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Crespo-Piazuelo D, Ramayo-Caldas Y, González-Rodríguez O, Pascual M, Quintanilla R, Ballester M. A Co-Association Network Analysis Reveals Putative Regulators for Health-Related Traits in Pigs. Front Immunol 2021; 12:784978. [PMID: 34899750 PMCID: PMC8662732 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.784978] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2021] [Accepted: 11/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
In recent years, the increase in awareness of antimicrobial resistance together with the societal demand of healthier meat products have driven attention to health-related traits in livestock production. Previous studies have reported medium to high heritabilities for these traits and described genomic regions associated with them. Despite its genetic component, health- and immunity-related traits are complex and its study by association analysis with genomic markers may be missing some information. To analyse multiple phenotypes and gene-by-gene interactions, systems biology approaches, such as the association weight matrix (AWM), allows combining genome wide association study results with network inference algorithms. The present study aimed to identify gene networks, key regulators and candidate genes associated to immunocompetence in pigs by integrating multiple health-related traits, enriched for innate immune phenotypes, using the AWM approach. The co-association network analysis unveiled a network comprised of 3,636 nodes (genes) and 451,407 edges (interactions), including a total of 246 regulators. From these, five genes (ARNT2, BRMS1L, MED12L, SUPT3H and TRIM25) were selected as key regulators as they were associated with the maximum number of genes with the minimum overlapping (1,827 genes in total). The five regulators were involved in pathways related to immunity such as lymphocyte differentiation and activation, platelet activation and degranulation, megakaryocyte differentiation, FcγR-mediated phagocytosis and response to nitric oxide, among others, but also in immunometabolism. Furthermore, we identified genes co-associated with the key regulators previously reported as candidate genes (e.g., ANGPT1, CD4, CD36, DOCK1, PDE4B, PRKCE, PTPRC and SH2B3) for immunity traits in humans and pigs, but also new candidate ones (e.g., ACSL3, CXADR, HBB, MMP12, PTPN6, WLS) that were not previously described. The co-association analysis revealed new regulators associated with health-related traits in pigs. This approach also identified gene-by-gene interactions and candidate genes involved in pathways related to cell fate and metabolic and immune functions. Our results shed new light in the regulatory mechanisms involved in pig immunity and reinforce the use of the pig as biomedical model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Crespo-Piazuelo
- Animal Breeding and Genetics Programme, Institut de Recerca i Tecnologia Agroalimentàries (IRTA), Torre Marimon, Caldes de Montbui, Spain
| | - Yuliaxis Ramayo-Caldas
- Animal Breeding and Genetics Programme, Institut de Recerca i Tecnologia Agroalimentàries (IRTA), Torre Marimon, Caldes de Montbui, Spain
| | - Olga González-Rodríguez
- Animal Breeding and Genetics Programme, Institut de Recerca i Tecnologia Agroalimentàries (IRTA), Torre Marimon, Caldes de Montbui, Spain
| | - Mariam Pascual
- Animal Breeding and Genetics Programme, Institut de Recerca i Tecnologia Agroalimentàries (IRTA), Torre Marimon, Caldes de Montbui, Spain
| | - Raquel Quintanilla
- Animal Breeding and Genetics Programme, Institut de Recerca i Tecnologia Agroalimentàries (IRTA), Torre Marimon, Caldes de Montbui, Spain
| | - Maria Ballester
- Animal Breeding and Genetics Programme, Institut de Recerca i Tecnologia Agroalimentàries (IRTA), Torre Marimon, Caldes de Montbui, Spain
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2
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Gauron MC, Newton AC, Colombo MI. PKCα Is Recruited to Staphylococcus aureus-Containing Phagosomes and Impairs Bacterial Replication by Inhibition of Autophagy. Front Immunol 2021; 12:662987. [PMID: 33815423 PMCID: PMC8013776 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.662987] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2021] [Accepted: 03/03/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Hijacking the autophagic machinery is a key mechanism through which invasive pathogens such as Staphylococcus aureus replicate in their host cells. We have previously demonstrated that the bacteria replicate in phagosomes labeled with the autophagic protein LC3, before escaping to the cytoplasm. Here, we show that the Ca2+-dependent PKCα binds to S. aureus-containing phagosomes and that α-hemolysin, secreted by S. aureus, promotes this recruitment of PKCα to phagosomal membranes. Interestingly, the presence of PKCα prevents the association of the autophagic protein LC3. Live cell imaging experiments using the PKC activity reporter CKAR reveal that treatment of cells with S. aureus culture supernatants containing staphylococcal secreted factors transiently activates PKC. Functional studies reveal that overexpression of PKCα causes a marked inhibition of bacterial replication. Taken together, our data identify enhancing PKCα activity as a potential approach to inhibit S. aureus replication in mammalian cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Celeste Gauron
- Laboratorio de Mecanismos Moleculares Implicados en el Tráfico Vesicular y la Autofagia-Instituto de Histología y Embriología (IHEM)- Universidad Nacional de Cuyo, CONICET- Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, Mendoza, Argentina.,Department of Pharmacology, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States
| | - Alexandra C Newton
- Department of Pharmacology, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States
| | - María Isabel Colombo
- Laboratorio de Mecanismos Moleculares Implicados en el Tráfico Vesicular y la Autofagia-Instituto de Histología y Embriología (IHEM)- Universidad Nacional de Cuyo, CONICET- Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, Mendoza, Argentina
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3
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Tripathi A, Jain M, Chandra M, Parveen S, Yadav R, Collins BM, Maiti S, Datta S. EhC2B, a C2 domain-containing protein, promotes erythrophagocytosis in Entamoeba histolytica via actin nucleation. PLoS Pathog 2020; 16:e1008489. [PMID: 32365140 PMCID: PMC7197785 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1008489] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2019] [Accepted: 03/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Remodelling of the actin cytoskeleton in response to external stimuli is obligatory for many cellular processes in the amoebic cell. A rapid and local rearrangement of the actin cytoskeleton is required for the development of the cellular protrusions during phagocytosis, trogocytosis, migration, and invasion. Here, we demonstrated that EhC2B, a C2 domain-containing protein, is an actin modulator. EhC2B was first identified as an effector of EhRab21 from E. histolytica. In vitro interaction studies including GST pull-down, fluorescence-based assay and ITC also corroborated with our observation. In the amoebic trophozoites, EhC2B accumulates at the pseudopods and the tips of phagocytic cups. FRAP based studies confirmed the recruitment and dynamics of EhC2B at the phagocytic cup. Moreover, we have shown the role of EhC2B in erythrophagocytosis. It is well known that calcium-dependent signal transduction is essential for the cytoskeletal dynamics during phagocytosis in the amoebic parasite. Using liposome pelleting assay, we demonstrated that EhC2B preferentially binds to the phosphatidylserine in the presence of calcium. The EhC2B mutants defective in calcium or lipid-binding failed to localise beneath the plasma membrane. The cells overexpressing these mutants have also shown a significant reduction in erythrophagocytosis. The role of EhC2B in erythrophagocytosis and pseudopod formation was also validated by siRNA-based gene knockdown approach. Finally, with the help of in vitro nucleation assay using fluorescence spectroscopy and total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy, we have established that EhC2B is an actin nucleator. Collectively, based on the results from the study, we propose that EhC2B acts like a molecular bridge which promotes membrane deformation via its actin nucleation activity during the progression of the phagocytic cup in a calcium-dependent manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aashutosh Tripathi
- Department of Biological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Bhopal, India
| | - Megha Jain
- Department of Biological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Bhopal, India
| | - Mintu Chandra
- Institute for Molecular Biosciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, Australia
| | - Sameena Parveen
- Department of Biological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Bhopal, India
| | - Rupali Yadav
- Department of Biological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Bhopal, India
| | - Brett M. Collins
- Institute for Molecular Biosciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, Australia
| | - Sankar Maiti
- Department of Biological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Kolkata, India
| | - Sunando Datta
- Department of Biological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Bhopal, India
- * E-mail:
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4
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Zajd CM, Ziemba AM, Miralles GM, Nguyen T, Feustel PJ, Dunn SM, Gilbert RJ, Lennartz MR. Bone Marrow-Derived and Elicited Peritoneal Macrophages Are Not Created Equal: The Questions Asked Dictate the Cell Type Used. Front Immunol 2020; 11:269. [PMID: 32153579 PMCID: PMC7047825 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.00269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2019] [Accepted: 02/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Macrophages are a heterogeneous and plastic population of cells whose phenotype changes in response to their environment. Macrophage biologists utilize peritoneal (pMAC) and bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDM) for in vitro studies. Given that pMACs mature in vivo while BMDM are ex vivo differentiated from stem cells, it is likely that their responses differ under experimental conditions. Surprisingly little is known about how BMDM and pMACs responses compare under the same experimental conditionals. While morphologically similar with respect to forward and side scatter by flow cytometry, reports in the literature suggest that pMACs are more mature than their BMDM counterparts. Given the dearth of information comparing BMDM and pMACs, this work was undertaken to test the hypothesis that elicited pMACs are more responsive to defined conditions, including phagocytosis, respiratory burst, polarization, and cytokine and chemokine release. In all cases, our hypothesis was disproved. At steady state, BMDM are more phagocytic (both rate and extent) than elicited pMACs. In response to polarization, they upregulate chemokine and cytokine gene expression and release more cytokines. The results demonstrate that BMDM are generally more responsive and poised to respond to their environment, while pMAC responses are, in comparison, less pronounced. BMDM responses are a function of intrinsic differences, while pMAC responses reflect their differentiation in the context of the whole animal. This distinction may be important in knockout animals, where the pMAC phenotype may be influenced by the absence of the gene of interest.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cheryl M Zajd
- Department of Regenerative and Cancer Cell Biology, Albany Medical College, Albany, NY, United States
| | - Alexis M Ziemba
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY, United States
| | - Grace M Miralles
- Department of Regenerative and Cancer Cell Biology, Albany Medical College, Albany, NY, United States
| | - Terry Nguyen
- Department of Regenerative and Cancer Cell Biology, Albany Medical College, Albany, NY, United States
| | - Paul J Feustel
- Department of Neuroscience and Experimental Therapeutics, Albany Medical College, Albany, NY, United States
| | - Stanley M Dunn
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY, United States
| | - Ryan J Gilbert
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY, United States
| | - Michelle R Lennartz
- Department of Regenerative and Cancer Cell Biology, Albany Medical College, Albany, NY, United States
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5
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First exploratory study on the metabolome from plasma exosomes in patients with paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria. Thromb Res 2019; 183:80-85. [PMID: 31671376 DOI: 10.1016/j.thromres.2019.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2019] [Revised: 10/02/2019] [Accepted: 10/11/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria (PNH) is a rare disease in which patients are at increased risk of thrombosis. The mechanisms underlying the associated thrombosis risk are still poorly understood, although it is known that Eculizumab, the drug of choice for symptomatic patients, prevents thrombotic events. Exosomes are extracellular vesicles that can carry and disseminate genetic material, tumor biomarkers and inflammatory mediators. To date, the metabolite cargo of plasma exosomes from PNH patients has not yet been explored. In this pilot trial, we compared the metabolome of plasma exosomes from PNH patients with that of healthy subjects in order to provide further insights into this rare disease. RESULTS We used a non-targeted metabolomics approach with UPLC-ESI-QTOF-MS/MS and GC-MS platforms. Multivariate analyses revealed the differential occurrence (p < .001) of 78 metabolites in plasma exosomes from PNH patients vs healthy control subjects. Remarkably, prostaglandin F2-alpha (6.1-fold), stearoyl arginine (5.3-fold) and 26-hydroxycholesterol-3-sulfate (11.2-fold) were higher in PNH patients vs healthy controls (p < .001). CONCLUSIONS This is the first description on the differential metabolite cargo occurring in plasma exosomes from PNH patients. Our results could contribute to the search for possible prognostic biomarkers of thrombotic risk in patients with PNH. Further research in a larger cohort to validate these results is warranted.
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6
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Nelson NLJ, Zajd CM, Lennartz MR, Gosselin EJ. Fcγ receptors and toll-like receptor 9 synergize to drive immune complex-induced dendritic cell maturation. Cell Immunol 2019; 345:103962. [PMID: 31582169 DOI: 10.1016/j.cellimm.2019.103962] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2019] [Revised: 07/30/2019] [Accepted: 08/03/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Previous in vivo studies established that inactivated Francisella tularensis immune complexes (mAb-iFt) are a more protective vaccine against lethal tularemia than iFt alone. Subsequent in vitro studies revealed enhanced DC maturation marker expression with mAb-iFt stimulation. The goal of this study was to determine the mechanism of enhanced DC maturation. Multiparameter analysis of surface marker expression and cytokine secretion demonstrates a requirement for FcγR signaling in enhanced DC maturation. MyD88 was also found to be essential for heightened DC maturation, implicating MyD88-dependent TLRs in DC maturation. Upon further study, we discovered that TLRs 2 & 4 drive cytokine secretion, but surprisingly TLR9 is required for DC maturation marker upregulation. These studies reveal a separation of DC cytokine and maturation marker induction pathways and demonstrate that FcγR-TLR/MyD88 synergy underlies the enhanced dendritic cell maturation in response to the mAb-iFt vaccine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole L J Nelson
- Department of Immunology and Microbial Disease, Albany Medical College, 47 New Scotland Avenue, Albany, NY 12208, United States.
| | - Cheryl M Zajd
- Department of Regenerative and Cancer Cell Biology, Albany Medical College, 47 New Scotland Avenue, Albany, NY 12208, United States
| | - Michelle R Lennartz
- Department of Regenerative and Cancer Cell Biology, Albany Medical College, 47 New Scotland Avenue, Albany, NY 12208, United States
| | - Edmund J Gosselin
- Department of Immunology and Microbial Disease, Albany Medical College, 47 New Scotland Avenue, Albany, NY 12208, United States.
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7
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Tay MZ, Wiehe K, Pollara J. Antibody-Dependent Cellular Phagocytosis in Antiviral Immune Responses. Front Immunol 2019; 10:332. [PMID: 30873178 PMCID: PMC6404786 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.00332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 131] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2018] [Accepted: 02/08/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Antiviral activities of antibodies may either be dependent only on interactions between the antibody and cognate antigen, as in binding and neutralization of an infectious virion, or instead may require interactions between antibody-antigen immune complexes and immunoproteins or Fc receptor expressing immune effector cells. These Fc receptor-dependent antibody functions provide a direct link between the innate and adaptive immune systems by combining the potent antiviral activity of innate effector cells with the diversity and specificity of the adaptive humoral response. The Fc receptor-dependent function of antibody-dependent cellular phagocytosis (ADCP) provides mechanisms for clearance of virus and virus-infected cells, as well as for stimulation of downstream adaptive immune responses by facilitating antigen presentation, or by stimulating the secretion of inflammatory mediators. In this review, we discuss the properties of Fc receptors, antibodies, and effector cells that influence ADCP. We also provide and interpret evidence from studies that support a potential role for ADCP in either inhibiting or enhancing viral infection. Finally, we describe current approaches used to measure antiviral ADCP and discuss considerations for the translation of studies performed in animal models. We propose that additional investigation into the role of ADCP in protective viral responses, the specific virus epitopes targeted by ADCP antibodies, and the types of phagocytes and Fc receptors involved in ADCP at sites of virus infection will provide insight into strategies to successfully leverage this important immune response for improved antiviral immunity through rational vaccine design.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew Zirui Tay
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC, United States
| | - Kevin Wiehe
- Human Vaccine Institute, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC, United States
| | - Justin Pollara
- Human Vaccine Institute, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC, United States.,Department of Surgery, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC, United States
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8
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Wieland A, Ahmed R. Fc Receptors in Antimicrobial Protection. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 2019; 423:119-150. [DOI: 10.1007/82_2019_154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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9
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da Silva NIO, Salvador EA, Rodrigues Franco I, de Souza GAP, de Souza Morais SM, Prado Rocha R, Dias Novaes R, Paiva Corsetti P, Malaquias LCC, Leomil Coelho LF. Bovine serum albumin nanoparticles induce histopathological changes and inflammatory cell recruitment in the skin of treated mice. Biomed Pharmacother 2018; 107:1311-1317. [PMID: 30257346 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2018.08.106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2018] [Revised: 08/04/2018] [Accepted: 08/22/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Albumin is a natural, biocompatible, biodegradable and nontoxic polymer and due to these features, nanoparticles made of albumin are a good system for drug or antigen delivery. Polymeric nanoparticles are being widely explored as new vaccines platforms due to the capacity of those nanoparticles to prime the immune system by providing sustained release of the antigen after injection. Biodegradable nanoparticles associated with proteins represent a promising method for in vivo delivery of vaccines. In our previous studies, bovine serum albumin nanoparticles (BSA-NPs) were identified as a promising system for in vivo delivery of microbial antigens. The aim of this work was to show the effect of BSA-NPs on skin after nanoparticles administration. The pro-inflammatory activity of BSA-NPs was evaluated using in vivo models. BSA-NPs are easily uptake by macrophagic RAW 264.7 and BHK-21 cells without any significant cytotoxicity. Histological examination of skin sections from BSA-NPs-treated mice revealed intense cellular infiltration, increased skin thickness, follicular hypertrophy, vascular congestion and marked collagenesis. Mice immunized with recombinant non-structural protein 1 (rNS1) from Dengue virus 1 and BSA-NPs showed a high seroconversion rate if compared to animals immunized only with rNS1. Therefore, the effect of BSA-NPs on skin after BSA-NPs administration has a biotechnological relevance to the rational design of vaccine formulations based on albumin nanocarriers. However in the next years future studies should be carried out to best characterize the effect of BSA-NPs on dendritic cells and establish the role of these nanoparticles as a new vaccine platform for infectious diseases or cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalia Ingrid Oliveira da Silva
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Federal University of Alfenas, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Ezequiel Aparecido Salvador
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Federal University of Alfenas, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Isabella Rodrigues Franco
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Federal University of Alfenas, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Gabriel Augusto Pires de Souza
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Federal University of Alfenas, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Stella Maria de Souza Morais
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Federal University of Alfenas, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Raissa Prado Rocha
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Federal University of Alfenas, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Rômulo Dias Novaes
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Department Structural Biology, Federal University of Alfenas, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Patrícia Paiva Corsetti
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Federal University of Alfenas, Minas Gerais, Brazil; University Jose Rosário Vellano, Alfenas, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Luiz Cosme Cotta Malaquias
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Federal University of Alfenas, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Luiz Felipe Leomil Coelho
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Federal University of Alfenas, Minas Gerais, Brazil.
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Sakurai C, Itakura M, Kinoshita D, Arai S, Hashimoto H, Wada I, Hatsuzawa K. Phosphorylation of SNAP-23 at Ser95 causes a structural alteration and negatively regulates Fc receptor-mediated phagosome formation and maturation in macrophages. Mol Biol Cell 2018; 29:1753-1762. [PMID: 29771640 PMCID: PMC6080709 DOI: 10.1091/mbc.e17-08-0523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
SNAP-23 is a plasma membrane-localized soluble N-ethylmaleimide–sensitive factor attachment protein receptors (SNARE) involved in Fc receptor (FcR)-mediated phagocytosis. However, the regulatory mechanism underlying its function remains elusive. Using phosphorylation-specific antibodies, SNAP-23 was found to be phosphorylated at Ser95 in macrophages. To understand the role of this phosphorylation, we established macrophage lines overexpressing the nonphosphorylatable S95A or the phosphomimicking S95D mutation. The efficiency of phagosome formation and maturation was severely reduced in SNAP-23-S95D–overexpressing cells. To examine whether phosphorylation at Ser95 affected SNAP-23 structure, we constructed intramolecular Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) probes of SNAP-23 designed to evaluate the approximation of the N termini of the two SNARE motifs. Interestingly, a high FRET efficiency was detected on the membrane when the S95D probe was used, indicating that phosphorylation at Ser95 caused a dynamic structural shift to the closed form. Coexpression of IκB kinase (IKK) 2 enhanced the FRET efficiency of the wild-type probe on the phagosome membrane. Furthermore, the enhanced phagosomal FRET signal in interferon-γ–activated macrophages was largely dependent on IKK2, and this kinase mediated a delay in phagosome-lysosome fusion. These results suggested that SNAP-23 phosphorylation at Ser95 played an important role in the regulation of SNARE-dependent membrane fusion during FcR-mediated phagocytosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiye Sakurai
- Division of Molecular Biology, School of Life Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Tottori University, Yonago, Tottori 683-8503, Japan.,Department of Cell Science, Institute of Biomedical Science, Fukushima Medical University School of Medicine, Fukushima 960-1295, Japan
| | - Makoto Itakura
- Department of Biochemistry, Kitasato University School of Medicine, Sagamihara, Kanagawa 228-8555, Japan
| | - Daiki Kinoshita
- Division of Molecular Biology, School of Life Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Tottori University, Yonago, Tottori 683-8503, Japan
| | - Seisuke Arai
- Department of Cell Science, Institute of Biomedical Science, Fukushima Medical University School of Medicine, Fukushima 960-1295, Japan
| | - Hitoshi Hashimoto
- Department of Cell Science, Institute of Biomedical Science, Fukushima Medical University School of Medicine, Fukushima 960-1295, Japan
| | - Ikuo Wada
- Department of Cell Science, Institute of Biomedical Science, Fukushima Medical University School of Medicine, Fukushima 960-1295, Japan
| | - Kiyotaka Hatsuzawa
- Division of Molecular Biology, School of Life Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Tottori University, Yonago, Tottori 683-8503, Japan.,Department of Cell Science, Institute of Biomedical Science, Fukushima Medical University School of Medicine, Fukushima 960-1295, Japan
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11
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D’Amico AE, Lennartz MR. Protein Kinase C-epsilon in Membrane Delivery during Phagocytosis. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGICAL SCIENCES 2018; 2:26-32. [PMID: 30112519 PMCID: PMC6089528 DOI: 10.29245/2578-3009/2018/2.1134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
During phagocytosis, internal membranes are recruited to the site of pathogen binding and fuse with the plasma membrane, providing the membrane needed for pseudopod extension and target uptake. The mechanism by which vesicles destined for the phagosome are generated, targeted, and fuse is unknown. We established that Golgi-associated protein kinase C-epsilon (PKC-ε) is necessary for the addition of membrane during FcyR-mediated phagocytosis. PKC-ε is tethered to the Golgi through interactions between its' regulatory domain and the Golgi lipids PI4P and diacylglycerol; disruption of these interactions prevents PKC-ε concentration at phagosomes and decreases phagocytosis. The accumulated evidence suggests that PKC-ε orchestrates vesicle formation at the Golgi by a mechanism requiring lipid binding but not enzymatic activity. This review discusses how PKC-ε might mediate vesicle formation at the level of budding and fission. Specifically, we discuss PKC-ε binding partners, the formation of lipid subdomains to generate membrane curvature, and PKC-ε mediated links to the actin and microtubule cytoskeleton to provide tension for vesicle fission. Assimilating information from several model systems, we propose a model for PKC-ε mediated vesicle formation for exocytosis during phagocytosis that may be applicable to other processes that require directed membrane delivery and fusion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna E. D’Amico
- Department of Regenerative and Cancer Cell Biology, Albany Medical College, 47 New Scotland Avenue Albany, NY 12208, USA
| | - Michelle R. Lennartz
- Department of Regenerative and Cancer Cell Biology, Albany Medical College, 47 New Scotland Avenue Albany, NY 12208, USA
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12
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Levin R, Grinstein S, Canton J. The life cycle of phagosomes: formation, maturation, and resolution. Immunol Rev 2017; 273:156-79. [PMID: 27558334 DOI: 10.1111/imr.12439] [Citation(s) in RCA: 189] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Phagocytosis, the regulated uptake of large particles (>0.5 μm in diameter), is essential for tissue homeostasis and is also an early, critical component of the innate immune response. Phagocytosis can be conceptually divided into three stages: phagosome, formation, maturation, and resolution. Each of these involves multiple reactions that require exquisite spatial and temporal orchestration. The molecular events underlying these stages are being unraveled and the current state of knowledge is briefly summarized in this article.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roni Levin
- Program in Cell Biology, Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON, Canada.,Department of Biochemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Sergio Grinstein
- Program in Cell Biology, Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON, Canada.,Department of Biochemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada.,Keenan Research Centre of the Li Ka Shing Knowledge Institute, St. Michael's Hospital, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Johnathan Canton
- Program in Cell Biology, Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON, Canada
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13
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Somlata, Nakada-Tsukui K, Nozaki T. AGC family kinase 1 participates in trogocytosis but not in phagocytosis in Entamoeba histolytica. Nat Commun 2017; 8:101. [PMID: 28740237 PMCID: PMC5524646 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-017-00199-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2016] [Accepted: 06/08/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The protozoan parasite Entamoeba histolytica is the aetiologic agent of amoebiasis, an endemic infection in developing countries with considerable morbidity and mortality. Recently, trogocytosis has been recognized as the key step in amoebic cytolysis and invasion, a paradigm shift in understanding pathogenicity of this organism. Here we report that AGC family kinase 1 is specifically involved in trogocytosis of live human cells and does not participate in phagocytosis of dead cells. Live imaging reveals localization of this kinase in the long and thin tunnels formed during trogocytosis but not in the trogosomes (endosomes formed after trogocytosis). Silencing of the specific gene leads to a defect in CHO cell destruction and trogocytosis while other endocytic processes remain unaffected. The results suggest that the trogocytic pathway is likely to be different from phagocytosis though many of the steps and molecules involved may be common. Entamoeba histolytica can kill host cells by trogocytosis, while it ingests dead cells by phagocytosis. Here, Somlata et al. show that EhAGCK1, an AGC family kinase, is specifically involved in trogocytosis, shedding light on the molecular differences between trogocytosis and phagocytosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Somlata
- School of Life Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, 110067, India.
| | - Kumiko Nakada-Tsukui
- Department of Parasitology, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, 1-23-1 Toyama, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo, 162-8640, Japan
| | - Tomoyoshi Nozaki
- Department of Parasitology, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, 1-23-1 Toyama, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo, 162-8640, Japan. .,Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-572, Japan. .,Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Tokyo, 113-0033, Japan.
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Abstract
Phagocytosis refers to the active process that allows cells to take up large particulate material upon binding to surface receptors. The discovery of phagocytosis in 1883 by Elie Metchnikoff, leading to the concept that specialized cells are implicated in the defense against microbes, was one of the starting points of the field of immunology. After more than a century of research, phagocytosis is now appreciated to be a widely used process that enables the cellular uptake of a remarkable variety of particles, including bacteria, fungi, parasites, viruses, dead cells, and assorted debris and solid materials. Uptake of foreign particles is performed almost exclusively by specialized myeloid cells, commonly termed "professional phagocytes": neutrophils, monocytes, macrophages, and dendritic cells. Phagocytosis of microbes not only stops or at least restricts the spread of infection but also plays an important role in regulating the innate and adaptive immune responses. Activation of the myeloid cells upon phagocytosis leads to the secretion of cytokines and chemokines that convey signals to a variety of immune cells. Moreover, foreign antigens generated by the degradation of microbes following phagocytosis are loaded onto the major histocompatibility complex for presentation to specific T lymphocytes. However, phagocytosis is not restricted to professional myeloid phagocytes; an expanding diversity of cell types appear capable of engulfing apoptotic bodies and debris, playing a critical role in tissue remodeling and in the clearance of billions of effete cells every day.
