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Torroni A, Bandelt HJ, Macaulay V, Richards M, Cruciani F, Rengo C, Martinez-Cabrera V, Villems R, Kivisild T, Metspalu E, Parik J, Tolk HV, Tambets K, Forster P, Karger B, Francalacci P, Rudan P, Janicijevic B, Rickards O, Savontaus ML, Huoponen K, Laitinen V, Koivumäki S, Sykes B, Hickey E, Novelletto A, Moral P, Sellitto D, