhSWEET14a and GhSWEET14b results in water-soaked lesions. Transcriptome profiling coupled with TALE-binding element prediction identify a pectin lyase gene as an additional Tal7b target, quantitatively contributing to Xcm virulence alongside GhSWEET14a/b. CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing supports the function of GhSWEETs in cotton bacterial blight and the promise of disrupting the TALE-binding site in S genes for disease management. Collectively, our findings elucidate the rapid evolution of TALEs in Xanthomonas field isolates and highlight the virulence mechanism wherein TALEs induce multiple S genes to promote pathogenicity.

Starch metabolism in guard cells: At the intersection of environmental stimuli and stomatal movement

Starch metabolism in guard cells plays a central role in regulating stomatal movement in response to light, elevated ambient CO2 and potentially other abiotic and biotic factors. Here, we discuss how various guard cell signal transduction pathways converge to promote rearrangements in guard cell starch metabolism for efficient stomatal responses, an essential physiological process that sustains plant productivity and stress tolerance. We suggest manipulation of guard cell starch dynamics as a previously overlooked strategy to improve stomatal behavior under changing environmental conditions.

Changes in SWEET-mediated sugar partitioning affect photosynthesis performance and plant response to drought

Sugars, produced through photosynthesis, are at the core of all organic compounds synthesized and used for plant growth and their response to environmental changes. Their production, transport, and utilization are highly regulated and integrated throughout the plant life cycle. The maintenance of sugar partitioning between the different subcellular compartments and between cells is important in adjusting the photosynthesis performance and response to abiotic constraints. We investigated the consequences of the disruption of four genes coding for SWEET sugar transporters in Arabidopsis (SWEET11, SWEET12, SWEET16, and SWEET17) on plant photosynthesis and the response to drought. Our results show that mutations in both SWEET11 and SWEET12 genes lead to an increase of cytosolic sugars in mesophyll cells and phloem parenchyma cells, which impacts several photosynthesis-related parameters. Further, our results suggest that in the swt11swt12 double mutant, the sucrose-induced feedback mechanism on stomatal closure is poorly efficient. On the other hand, changes in fructose partitioning in mesophyll and vascular cells, measured in the swt16swt17 double mutant, positively impact gas exchanges, probably through an increased starch synthesis together with higher vacuolar sugar storage. Finally, we propose that the impaired sugar partitioning, rather than the total amount of sugars observed in the quadruple mutant, is responsible for the enhanced sensitivity upon drought. This work highlights the importance of considering SWEET-mediated sugar partitioning rather than global sugar content in photosynthesis performance and plant response to drought. Such knowledge will pave the way to design new strategies to maintain plant productivity in a challenging environment.

Toward the apoplast metabolome: Establishing a leaf apoplast collection approach suitable for metabolomics analysis

The leaf apoplast contains several compounds that play important roles in the regulation of different physiological processes in plants. However, this compartment has been neglected in several experimental and modelling studies, which is mostly associated to the difficulty to collect apoplast washing fluid (AWF) in sufficient amount for metabolomics analysis and as free as possible from symplastic contamination. Here, we established an approach based in an infiltration-centrifugation technique that use little leaf material but allows sufficient AWF collection for gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS)-based metabolomics analysis in both tobacco and Arabidopsis. Up to 54 metabolites were annotated in leaf and apoplast samples from both species using either 20% (v/v) methanol (20% MeOH) or distilled deionized water (ddH2O) as infiltration fluids. The use of 20% MeOH increased the yield of the AWF collected but also the level of symplastic contamination, especially in Arabidopsis. We propose a correction factor and recommend the use of multiple markers such as MDH activity, protein content and conductivity measurements to verify the level of symplastic contamination in MeOH-based protocols. Neither the concentration of sugars nor the level of primary metabolites differed between apoplast samples extracted with ddH2O or 20% MeOH. This indicates that ddH2O can be preferentially used, given that it is a non-toxic and highly accessible infiltration fluid. The infiltration-centrifugation-based approach established here uses little leaf material and ddH2O as infiltration fluid, being suitable for GC-MS-based metabolomics analysis in tobacco and Arabidopsis, with great possibility to be extended for other plant species and tissues.

Abscisic acid-mediated guard cell metabolism regulation

Abscisic acid (ABA) is crucial for plant water deficit (WD) acclimation, but how the interplay between ABA and guard cell (GC) metabolism aids plant WD acclimation remains unclear. Here, we investigated how ABA regulates GC metabolism and how this contributes to plant WD acclimation using tomato wild type (WT) and the ABA-deficient sitiens mutant. These genotypes were characterized at physiological, metabolic, and transcriptional levels under recurring WD periods and were used to perform a13C-glucose labelling experiment using isolated guard cells following exogenously applied ABA. ABA deficiency altered the level of sugars and organic acids in GCs in both irrigated and WD plants and the dynamic of accumulation/degradation of these compounds in GCs during the dark-to-light transition. WD-induced metabolic changes were more pronounced in sitiens than WT GCs. Results from the 13C-labelling experiment indicate that ABA is required for the glycolytic fluxes toward malate and acts as a negative regulator of a putative sucrose substrate cycle. The expression of key ABA-biosynthetic genes was higher in WT than in sitiens GCs after two cycles of WD. Additionally, the intrinsic leaf water use efficiency increased only in WT after the second WD cycle, compared to sitiens. Our results highlight that ABA deficiency disrupts the homeostasis of GC primary metabolism and the WD memory, negatively affecting plant WD acclimation. Our study demonstrates which metabolic pathways are activated by WD and/or regulated by ABA in GCs, which improves our understanding of plant WD acclimation, with clear consequences for plant metabolic engineering in the future.

Cell-type-specific metabolism in plants

Every plant organ contains tens of different cell types, each with a specialized function. These functions are intrinsically associated with specific metabolic flux distributions that permit the synthesis of the ATP, reducing equivalents and biosynthetic precursors demanded by the cell. Investigating such cell-type-specific metabolism is complicated by the mosaic of different cells within each tissue combined with the relative scarcity of certain types. However, techniques for the isolation of specific cells, their analysis in situ by microscopy, or modeling of their function in silico have permitted insight into cell-type-specific metabolism. In this review we present some of the methods used in the analysis of cell-type-specific metabolism before describing what we know about metabolism in several cell types that have been studied in depth; (i) leaf source and sink cells; (ii) glandular trichomes that are capable of rapid synthesis of specialized metabolites; (iii) guard cells that must accumulate large quantities of the osmolytes needed for stomatal opening; (iv) cells of seeds involved in storage of reserves; and (v) the mesophyll and bundle sheath cells of C4 plants that participate in a CO₂ concentrating cycle. Metabolism is discussed in terms of its principal features, connection to cell function and what factors affect the flux distribution. Demand for precursors and energy, availability of substrates and suppression of deleterious processes are identified as key factors in shaping cell-type-specific metabolism.

Metabolism-mediated mechanisms underpin the differential stomatal speediness regulation among ferns and angiosperms

Recent results suggest that metabolism-mediated stomatal closure mechanisms are important to regulate differentially the stomatal speediness between ferns and angiosperms. However, evidence directly linking mesophyll metabolism and the slower stomatal conductance (g_s ) in ferns is missing. Here, we investigated the effect of exogenous application of abscisic acid (ABA), sucrose and mannitol on stomatal kinetics and carried out a metabolic fingerprinting analysis of ferns and angiosperms leaves harvested throughout a diel course. Fern stomata did not respond to ABA in the time period analysed. No differences in the relative decrease in g_s was observed between ferns and the angiosperm following provision of sucrose or mannitol. However, ferns have slower g_s responses to these compounds than angiosperms. Metabolomics analysis highlights that ferns have a higher accumulation of secondary rather than primary metabolites throughout the diel course, with the opposite being observed in angiosperms. Our results indicate that metabolism-mediated stomatal closure mechanisms underpin the differential stomatal speediness regulation among ferns and angiosperms, in which the slower stomatal closure in ferns is associated with the lack of ABA-responsiveness, to a reduced capacity to respond to mesophyll-derived sucrose and to a higher carbon allocation toward secondary metabolism, which likely modulates both photosynthesis-g_s and growth-stress tolerance trade-offs.

Recent advances in understanding and improving photosynthesis

Since 1893, when the word "photosynthesis" was first coined by Charles Reid Barnes and Conway MacMillan, our understanding of the elements and regulation of this complex process is far from being entirely understood. We aim to review the most relevant advances in photosynthesis research from the last few years and to provide a perspective on the forthcoming research in this field. Recent discoveries related to light sensing, harvesting, and dissipation; kinetics of CO₂ fixation; components and regulators of CO₂ diffusion through stomata and mesophyll; and genetic engineering for improving photosynthetic and production capacities of crops are addressed.

Light-Mediated Signaling and Metabolic Changes Coordinate Stomatal Opening and Closure

Stomata are valves on the leaf surface controlling carbon dioxide (CO2) influx for photosynthesis and water loss by transpiration. Thus, plants have to evolve elaborate mechanisms controlling stomatal aperture to allow efficient photosynthesis while avoid excessive water loss. Light is not only the energy source for photosynthesis but also an important signal regulating stomatal movement during dark-to-light transition. Our knowledge concerning blue and red light signaling and light-induced metabolite changes that contribute to stomatal opening are accumulating. This review summarizes recent advances on the signaling components that lie between the perception of blue/red light and activation of the PM H+-ATPases, and on the negative regulation of stomatal opening by red light-activated phyB signaling and ultraviolet (UV-B and UV-A) irradiation. Besides, light-regulated guard cell (GC)-specific metabolic levels, mesophyll-derived sucrose, and CO2 concentration within GCs also play dual roles in stomatal opening. Thus, light-induced stomatal opening is tightly accompanied by brake mechanisms, allowing plants to coordinate carbon gain and water loss. Knowledge on the mechanisms regulating the trade-off between stomatal opening and closure may have potential applications toward generating superior crops with improved water use efficiency (CO2 gain vs. water loss).

Guard Cell Starch Degradation Yields Glucose for Rapid Stomatal Opening in Arabidopsis

Starch in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) guard cells is rapidly degraded at the start of the day by the glucan hydrolases α-AMYLASE3 (AMY3) and β-AMYLASE1 (BAM1) to promote stomatal opening. This process is activated via phototropin-mediated blue light signaling downstream of the plasma membrane H+-ATPase. It remains unknown how guard cell starch degradation integrates with light-regulated membrane transport processes in the fine control of stomatal opening kinetics. We report that H+, K+, and Cl- transport across the guard cell plasma membrane is unaltered in the amy3 bam1 mutant, suggesting that starch degradation products do not directly affect the capacity to transport ions. Enzymatic quantification revealed that after 30 min of blue light illumination, amy3 bam1 guard cells had similar malate levels as the wild type, but had dramatically altered sugar homeostasis, with almost undetectable amounts of Glc. Thus, Glc, not malate, is the major starch-derived metabolite in Arabidopsis guard cells. We further show that impaired starch degradation in the amy3 bam1 mutant resulted in an increase in the time constant for opening of 40 min. We conclude that rapid starch degradation at dawn is required to maintain the cytoplasmic sugar pool, clearly needed for fast stomatal opening. The conversion and exchange of metabolites between subcellular compartments therefore coordinates the energetic and metabolic status of the cell with membrane ion transport.

Guard Cell Metabolism and Stomatal Function

The control of gaseous exchange between the leaf and external atmosphere is governed by stomatal conductance (g_s); therefore, stomata play a critical role in photosynthesis and transpiration and overall plant productivity. Stomatal conductance is determined by both anatomical features and behavioral characteristics. Here we review some of the osmoregulatory pathways in guard cell metabolism, genes and signals that determine stomatal function and patterning, and the recent work that explores coordination between g_s and carbon assimilation (A) and the influence of spatial distribution of functional stomata on underlying mesophyll anatomy. We also evaluate the current literature on mesophyll-driven signals that may coordinate stomatal behavior with mesophyll carbon assimilation and explore stomatal kinetics as a possible target to improve A and water use efficiency. By understanding these processes, we can start to provide insight into manipulation of these regulatory pathways to improve stomatal behavior and identify novel unexploited targets for altering stomatal behavior and improving crop plant productivity.