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Hanes CM, D'Amico AE, Ueyama T, Wong AC, Zhang X, Hynes WF, Barroso MM, Cady NC, Trebak M, Saito N, Lennartz MR. Golgi-Associated Protein Kinase C-ε Is Delivered to Phagocytic Cups: Role of Phosphatidylinositol 4-Phosphate. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2017; 199:271-277. [PMID: 28539432 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1700243] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2017] [Accepted: 04/28/2017] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Protein kinase C-ε (PKC-ε) at phagocytic cups mediates the membrane fusion necessary for efficient IgG-mediated phagocytosis. The C1B and pseudosubstrate (εPS) domains are necessary and sufficient for this concentration. C1B binds diacylglycerol; the docking partner for εPS is unknown. Liposome assays revealed that the εPS binds phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate (PI4P) and PI(3,5)P2 Wortmannin, but not LY294002, inhibits PKC-ε concentration at cups and significantly reduces the rate of phagocytosis. As Wortmannin inhibits PI4 kinase, we hypothesized that PI4P mediates the PKC-ε concentration at cups and the rate of phagocytosis. PKC-ε colocalizes with the trans-Golgi network (TGN) PI4P reporter, P4M, suggesting it is tethered at the TGN. Real-time imaging of GFP-PKC-ε-expressing macrophages revealed a loss of Golgi-associated PKC-ε during phagocytosis, consistent with a Golgi-to-phagosome translocation. Treatment with PIK93, a PI4 kinase inhibitor, reduces PKC-ε at both the TGN and the cup, decreases phagocytosis, and prevents the increase in capacitance that accompanies membrane fusion. Finally, expression of the Golgi-directed PI4P phosphatase, hSac1-K2A, recapitulates the PIK93 phenotype, confirming that Golgi-associated PI4P is critical for efficient phagocytosis. Together these data are consistent with a model in which PKC-ε is tethered to the TGN via an εPS-PI4P interaction. The TGN-associated pool of PKC-ε concentrates at the phagocytic cup where it mediates the membrane fusion necessary for phagocytosis. The novelty of these data lies in the demonstration that εPS binds PI4P and PI(3,5)P2 and that PI4P is necessary for PKC-ε localization at the TGN, its translocation to the phagocytic cup, and the membrane fusion required for efficient Fc [γ] receptor-mediated phagocytosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cheryl M Hanes
- Department of Regenerative and Cancer Cell Biology, Albany Medical College, Albany, NY 12208
| | - Anna E D'Amico
- Department of Regenerative and Cancer Cell Biology, Albany Medical College, Albany, NY 12208
| | - Takehiko Ueyama
- Biosignal Research Center, Kobe University, Kobe 657-8501, Japan
| | - Alexander C Wong
- Department of Regenerative and Cancer Cell Biology, Albany Medical College, Albany, NY 12208
| | - Xuexin Zhang
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Physiology, Pennsylvania State University College of Medicine, Hershey, PA 17033
| | - W Frederick Hynes
- College of Nanoscale Science and Engineering, SUNY Polytechnic Institute, Albany, NY 12203; and
| | - Margarida M Barroso
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Albany Medical College, Albany, NY 12208
| | - Nathaniel C Cady
- College of Nanoscale Science and Engineering, SUNY Polytechnic Institute, Albany, NY 12203; and
| | - Mohamed Trebak
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Physiology, Pennsylvania State University College of Medicine, Hershey, PA 17033
| | - Naoaki Saito
- Biosignal Research Center, Kobe University, Kobe 657-8501, Japan
| | - Michelle R Lennartz
- Department of Regenerative and Cancer Cell Biology, Albany Medical College, Albany, NY 12208;
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Suppression of macrophage-mediated phagocytosis of apoptotic cells by soluble β-glucan due to a failure of PKC-βII translocation. Int Immunopharmacol 2016; 31:195-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2015.12.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2015] [Revised: 12/18/2015] [Accepted: 12/21/2015] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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17
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Harmon EY, Fronhofer V, Keller RS, Feustel PJ, Zhu X, Xu H, Avram D, Jones DM, Nagarajan S, Lennartz MR. Anti-inflammatory immune skewing is atheroprotective: Apoe−/−FcγRIIb−/− mice develop fibrous carotid plaques. J Am Heart Assoc 2015; 3:e001232. [PMID: 25516435 PMCID: PMC4338708 DOI: 10.1161/jaha.114.001232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Background Stroke, caused by carotid plaque rupture, is a major cause of death in the United States. Whereas vulnerable human plaques have higher Fc receptor (FcγR) expression than their stable counterparts, how FcγR expression impacts plaque histology is unknown. We investigated the role of FcγRIIb in carotid plaque development and stability in apolipoprotein (Apo)e−/− and Apoe−/−FcγRIIb−/− double knockout (DKO) animals. Methods and Results Plaques were induced by implantation of a shear stress‐modifying cast around the carotid artery. Plaque length and stenosis were followed longitudinally using ultrasound biomicroscopy. Immune status was determined by flow cytometry, cytokine release, immunoglobulin G concentration and analysis of macrophage polarization both in plaques and in vitro. Surprisingly, DKO animals had lower plaque burden in both carotid artery and descending aorta. Plaques from Apoe−/− mice were foam‐cell rich and resembled vulnerable human specimens, whereas those from DKO mice were fibrous and histologically stable. Plaques from DKO animals expressed higher arginase 1 (Arg‐1) and lower inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), indicating the presence of M2 macrophages. Analysis of blood and cervical lymph nodes revealed higher interleukin (IL)‐10, immune complexes, and regulatory T cells (Tregs) and lower IL‐12, IL‐1β, and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF‐α) in DKO mice. Similarly, in vitro stimulation produced higher IL‐10 and Arg‐1 and lower iNOS, IL‐1β, and TNF‐α in DKO versus Apoe−/− macrophages. These results define a systemic anti‐inflammatory phenotype. Conclusions We hypothesized that removal of FcγRIIb would exacerbate atherosclerosis and generate unstable plaques. However, we found that deletion of FcγRIIb on a congenic C57BL/6 background induces an anti‐inflammatory Treg/M2 polarization that is atheroprotective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erin Y Harmon
- Centers for Cell Biology and Cancer Research, Albany Medical College, Albany, NY
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18
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Park HJ, Yang HJ, Kim KH, Kim SH. Aqueous extract of Orostachys japonicus A. Berger exerts immunostimulatory activity in RAW 264.7 macrophages. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2015; 170:210-217. [PMID: 25978952 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2015.04.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2014] [Revised: 04/13/2015] [Accepted: 04/13/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE Orostachys japonicus A. Berger (Crassulaceae) (OJ), well-known as Wa-song in Korea is a medicinal plant with immunoregulatory, anti-febrile, antidote, and anti-cancer activities. This study was aimed at evaluating the immunostimulatory effect of O. japonicus A. Berger and its possible mechanisms of action. MATERIALS AND METHODS To evaluate the effect of OJ aqueous extract on macrophage activity, we evaluated the modulation of macrophage activation state by observing structural (phagocytic activities) and the production of nitric oxide increase. The effect of OJ aqueous extract on RAW264.7 cell viability were assessed using Cell Counting Kit (CCK)-8 assay. HPLC analysis was performed to identify potential active compounds of this extract. RESULTS The biological investigations indicated that OJ aqueous extract, among others, possessed the highest macrophage activation as indicated by NO production yield. The results showed that OJ aqueous extract exhibited antioxidant effects, which included scavenging activities against DPPH radicals. OJ aqueous extract increased the phagocytic activity of RAW 264.7 cells against IgG-opsonized red blood cells (RBC). The level of phosphorylated Syk kinase was increased in OJ aqueous extract-treated group as compared to control. Phosphorylation of PLC-γ was increased in the OJ aqueous extract-treated groups. Quercetin-3-O-rhamnose and kaempferol-3-O-rhamnose was detected in OJ aqueous extract by HPLC analysis. CONCLUSIONS OJ aqueous extract might play a pivotal ethnopharmacologic role as an immunostimulatory agent by promoting Fc gamma receptor (FcγR)-mediated phagocytosis of IgG-opsonized RBCs. On the basis of our results, OJ aqueous extract can enhance innate immunity and may serve as an adjuvant for tumor treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hye-Jin Park
- Department of Food Science and Biotechnology, College of BioNano Technology Gachon University, Sungnam, Gyeonggi-do 461-701, Republic of Korea.
| | - Hye Jeong Yang
- Division of Creative Food Science for Health, Korea Food Research Institute, 1201-62 Anyangpangyo-ro, Bundang-gu, Seongnam-si, Gyeonggi-do 463-746, Republic of Korea
| | - Ki Hyun Kim
- Natural Product Research Laboratory, School of Pharmacy, Sungkyunkwan University, 300 Chonchon-dong, Jangan-ku, Suwon, Gyeonggi-do 440-746, Republic of Korea
| | - Sang Hee Kim
- Division of Creative Food Science for Health, Korea Food Research Institute, 1201-62 Anyangpangyo-ro, Bundang-gu, Seongnam-si, Gyeonggi-do 463-746, Republic of Korea
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Maxeiner S, Shi N, Schalla C, Aydin G, Hoss M, Vogel S, Zenke M, Sechi AS. Crucial role for the LSP1-myosin1e bimolecular complex in the regulation of Fcγ receptor-driven phagocytosis. Mol Biol Cell 2015; 26:1652-64. [PMID: 25717183 PMCID: PMC4436777 DOI: 10.1091/mbc.e14-05-1005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2014] [Accepted: 02/19/2015] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
The actin cytoskeleton is fundamental for the innate immune process of phagocytosis. This study shows that LSP1 plays a pivotal role in the regulation of actin cytoskeleton remodeling during Fcγ receptor–mediated phagocytosis and that its interactions with myosin1e and actin are crucial for the efficiency of this actin-driven process. Actin cytoskeleton remodeling is fundamental for Fcγ receptor–driven phagocytosis. In this study, we find that the leukocyte-specific protein 1 (LSP1) localizes to nascent phagocytic cups during Fcγ receptor–mediated phagocytosis, where it displays the same spatial and temporal distribution as the actin cytoskeleton. Down-regulation of LSP1 severely reduces the phagocytic activity of macrophages, clearly demonstrating a crucial role for this protein in Fcγ receptor–mediated phagocytosis. We also find that LSP1 binds to the class I molecular motor myosin1e. LSP1 interacts with the SH3 domain of myosin1e, and the localization and dynamics of both proteins in nascent phagocytic cups mirror those of actin. Furthermore, inhibition of LSP1–myosin1e and LSP1–actin interactions profoundly impairs pseudopodial formation around opsonized targets and their subsequent internalization. Thus the LSP1–myosin1e bimolecular complex plays a pivotal role in the regulation of actin cytoskeleton remodeling during Fcγ receptor–driven phagocytosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Maxeiner
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Department of Cell Biology, Applied Ecology, D-52074 Aachen, Germany
| | - Nian Shi
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Department of Cell Biology, Applied Ecology, D-52074 Aachen, Germany
| | - Carmen Schalla
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Department of Cell Biology, Applied Ecology, D-52074 Aachen, Germany
| | - Guelcan Aydin
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Department of Cell Biology, Applied Ecology, D-52074 Aachen, Germany
| | - Mareike Hoss
- Electron Microscopy Facility, Uniklinik RWTH Aachen, Applied Ecology, D-52074 Aachen, Germany
| | - Simon Vogel
- Fraunhofer Institute for Molecular Biology and Applied Ecology, D-52074 Aachen, Germany
| | - Martin Zenke
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Department of Cell Biology, Applied Ecology, D-52074 Aachen, Germany
| | - Antonio S Sechi
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Department of Cell Biology, Applied Ecology, D-52074 Aachen, Germany
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20
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Reale L, Bonfigli F, Lai A, Flora F, Albertano P, DI Giorgio ML, Mezi L, Montereali RM, Faenov A, Pikuz T, Almaviva S, Francucci M, Gaudio P, Martellucci S, Richetta M, Poma A. Contact X-ray microscopy of living cells by using LiF crystal as imaging detector. J Microsc 2015; 258:127-39. [PMID: 25639642 DOI: 10.1111/jmi.12226] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2014] [Accepted: 12/28/2014] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
In this paper, the use of lithium fluoride (LiF) as imaging radiation detector to analyse living cells by single-shot soft X-ray contact microscopy is presented. High resolved X-ray images on LiF of cyanobacterium Leptolyngbya VRUC135, two unicellular microalgae of the genus Chlamydomonas and mouse macrophage cells (line RAW 264.7) have been obtained utilizing X-ray radiation in the water window energy range from a laser plasma source. The used method is based on loading of the samples, the cell suspension, in a special holder where they are in close contact with a LiF crystal solid-state X-ray imaging detector. After exposure and sample removal, the images stored in LiF by the soft X-ray contact microscopy technique are read by an optical microscope in fluorescence mode. The clear image of the mucilaginous sheath the structure of the filamentous Leptolyngbya and the visible nucleolus in the macrophage cells image, are noteworthiness results. The peculiarities of the used X-ray radiation and of the LiF imaging detector allow obtaining images in absorption contrast revealing the internal structures of the investigated samples at high spatial resolution. Moreover, the wide dynamic range of the LiF imaging detector contributes to obtain high-quality images. In particular, we demonstrate that this peculiar characteristic of LiF detector allows enhancing the contrast and reveal details even when they were obscured by a nonuniform stray light.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Reale
- Campus Biomedico, Via Álvaro del Portillo 21, Rome, Italy
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Richards DM, Endres RG. The mechanism of phagocytosis: two stages of engulfment. Biophys J 2014; 107:1542-53. [PMID: 25296306 PMCID: PMC4190621 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpj.2014.07.070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2014] [Revised: 07/14/2014] [Accepted: 07/22/2014] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Despite being of vital importance to the immune system, the mechanism by which cells engulf relatively large solid particles during phagocytosis is still poorly understood. From movies of neutrophil phagocytosis of polystyrene beads, we measure the fractional engulfment as a function of time and demonstrate that phagocytosis occurs in two distinct stages. During the first stage, engulfment is relatively slow and progressively slows down as phagocytosis proceeds. However, at approximately half-engulfment, the rate of engulfment increases dramatically, with complete engulfment attained soon afterwards. By studying simple mathematical models of phagocytosis, we suggest that the first stage is due to a passive mechanism, determined by receptor diffusion and capture, whereas the second stage is more actively controlled, perhaps with receptors being driven toward the site of engulfment. We then consider a more advanced model that includes signaling and captures both stages of engulfment. This model predicts that there is an optimum ligand density for quick engulfment. Further, we show how this model explains why nonspherical particles engulf quickest when presented tip-first. Our findings suggest that active regulation may be a later evolutionary innovation, allowing fast and robust engulfment even for large particles.
