Sheepish B cells: evidence for antigen-independent antibody diversification in humans and mice

Role of cellular effectors in the induction and maintenance of IgA responses leading to protective immunity against enteric bacterial pathogens

The mucosal immune system is a critical first line of defense to infectious diseases, as many pathogens enter the body through mucosal surfaces, disrupting the balanced interactions between mucosal cells, secretory molecules, and microbiota in this challenging microenvironment. The mucosal immune system comprises of a complex and integrated network that includes the gut-associated lymphoid tissues (GALT). One of its primary responses to microbes is the secretion of IgA, whose role in the mucosa is vital for preventing pathogen colonization, invasion and spread. The mechanisms involved in these key responses include neutralization of pathogens, immune exclusion, immune modulation, and cross-protection. The generation and maintenance of high affinity IgA responses require a delicate balance of multiple components, including B and T cell interactions, innate cells, the cytokine milieu (e.g., IL-21, IL-10, TGF-β), and other factors essential for intestinal homeostasis, including the gut microbiota. In this review, we will discuss the main cellular components (e.g., T cells, innate lymphoid cells, dendritic cells) in the gut microenvironment as mediators of important effector responses and as critical players in supporting B cells in eliciting and maintaining IgA production, particularly in the context of enteric infections and vaccination in humans. Understanding the mechanisms of humoral and cellular components in protection could guide and accelerate the development of more effective mucosal vaccines and therapeutic interventions to efficiently combat mucosal infections.

Know your enemy or find your friend?-Induction of IgA at mucosal surfaces

Most antibodies produced in the body are of the IgA class. The dominant cell population producing them are plasma cells within the lamina propria of the gastrointestinal tract, but many IgA-producing cells are also found in the airways, within mammary tissues, the urogenital tract and inside the bone marrow. Most IgA antibodies are transported into the lumen by epithelial cells as part of the mucosal secretions, but they are also present in serum and other body fluids. A large part of the commensal microbiota in the gut is covered with IgA antibodies, and it has been demonstrated that this plays a role in maintaining a healthy balance between the host and the bacteria. However, IgA antibodies also play important roles in neutralizing pathogens in the gastrointestinal tract and the upper airways. The distinction between the two roles of IgA - protective and balance-maintaining - not only has implications on function but also on how the production is regulated. Here, we discuss these issues with a special focus on gut and airways.

Apoptotic cell responses in the splenic marginal zone: a paradigm for immunologic reactions to apoptotic antigens with implications for autoimmunity

Apoptotic cells drive innate regulatory responses that result in tolerogenic immunity. This is a critical aspect of cell physiology as apoptotic cells expose potentially dangerous nuclear antigens on the surface in apoptotic blebs, and failure in their recognition, phagocytosis, or destruction can cause dramatic autoimmunity in experimental models and is linked to development and progression of systemic pathology in human. The marginal zone is a specialized splenic environment that serves as a transitional site from circulation to peripheral lymphoid structures. The marginal zone serves a key role in trapping of particulates and initiation of innate responses against systemic microbial pathogens. However in recent years, it has become clear the marginal zone is also important for initiation of immune tolerance to apoptotic cells, driving a coordinated response involving multiple phagocyte and lymphocyte subsets. Recent reports linking defects in splenic macrophage function to systemic lupus erythematosus in a manner analogous to marginal zone macrophages in lupus-prone mice provide an impetus to better understand the mechanistic basis of the apoptotic cell response in the marginal zone and its general applicability to apoptotic cell-driven tolerance at other tissue sites. In this review, we discuss immune responses to apoptotic cells in the spleen in general and the marginal zone in particular, the relationship of these responses to autoimmune disease, and comparisons to apoptotic cell immunity in humans.

The human intestinal B-cell response

The intestinal immune system is chronically challenged by a huge plethora of antigens derived from the lumen. B-cell responses in organized gut-associated lymphoid tissues and regional lymph nodes that are driven chronically by gut antigens generate the largest population of antibody-producing cells in the body: the gut lamina propria plasma cells. Although animal studies have provided insights into mechanisms that underpin this dynamic process, some very fundamental differences in this system appear to exist between species. Importantly, this prevents extrapolation from mice to humans to inform translational research questions. Therefore, in this review we will describe the structures and mechanisms involved in the propagation, dissemination, and regulation of this immense plasma cell population in man. Uniquely, we will seek our evidence exclusively from studies of human cells and tissues.

Peyer's patches: organizing B-cell responses at the intestinal frontier

Secondary lymphoid tissues share the important function of bringing together antigens and rare antigen-specific lymphocytes to foster induction of adaptive immune responses. Peyer's patches (PPs) are unique compared to other secondary lymphoid tissues in their continual exposure to an enormous diversity of microbiome- and food-derived antigens and in the types of pathogens they encounter. Antigens are delivered to PPs by specialized microfold (M) epithelial cells and they may be captured and presented by resident dendritic cells (DCs). In accord with their state of chronic microbial antigen exposure, PPs exhibit continual germinal center (GC) activity. These GCs not only contribute to the generation of B cells and plasma cells producing somatically mutated gut antigen-specific IgA antibodies but have also been suggested to support non-specific antigen diversification of the B-cell repertoire. Here, we review current understanding of how PPs foster B-cell encounters with antigen, how they favor isotype switching to the secretory IgA isotype, and how their GC responses may uniquely contribute to mucosal immunity.

Translating transitions - how to decipher peripheral human B cell development

During the last two decades our understanding of human B cell differentiation has developed considerably. Our understanding of the human B cell compartment has advanced from a point where essentially all assays were based on the presence or not of class-switched antibodies to a level where a substantial diversity is appreciated among the cells involved. Several consecutive transitional stages that newly formed IgM expressing B cells go through after they leave the bone marrow, but before they are fully mature, have been described, and a significant complexity is also acknowledged within the IgM expressing and class-switched memory B cell compartments. It is possible to isolate plasma blasts in blood to follow the formation of plasma cells during immune responses, and the importance and uniqueness of the mucosal IgA system is now much more appreciated. Current data suggest the presence of at least one lineage of human innate-like B cells akin to B1 and/or marginal zone B cells in mice. In addition, regulatory B cells with the ability to produce IL-10 have been identified. Clinically, B cell depletion therapy is used for a broad range of conditions. The ability to define different human B cell subtypes using flow cytometry has therefore started to come into clinical use, but as our understanding of human B cell development further progresses, B cell subtype analysis will be of increasing importance in diagnosis, to measure the effect of immune therapy and to understand the underlying causes for diseases. In this review the diversity of human B cells will be discussed, with special focus on current data regarding their phenotypes and functions.

Polysaccharide-specific memory B cells generated by conjugate vaccines in humans conform to the CD27+IgG+ isotype-switched memory B Cell phenotype and require contact-dependent signals from bystander T cells activated by bacterial proteins to differentiate into plasma cells

The polysaccharides (PS) surrounding encapsulated bacteria are generally unable to activate T cells and hence do not induce B cell memory (BMEM). PS conjugate vaccines recruit CD4(+) T cells via a carrier protein, such as tetanus toxoid (TT), resulting in the induction of PS-specific BMEM. However, the requirement for T cells in the subsequent activation of the BMEM at the time of bacterial encounter is poorly understood, despite having critical implications for protection. We demonstrate that the PS-specific BMEM induced in humans by a meningococcal serogroup C PS (Men C)-TT conjugate vaccine conform to the isotype-switched (IgG(+)CD27(+)) rather than the IgM memory (IgM(+)CD27(+)) phenotype. Both Men C and TT-specific BMEM require CD4(+) T cells to differentiate into plasma cells. However, noncognate bystander T cells provide such signals to PS-specific BMEM with comparable effect to the cognate T cells available to TT-specific BMEM. The interaction between the two populations is contact-dependent and is mediated in part through CD40. Meningococci drive the differentiation of the Men C-specific BMEM through the activation of bystander T cells by bacterial proteins, although these signals are enhanced by T cell-independent innate signals. An effect of the TT-specific T cells activated by the vaccine on unrelated BMEM in vivo is also demonstrated. These data highlight that any protection conferred by PS-specific BMEM at the time of bacterial encounter will depend on the effectiveness with which bacterial proteins are able to activate bystander T cells. Priming for T cell memory against bacterial proteins through their inclusion in vaccine preparations must continue to be pursued.

The follicular versus marginal zone B lymphocyte cell fate decision

Bone marrow-derived B cells make an important cell fate choice to develop into either follicular B cells or marginal zone B cells in the spleen, which depends on signalling through the B cell receptor, Notch2, the receptor for B cell-activating factor and the canonical nuclear factor-kappaB pathway, as well as signals involved in the migration and anatomical retention of marginal zone B cells. Recent information discussed in this Review reconciles some of the controversies regarding the role of the B cell receptor in this cell fate decision and a clearer picture has also emerged regarding the anatomical location of ligands for Notch2 in the spleen. This cell fate decision could provide mechanistic insights that are relevant to other commitment events in lymphocytes.

Human B cell memory

Following an immune response two types of differentiated B cells persist in the memory pool: plasma cells, which confer immediate protection by the secretion of specific antibodies; and memory B cells, which confer rapid and enhanced response to secondary challenge. We will review recent advances in understanding the heterogeneity, dynamics, and persistence of human memory B cells and plasma cells as well as new methods to isolate human monoclonal antibodies. These findings offer new insights into the human B cell response, which are relevant for vaccination and therapeutic intervention.

Human marginal zone B cells

Human marginal zone (MZ) B cells are, in a sense, a new entity. Although they share many properties with their mouse counterpart, they also display striking differences, such as the capacity to recirculate and the presence of somatic mutations in their B cell receptor. These differences are the reason they are often not considered a separate, rodent-like B cell lineage, but rather are considered IgM memory B cells. We review here our present knowledge concerning this subset and the arguments in favor of the proposition that humans have evolved for their MZ B cell compartment a separate B cell population that develops and diversifies its Ig receptor during ontogeny outside T-dependent or T-independent immune responses.