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Affiliation(s)
- David M Richards
- Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College, London, United Kingdom; Centre for Integrative Systems Biology and Bioinformatics, Imperial College, London, United Kingdom.
| | - Robert G Endres
- Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College, London, United Kingdom; Centre for Integrative Systems Biology and Bioinformatics, Imperial College, London, United Kingdom
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22
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Swanson JA. Phosphoinositides and engulfment. Cell Microbiol 2014; 16:1473-83. [PMID: 25073505 DOI: 10.1111/cmi.12334] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2014] [Revised: 07/17/2014] [Accepted: 07/28/2014] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Cellular engulfment of particles, cells or solutes displaces large domains of plasma membrane into intracellular membranous vacuoles. This transfer of membrane is accompanied by major transitions of the phosphoinositide (PI) species that comprise the cytoplasmic face of membrane bilayers. Mapping of membrane PIs during engulfment reveals distinct patterns of protein and PI distributions associated with each stage of engulfment, which correspond with activities that regulate the actin cytoskeleton, membrane movements and vesicle secretion. Experimental manipulation of PI chemistry during engulfment indicates that PIs integrate organelle identity and orient signal transduction cascades within confined subdomains of membrane. These pathways are exploited by microbial pathogens to direct or redirect the engulfment process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joel A Swanson
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109-5620, USA
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23
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Abstract
Phosphoinositides (PIs) make up only a small fraction of cellular phospholipids, yet they control almost all aspects of a cell's life and death. These lipids gained tremendous research interest as plasma membrane signaling molecules when discovered in the 1970s and 1980s. Research in the last 15 years has added a wide range of biological processes regulated by PIs, turning these lipids into one of the most universal signaling entities in eukaryotic cells. PIs control organelle biology by regulating vesicular trafficking, but they also modulate lipid distribution and metabolism via their close relationship with lipid transfer proteins. PIs regulate ion channels, pumps, and transporters and control both endocytic and exocytic processes. The nuclear phosphoinositides have grown from being an epiphenomenon to a research area of its own. As expected from such pleiotropic regulators, derangements of phosphoinositide metabolism are responsible for a number of human diseases ranging from rare genetic disorders to the most common ones such as cancer, obesity, and diabetes. Moreover, it is increasingly evident that a number of infectious agents hijack the PI regulatory systems of host cells for their intracellular movements, replication, and assembly. As a result, PI converting enzymes began to be noticed by pharmaceutical companies as potential therapeutic targets. This review is an attempt to give an overview of this enormous research field focusing on major developments in diverse areas of basic science linked to cellular physiology and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tamas Balla
- Section on Molecular Signal Transduction, Program for Developmental Neuroscience, Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, USA.
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Strijbis K, Tafesse FG, Fairn GD, Witte MD, Dougan SK, Watson N, Spooner E, Esteban A, Vyas VK, Fink GR, Grinstein S, Ploegh HL. Bruton's Tyrosine Kinase (BTK) and Vav1 contribute to Dectin1-dependent phagocytosis of Candida albicans in macrophages. PLoS Pathog 2013; 9:e1003446. [PMID: 23825946 PMCID: PMC3694848 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1003446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2013] [Accepted: 05/07/2013] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Phagocytosis of the opportunistic fungal pathogen Candida albicans by cells of the innate immune system is vital to prevent infection. Dectin-1 is the major phagocytic receptor involved in anti-fungal immunity. We identify two new interacting proteins of Dectin-1 in macrophages, Bruton's Tyrosine Kinase (BTK) and Vav1. BTK and Vav1 are recruited to phagocytic cups containing C. albicans yeasts or hyphae but are absent from mature phagosomes. BTK and Vav1 localize to cuff regions surrounding the hyphae, while Dectin-1 lines the full length of the phagosome. BTK and Vav1 colocalize with the lipid PI(3,4,5)P3 and F-actin at the phagocytic cup, but not with diacylglycerol (DAG) which marks more mature phagosomal membranes. Using a selective BTK inhibitor, we show that BTK contributes to DAG synthesis at the phagocytic cup and the subsequent recruitment of PKCε. BTK- or Vav1-deficient peritoneal macrophages display a defect in both zymosan and C. albicans phagocytosis. Bone marrow-derived macrophages that lack BTK or Vav1 show reduced uptake of C. albicans, comparable to Dectin1-deficient cells. BTK- or Vav1-deficient mice are more susceptible to systemic C. albicans infection than wild type mice. This work identifies an important role for BTK and Vav1 in immune responses against C. albicans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karin Strijbis
- Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Fikadu G. Tafesse
- Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Gregory D. Fairn
- Keenan Research Centre of the Li Ka Shing Knowledge Institute, St. Michael's Hospital, Department of Surgery, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Martin D. Witte
- Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Stephanie K. Dougan
- Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Nicki Watson
- Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Eric Spooner
- Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Alexandre Esteban
- Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Valmik K. Vyas
- Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Gerald R. Fink
- Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Sergio Grinstein
- Keenan Research Centre of the Li Ka Shing Knowledge Institute, St. Michael's Hospital, Department of Surgery, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- Program in Cell Biology, Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Hidde L. Ploegh
- Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Wood TR, Chow RY, Hanes CM, Zhang X, Kashiwagi K, Shirai Y, Trebak M, Loegering DJ, Saito N, Lennartz MR. PKC-ε pseudosubstrate and catalytic activity are necessary for membrane delivery during IgG-mediated phagocytosis. J Leukoc Biol 2013; 94:109-22. [PMID: 23670290 DOI: 10.1189/jlb.1212634] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
In RAW 264.7 cells, PKC-ε regulates FcγR-mediated phagocytosis. BMDM behave similarly; PKC-ε concentrates at phagosomes and internalization are reduced in PKC-ε⁻/⁻ cells. Two questions were asked: what is the role of PKC-ε? and what domains are necessary for PKC-ε concentration? Function was studied using BMDM and frustrated phagocytosis. On IgG surfaces, PKC-ε⁻/⁻ macrophages spread less than WT. Patch-clamping revealed that the spreading defect is a result of the failure of PKC-ε⁻/⁻ macrophages to add membrane. The defect is specific for FcγR ligation and can be reversed by expression of full-length (but not the isolated RD) PKC-ε in PKC-ε⁻/⁻ BMDM. Thus, PKC-ε function in phagocytosis requires translocation to phagosomes and the catalytic domain. The expression of chimeric PKC molecules in RAW cells identified the εPS as necessary for PKC-ε targeting. When placed into (nonlocalizing) PKC-δ, εPS was sufficient for concentration, albeit to a lesser degree than intact PKC-ε. In contrast, translocation of δ(εPSC1B) resembled that of WT PKC-ε. Thus, εPS and εC1B cooperate for optimal phagosome targeting. Finally, cells expressing εK437W were significantly less phagocytic than their PKC-ε-expressing counterparts, blocked at the pseudopod-extension phase. In summary, we have shown that εPS and εC1B are necessary and sufficient for targeting PKC-ε to phagosomes, where its catalytic activity is required for membrane delivery and pseudopod extension.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiffany R Wood
- Centers for Cell Biology and Cancer Researchnces, Albany Medical College, Albany, New York, USA
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Bohdanowicz M, Grinstein S. Role of Phospholipids in Endocytosis, Phagocytosis, and Macropinocytosis. Physiol Rev 2013; 93:69-106. [DOI: 10.1152/physrev.00002.2012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 198] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Endocytosis, phagocytosis, and macropinocytosis are fundamental processes that enable cells to sample their environment, eliminate pathogens and apoptotic bodies, and regulate the expression of surface components. While a great deal of effort has been devoted over many years to understanding the proteins involved in these processes, the important contribution of phospholipids has only recently been appreciated. This review is an attempt to collate and analyze the rapidly emerging evidence documenting the role of phospholipids in clathrin-mediated endocytosis, phagocytosis, and macropinocytosis. A primer on phospholipid biosynthesis, catabolism, subcellular distribution, and transport is presented initially, for reference, together with general considerations of the effects of phospholipids on membrane curvature and charge. This is followed by a detailed analysis of the critical functions of phospholipids in the internalization processes and in the maturation of the resulting vesicles and vacuoles as they progress along the endo-lysosomal pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michal Bohdanowicz
- Division of Cell Biology, Hospital for Sick Children, and Institute of Medical Sciences, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
| | - Sergio Grinstein
- Division of Cell Biology, Hospital for Sick Children, and Institute of Medical Sciences, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
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Myosin II-dependent exclusion of CD45 from the site of Fcγ receptor activation during phagocytosis. FEBS Lett 2012; 586:3229-35. [DOI: 10.1016/j.febslet.2012.06.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2012] [Revised: 06/21/2012] [Accepted: 06/22/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Welliver TP, Swanson JA. A growth factor signaling cascade confined to circular ruffles in macrophages. Biol Open 2012; 1:754-60. [PMID: 23213469 PMCID: PMC3507227 DOI: 10.1242/bio.20121784] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2012] [Accepted: 05/23/2012] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
The formation of macropinosomes requires large-scale movements of membranes and the actin cytoskeleton. Over several minutes, actin-rich surface ruffles transform into 1-5 µm diameter circular ruffles, which close at their distal margins, creating endocytic vesicles. Previous studies using fluorescent reporters of phosphoinositides and Rho-family GTPases showed that signals generated by macrophages in response to the growth factor Macrophage Colony-Stimulating Factor (M-CSF) appeared transiently in domains of plasma membrane circumscribed by circular ruffles. To address the question of how signaling molecules are coordinated in such large domains of plasma membrane, this study analyzed the relative timing of growth factor-dependent signals as ruffles transformed into macropinosomes. Fluorescent protein chimeras expressed in macrophages were imaged by microscopy and quantified relative to circular ruffle formation and cup closure. The large size of macropinocytic cups allowed temporal resolution of the transitions in phosphoinositides and associated enzyme activities that organize cup closure. Circular ruffles contained transient and sequential spikes of phosphatidylinositol (4,5)-bisphosphate (PI(4,5)P(2)), phosphatidylinositol (3,4,5)-trisphosphate (PIP(3)), diacylglycerol, PI(3,4)P(2), PI(3)P and the activities of protein kinase C-α, Rac1, Ras and Rab5. The confinement of this signal cascade to circular ruffles indicated that diffusion barriers present in these transient structures focus feedback activation and deactivation of essential enzyme activities into restricted domains of plasma membrane.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy P Welliver
- Program in Immunology, University of Michigan Medical School , Ann Arbor, MI 48109-5620 , USA
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Florentinus AK, Bowden P, Barbisan V, Marshall J. Capture and qualitative analysis of the activated Fc receptor complex from live cells. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012; Chapter 19:Unit 19.22. [PMID: 22294325 DOI: 10.1002/0471140864.ps1922s67] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
This unit describes the isolation of activated Fc receptor complexes from RAW 264.7 macrophages using live-cell affinity receptor chromatography (LARC). The Fc receptor complex is activated and captured by IgG-coated microbeads on the surface of live macrophages. After the cells are disrupted, the receptor complexes are isolated by washing and sucrose gradient ultracentrifugation. Soluble proteins associated with the receptor complex are then eluted from the beads using a stepwise series of salt buffers and aqueous acetonitrile. The eluted proteins and the residual insoluble proteins on the beads can then be digested with trypsin and subjected to liquid chromatography, electrospray ionization, and tandem mass spectrometry (LC-ESI-MS/MS). Controls include IgG-coated beads incubated with crude cell lysates or growth medium and beads coated with oxidized LDL or bovine serum albumin. Using this method, proteins present in IgG-FcR complexes can be distinguished from those in control scavenger receptor complexes (oxLDL or BSA). Thus, LARC is capable of detecting specific members of IgG receptor supramolecular complexes.
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Hayashi Y, Engelmann P, Foldbjerg R, Szabó M, Somogyi I, Pollák E, Molnár L, Autrup H, Sutherland DS, Scott-Fordsmand J, Heckmann LH. Earthworms and humans in vitro: characterizing evolutionarily conserved stress and immune responses to silver nanoparticles. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2012; 46:4166-4173. [PMID: 22432789 DOI: 10.1021/es3000905] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Little is known about the potential threats of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) to ecosystem health, with no detailed report existing on the stress and immune responses of soil invertebrates. Here we use earthworm primary cells, cross-referencing to human cell cultures with a particular emphasis on the conserved biological processes, and provide the first in vitro analysis of molecular and cellular toxicity mechanisms in the earthworm Eisenia fetida exposed to AgNPs (83 ± 22 nm). While we observed a clear difference in cytotoxicity of dissolved silver salt on earthworm coelomocytes and human cells (THP-1 cells, differentiated THP-1 cells and peripheral blood mononuclear cells), the coelomocytes and differentiated (macrophage-like) THP-1 cells showed a similar response to AgNPs. Intracellular accumulation of AgNPs in the coelomocytes, predominantly in a phagocytic population, was evident by several methods including transmission electron microscopy. Molecular signatures of oxidative stress and selected biomarker genes probed in a time-resolved manner suggest early regulation of oxidative stress genes and subsequent alteration of immune signaling processes following the onset of AgNP exposure in the coelomocytes and THP-1 cells. Our findings provide mechanistic clues on cellular innate immunity toward AgNPs that is likely to be evolutionarily conserved across the animal kingdom.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuya Hayashi
- iNANO Interdisciplinary Nanoscience Center, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark.
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Zizza P, Iurisci C, Bonazzi M, Cossart P, Leslie CC, Corda D, Mariggiò S. Phospholipase A2IVα regulates phagocytosis independent of its enzymatic activity. J Biol Chem 2012; 287:16849-59. [PMID: 22393044 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m111.309419] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Group IVα phospholipase A(2) (PLA(2)IVα) is a lipolytic enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of membrane phospholipids to generate precursors of potent inflammatory lipid mediators. Here, the role of PLA(2)IVα in Fc receptor (FcR)-mediated phagocytosis was investigated, demonstrating that PLA(2)IVα is selectively activated upon FcR-mediated phagocytosis in macrophages and that it rapidly translocates to the site of the nascent phagosome. Moreover, pharmacological inhibition of PLA(2)IVα by pyrrophenone reduces particle internalization by up to 50%. In parallel, fibroblasts from PLA(2)IVα knock-out mice overexpressing FcγRIIA and able to internalize IgG-opsonized beads show 50% lower phagocytosis, compared with wild-type cells, and transfection of PLA(2)IVα fully recovers this impaired function. Interestingly, transfection of the catalytically inactive deleted PLA(2)IVα mutant (PLA(2)IVα(1-525)) and point mutant (PLA(2)IVα-S228C) also promotes recovery of this impaired function. Finally, transfection of the PLA(2)IVα C2 domain (which is directly involved in PLA(2)IVα membrane binding), but not of PLA(2)IVα-D43N (which cannot bind to membranes), rescues FcR-mediated phagocytosis. These data unveil a new mechanism of action for PLA(2)IVα, which demonstrates that the membrane binding, and not the enzymatic activity, is required for PLA(2)IVα modulation of FcR-mediated phagocytosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pasquale Zizza
- Institute of Protein Biochemistry, National Research Council, Via Pietro Castellino 111, 80131 Naples, Italy
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Somlata, Kamanna S, Agrahari M, Babuta M, Bhattacharya S, Bhattacharya A. Autophosphorylation of Ser428 of EhC2PK plays a critical role in regulating erythrophagocytosis in the parasite Entamoeba histolytica. J Biol Chem 2012; 287:10844-52. [PMID: 22753771 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m111.308874] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
The protozoan parasite Entamoeba histolytica can invade both intestinal and extra intestinal tissues resulting in amoebiasis. During the process of invasion E. histolytica ingests red blood and host cells using phagocytic processes. Though phagocytosis is considered to be a key virulence determinant, the mechanism is not very well understood in E. histolytica. We have recently demonstrated that a novel C2 domain-containing protein kinase, EhC2PK is involved in the initiation of erythrophagocytosis. Because cells overexpressing the kinase-dead mutant of EhC2PK displayed a reduction in erythrophagocytosis, it appears that kinase activity is necessary for initiation. Biochemical analysis showed that EhC2PK is an unusual Mn(2+)-dependent serine kinase. It has a trans-autophosphorylated site at Ser(428) as revealed by mass spectrometric and biochemical analysis. The autophosphorylation defective mutants (S428A, KDΔC) showed a reduction in auto and substrate phosphorylation. Time kinetics of in vitro kinase activity suggested two phases, an initial short slow phase followed by a rapid phase for wild type protein, whereas mutations in the autophosphorylation sites that cause defect (S428A) or conferred phosphomimetic property (S428E) displayed no distinct phases, suggesting that autophosphorylation may be controlling kinase activity through an autocatalytic mechanism. A reduction and delay in erythrophagocytosis was observed in E. histolytica cells overexpressing S428A and KDΔC proteins. These results indicate that enrichment of EhC2PK at the site of phagocytosis enhances the rate of trans-autophosphorylation, thereby increasing kinase activity and regulating the initiation of erythrophagocytosis in E. histolytica.
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Affiliation(s)
- Somlata
- School of Life Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi-110067, India
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Ueyama T, Nakakita J, Nakamura T, Kobayashi T, Kobayashi T, Son J, Sakuma M, Sakaguchi H, Leto TL, Saito N. Cooperation of p40(phox) with p47(phox) for Nox2-based NADPH oxidase activation during Fcγ receptor (FcγR)-mediated phagocytosis: mechanism for acquisition of p40(phox) phosphatidylinositol 3-phosphate (PI(3)P) binding. J Biol Chem 2011; 286:40693-705. [PMID: 21956105 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m111.237289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
During activation of the phagocyte (Nox2-based) NADPH oxidase, the cytoplasmic Phox complex (p47(phox)-p67(phox)-p40(phox)) translocates and associates with the membrane-spanning flavocytochrome b(558). It is unclear where (in cytoplasm or on membranes), when (before or after assembly), and how p40(phox) acquires its PI(3)P-binding capabilities. We demonstrated that in addition to conformational changes induced by H(2)O(2) in the cytoplasm, p40(phox) acquires PI(3)P-binding through direct or indirect membrane targeting. We also found that p40(phox) is essential when p47(phox) is partially phosphorylated during FcγR-mediated oxidase activation; however, p40(phox) is less critical when p47(phox) is adequately phosphorylated, using phosphorylation-mimicking mutants in HEK293(Nox2/FcγRIIa) and RAW264.7(p40/p47KD) cells. Moreover, PI binding to p47(phox) is less important when the autoinhibitory PX-PB1 domain interaction in p40(phox) is disrupted or when p40(phox) is targeted to membranes. Furthermore, we suggest that high affinity PI(3)P binding of the p40(phox) PX domain is critical during its accumulation on phagosomes, even when masked by the PB1 domain in the resting state. Thus, in addition to mechanisms for directly acquiring PI(3)P binding in the cytoplasm by H(2)O(2), p40(phox) can acquire PI(3)P binding on targeted membranes in a p47(phox)-dependent manner and functions both as a "carrier" of the cytoplasmic Phox complex to phagosomes and an "adaptor" of oxidase assembly on phagosomes in cooperation with p47(phox), using positive feedback mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takehiko Ueyama
- Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology, Biosignal Research Center, Kobe University, Kobe 657-8501, Japan.
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35
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A C2 domain protein kinase initiates phagocytosis in the protozoan parasite Entamoeba histolytica. Nat Commun 2011; 2:230. [PMID: 21407196 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms1199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2010] [Accepted: 01/19/2010] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Phagocytosis is a process whereby particles are taken in by cells through mechanisms superficially similar to those for endocytosis. It serves a wide range of functions, from providing nutrition in unicellular organisms to initiation of both innate and adaptive immunity in vertebrates. In the protozoan parasite Entamoeba histolytica, it has an essential role in survival and pathogenesis. In this study, we show that EhC2PK, a C2-domain-containing protein kinase, and the Ca²(+) and actin-binding protein, EhCaBP1, are involved in the initiation of phagocytosis in E. histolytica. Conditional suppression of EhC2PK expression and overexpression of a mutant form reveals its role in the initiation of phagocytic cups. EhC2PK binds phosphatidylserine in the presence of Ca²(+) and thereby recruits EhCaBP1 and actin to the membrane. Identification of these proteins in phagocytosis is an important step in amoebic biology and these molecules could be the important targets for developing novel therapies against amoebiasis.
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Lennartz MR, Aggarwal A, Michaud TM, Feustel PJ, Jones DM, Brosnan MJ, Keller RS, Loegering DJ, Kreienberg PB. Ligation of macrophage Fcγ receptors recapitulates the gene expression pattern of vulnerable human carotid plaques. PLoS One 2011; 6:e21803. [PMID: 21814555 PMCID: PMC3140977 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0021803] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2011] [Accepted: 06/07/2011] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Stroke is a leading cause of death in the United States. As ∼60% of strokes result from carotid plaque rupture, elucidating the mechanisms that underlie vulnerability is critical for therapeutic intervention. We tested the hypothesis that stable and vulnerable human plaques differentially express genes associated with matrix degradation. Examination established that femoral, and the distal region of carotid, plaques were histologically stable while the proximal carotid plaque regions were vulnerable. Quantitative RT-PCR was used to compare expression of 22 genes among these tissues. Distal carotid and femoral gene expression was not significantly different, permitting the distal carotid segments to be used as a paired control for their corresponding proximal regions. Analysis of the paired plaques revealed differences in 16 genes that impact plaque stability: matrix metalloproteinases (MMP, higher in vulnerable), MMP modulators (inhibitors: lower, activators: higher in vulnerable), activating Fc receptors (FcγR, higher in vulnerable) and FcγR signaling molecules (higher in vulnerable). Surprisingly, the relative expression of smooth muscle cell and macrophage markers in the three plaque types was not significantly different, suggesting that macrophage distribution and/or activation state correlates with (in)stability. Immunohistochemistry revealed that macrophages and smooth muscle cells localize to distinct and non-overlapping regions in all plaques. MMP protein localized to macrophage-rich regions. In vitro, treatment of macrophages with immune complexes, but not oxidized low density lipoprotein, C-reactive protein, or TNF-α, induced a gene expression profile similar to that of the vulnerable plaques. That ligation of FcγR recapitulates the pattern of gene expression in vulnerable plaques suggests that the FcγR → macrophage activation pathway may play a greater role in human plaque vulnerability than previously appreciated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle R Lennartz
- Center for Cell Biology and Cancer Research, Albany Medical College, Albany, New York, United States of America.
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Park H, Ishihara D, Cox D. Regulation of tyrosine phosphorylation in macrophage phagocytosis and chemotaxis. Arch Biochem Biophys 2011; 510:101-11. [PMID: 21356194 PMCID: PMC3114168 DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2011.02.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2010] [Revised: 02/15/2011] [Accepted: 02/18/2011] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Macrophages display a large variety of surface receptors that are critical for their normal cellular functions in host defense, including finding sites of infection (chemotaxis) and removing foreign particles (phagocytosis). However, inappropriate regulation of these processes can lead to human diseases. Many of these receptors utilize tyrosine phosphorylation cascades to initiate and terminate signals leading to cell migration and clearance of infection. Actin remodeling dominates these processes and many regulators have been identified. This review focuses on how tyrosine kinases and phosphatases regulate actin dynamics leading to macrophage chemotaxis and phagocytosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haein Park
- Department of Anatomy and Structural Biology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, 10461, USA
| | - Dan Ishihara
- Department of Anatomy and Structural Biology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, 10461, USA
| | - Dianne Cox
- Department of Anatomy and Structural Biology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, 10461, USA
- Department of Developmental and Molecular Biology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, 10461, USA
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Abdelsamie SA, Li Y, Huang Y, Lee MH, Klein RL, Virella G, Lopes-Virella MF. Oxidized LDL immune complexes stimulate collagen IV production in mesangial cells via Fc gamma receptors I and III. Clin Immunol 2011; 139:258-66. [PMID: 21439910 DOI: 10.1016/j.clim.2011.01.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2010] [Revised: 01/28/2011] [Accepted: 01/29/2011] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Diabetic nephropathy is characterized by progressive mesangial expansion. Although we have reported that circulating oxidized LDL-containing immune complexes (oxLDL-IC) are associated with abnormal levels of albuminuria, the underlying mechanisms have not been investigated. In this study, we have studied the effect of oxLDL-IC on collagen IV expression by mesangial cells. We found that oxLDL-IC markedly stimulated collagen IV expression in a concentration- and time-dependent fashion while oxLDL only had moderate effect. We also found that oxLDL-IC stimulated collagen IV expression by engaging Fc gamma receptor (FcγR) I and III, but not FcγRII, and that p38 MAPK, JNK and PKC pathways were involved in collagen IV expression. Furthermore, we found that oxLDL-IC stimulated FcγRI expression, suggesting a positive feedback mechanism involved in oxLDL-IC-stimulated collagen IV expression. Taken together, this study showed that oxLDL-IC stimulated collagen IV in mesangial cells via FcγRI and FcγRIII, and the expression of FcγRI was increased by oxLDL-IC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Souzan A Abdelsamie
- Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Medical Genetics, Department of Medicine, College of Medicine, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC 29425, USA
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Zhang Y, Hoppe AD, Swanson JA. Coordination of Fc receptor signaling regulates cellular commitment to phagocytosis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2010; 107:19332-7. [PMID: 20974965 PMCID: PMC2984174 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1008248107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
During Fcγ receptor (FcR)-mediated phagocytosis by macrophages, cytoplasm advances over IgG-coated particles by the sequential ligation of FcR in plasma membranes. If FcR signaling was strictly autonomous, then the signals generated during phagocytosis should be proportional to the number of ligated receptors. By measuring FcR-dependent responses to beads coated with various densities of IgG, this study identified nonlinear signaling that organizes an all or none response during particle ingestion. Phagocytosis of beads with IgG at low density either stalled after making small, actin-rich cups or proceeded to completion at the same rate as phagocytosis of high-density IgG beads. Signals were measured by quantifying the recruitment of YFP-labeled probes to phagocytic cup membranes. Although the magnitude of early signals correlated with IgG density, later signals showed an all or none response, which was regulated by the concentrations of 3' phosphoinositides in phagocytic cup membranes. Thus, 3' phosphoinositides, shown previously to be required for phagocytosis, function in a feedback regulatory mechanism affecting late but not early signals. This indicates a mechanism for the coordination of cell movements initiated by receptor signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Adam D. Hoppe
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-5620; and
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD 57007-0896
| | - Joel A. Swanson
- Biophysics Program and
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-5620; and
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Minakami R, Maehara Y, Kamakura S, Kumano O, Miyano K, Sumimoto H. Membrane phospholipid metabolism during phagocytosis in human neutrophils. Genes Cells 2010; 15:409-24. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2443.2010.01393.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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41
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Botelho RJ, Harrison RE, Stone JC, Hancock JF, Philips MR, Jongstra-Bilen J, Mason D, Plumb J, Gold MR, Grinstein S. Localized diacylglycerol-dependent stimulation of Ras and Rap1 during phagocytosis. J Biol Chem 2009; 284:28522-32. [PMID: 19700408 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m109.009514] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
We describe a role for diacylglycerol in the activation of Ras and Rap1 at the phagosomal membrane. During phagocytosis, Ras density was similar on the surface and invaginating areas of the membrane, but activation was detectable only in the latter and in sealed phagosomes. Ras activation was associated with the recruitment of RasGRP3, a diacylglycerol-dependent Ras/Rap1 exchange factor. Recruitment to phagosomes of RasGRP3, which contains a C1 domain, parallels and appears to be due to the formation of diacylglycerol. Accordingly, Ras and Rap1 activation was precluded by antagonists of phospholipase C and of diacylglycerol binding. Ras is dispensable for phagocytosis but controls activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase, which is partially impeded by diacylglycerol inhibitors. By contrast, cross-activation of complement receptors by stimulation of Fcgamma receptors requires Rap1 and involves diacylglycerol. We suggest a role for diacylglycerol-dependent exchange factors in the activation of Ras and Rap1, which govern distinct processes induced by Fcgamma receptor-mediated phagocytosis to enhance the innate immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberto J Botelho
- Department of Chemistry and Biology, Ryerson University, Toronto, Ontario M5B 2K3, Canada
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Heterogeneity in macrophage phagocytosis of Staphylococcus aureus strains: high-throughput scanning cytometry-based analysis. PLoS One 2009; 4:e6209. [PMID: 19593389 PMCID: PMC2703801 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0006209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2009] [Accepted: 06/10/2009] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Alveolar macrophages (AMs) can phagocytose unopsonized pathogens such as S. aureus via innate immune receptors, such as scavenger receptors (SRs). Cytoskeletal events and signaling pathways involved in phagocytosis of unopsonized bacteria likely govern the fate of ingested pathogens, but are poorly characterized. We have developed a high-throughput scanning cytometry-based assay to quantify phagocytosis of S. aureus by adherent human blood-derived AM-like macrophages in a 96-well microplate format. Differential fluorescent labeling of internalized vs. bound bacteria or beads allowed automated image analysis of collapsed confocal stack images acquired by scanning cytometry, and quantification of total particles bound and percent of particles internalized. We compared the effects of the classic SR blocker polyinosinic acid, the cytoskeletal inhibitors cytochalasin D and nocodazole, and the signaling inhibitors staurosporine, Gö 6976, JNK Inhibitor I and KN-93, on phagocytosis of a panel of live unopsonized S. aureus strains, (Wood, Seattle 1945 (ATCC 25923), and RN6390), as well as a commercial killed Wood strain, heat-killed Wood strain and latex beads. Our results revealed failure of the SR inhibitor polyinosinic acid to block binding of any live S. aureus strains, suggesting that SR-mediated uptake of a commercial killed fluorescent bacterial particle does not accurately model interaction with viable bacteria. We also observed heterogeneity in the effects of cytoskeletal and signaling inhibitors on internalization of different S. aureus strains. The data suggest that uptake of unopsonized live S. aureus by human macrophages is not mediated by SRs, and that the cellular mechanical and signaling processes that mediate S. aureus phagocytosis vary. The findings also demonstrate the potential utility of high-throughput scanning cytometry techniques to study phagocytosis of S. aureus and other organisms in greater detail.
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Persiyantseva NA, Bolshakov AP, Mikhailova MM, Birikh KR, Pinelis VG. Retranslocation of active protein kinase C-beta II during calcium overload of cultured neurons. NEUROCHEM J+ 2008. [DOI: 10.1134/s181971240804003x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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44
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Ueyama T, Kusakabe T, Karasawa S, Kawasaki T, Shimizu A, Son J, Leto TL, Miyawaki A, Saito N. Sequential binding of cytosolic Phox complex to phagosomes through regulated adaptor proteins: evaluation using the novel monomeric Kusabira-Green System and live imaging of phagocytosis. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2008; 181:629-40. [PMID: 18566430 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.181.1.629] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
We engineered a method for detecting intramolecular and intermolecular phox protein interactions in cells by fluorescence microscopy using fusion proteins of complementary fragments of a coral fluorescent reporter protein (monomeric Kusabira-Green). We confirmed the efficacy of the monomeric Kusabira-Green system by showing that the PX and PB1 domains of p40phox interact in intact cells, which we suggested maintains this protein in an inactive closed conformation. Using this system, we also explored intramolecular interactions within p47phox and showed that the PX domain interacts with the autoinhibited tandem Src homology 3 domains maintained in contact with the autoinhibitory region, along with residues 341-360. Furthermore, we demonstrated sequential interactions of p67phox with phagosomes involving adaptor proteins, p47phox and p40phox, during FcgammaR-mediated phagocytosis. Although p67phox is not targeted to phagosomes by itself, p47phox functions as an adaptor for the ternary complex (p47phox-p67phox-p40phox) in early stages of phagocytosis before phagosome closure, while p40phox functions in later stages after phagosomal closure. Interestingly, a mutated "open" form of p40phox linked p47phox to closed phagosomes and prolonged p47phox and p67phox retention on phagosomes. These results indicate that binding of the ternary complex to phagosomes can be temporally regulated by switching between adaptor proteins that have PX domains with distinct lipid-binding specificities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takehiko Ueyama
- Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology, Biosignal Research Center, Kobe University, Kobe, Japan
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Steinberg BE, Grinstein S. Pathogen destruction versus intracellular survival: the role of lipids as phagosomal fate determinants. J Clin Invest 2008; 118:2002-11. [PMID: 18523652 DOI: 10.1172/jci35433] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Phagocytosis is a key component of the innate immune response and of the clearance of apoptotic bodies. Phagosome formation and subsequent maturation require extensive cytoskeletal rearrangement and precisely choreographed vesicular fusion and fission events. The objectives of this review are to highlight the functional importance of lipids in the phagocytic process, to discuss how pathogenic microorganisms can in some cases manipulate host lipid metabolism to either co-opt or disrupt phagosome maturation and promote their own survival, and to describe how defective phagosomal lipid metabolism can result in disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin E Steinberg
- Program in Cell Biology, Hospital for Sick Children, Institute of Medical Science and Department of Biochemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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Jongstra-Bilen J, Puig Cano A, Hasija M, Xiao H, Smith CIE, Cybulsky MI. Dual Functions of Bruton’s Tyrosine Kinase and Tec Kinase during Fcγ Receptor-Induced Signaling and Phagocytosis. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2008; 181:288-98. [DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.181.1.288] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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48
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Abstract
Phagocytosis is an important component of innate and adaptive immunity. The formation of phagosomes and the subsequent maturation that capacitates them for pathogen elimination and antigen presentation are complex processes that involve signal transduction, cytoskeletal reorganization, and membrane remodeling. Lipids are increasingly appreciated to play a crucial role in these events. Sphingolipids, cholesterol, and glycerophospholipids, notably the phosphoinositides, are required for the segregation of signaling microdomains and for the generation of second messengers. They are also instrumental in the remodeling of the actin cytoskeleton and in directing membrane traffic. They accomplish these feats by congregating into liquid-ordered domains, by generating active metabolites that activate receptors, and by recruiting and anchoring specific protein ligands to the membrane, often altering their conformation and catalytic activity. A less appreciated role of acidic phospholipids is their contribution to the negative surface charge of the inner leaflet of the plasmalemma. The unique negativity of the inner aspect of the plasma membrane serves to attract and anchor key signaling and effector molecules that are required to initiate phagosome formation. Conversely, the loss of charge that accompanies phospholipid metabolism as phagosomes seal facilitates the dissociation of proteins and the termination of signaling and cytoskeleton assembly. In this manner, lipids provide a binary electrostatic switch to control phagocytosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tony Yeung
- Cell Biology Program, Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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Yadav D, Sarvetnick N. B7-2 regulates survival, phenotype, and function of APCs. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2007; 178:6236-41. [PMID: 17475851 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.178.10.6236] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The absence of B7-2-mediated costimulation protects NOD mice from the development of diabetes. Although the effects of B7-2 on T cell priming are well known, its impact on the function of APCs is not fully elucidated. We tested APC function and survival in mice lacking B7-2. A significant reduction in the phagocytic ability was observed in both splenic and pancreatic lymph node-associated dendritic cells (DCs) in B7-2 knockout (KO) mice. DCs from B7-2KO mice exhibited enhanced susceptibility to death, which was reflected by their reduced total cell numbers. Phenotypic analysis of APCs in B7-2KO mice revealed a significantly decreased proportion of CD8alpha+CD205+ DCs. Interestingly, an enhanced proportion of B7-H1+ and B7-DC+ DCs were observed in B7-2KO mice. Lastly, we found that B7-2 deficiency significantly diminished the PKC-epsilon response in APCs upon CD28-Ig stimulation. In conclusion our data suggests that B7-2 promotes the generation of a mature APC repertoire and promotes APC function and survival.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deepak Yadav
- Department of Immunology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
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Huang LT, Paredes CJ, Papoutsakis ET, Miller WM. Gene expression analysis illuminates the transcriptional programs underlying the functional activity of ex vivo-expanded granulocytes. Physiol Genomics 2007; 31:114-25. [PMID: 17550995 DOI: 10.1152/physiolgenomics.00053.2007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Global gene expression analysis established the temporal expression patterns and programs underlying the development of functional activity of ex vivo-expanded (EXE) human granulocytes, as well as differences compared with peripheral blood (PB) granulocytes. CD34(+) progenitor cells were cultured for 3 wk to induce rapid expansion and granulocytic differentiation, with 40% CD15(+) cells by day 3 and 90% by day 12. Phagocytic and respiratory burst activity increased with the fraction of CD15(++)CD11b(+) cells (myelocytes to segmented) and peaked by day 17. However, only 25% of CD15(++)CD11b(+) cells were phagocytic, and respiratory burst activity was one-third that of PB granulocytes. EXE granulocytes from later days and PB granulocytes showed similar expression of Fc gamma receptors (-1A, -2A, -2C, -3A) and complement receptors (-1, -3, -4). Later downregulation of CD36 (expressed by macrophages) suggests lineage plasticity early in granulocytic differentiation. Expression in mature EXE and PB granulocytes was similar for most Fc gamma receptor-mediated phagocytosis signaling proteins, including high-level expression of Hck, Fgr, and the actin-related protein 2/3 complex. Lower expression of Lyn, Cdc42, pleckstrin, and PKC beta(I) by EXE granulocytes may explain decreased phagocytosis. PB and mature EXE granulocytes expressed similar levels of NADPH oxidase complex genes and receptors for fMLP-mediated respiratory burst. Lower burst activity by EXE granulocytes may result from lower expression of Raf1 and PKC zeta. Elevated expression of toll-like receptor (TLR)2, TLR1, and CD14 in mature EXE and PB granulocytes supports a role for the TLR2 and CD14 pathway in zymosan-mediated respiratory burst activity. Lower activity in EXE granulocytes may be due to greater expression of IRAK3, which inhibits TLR-mediated signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Ting Huang
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, USA
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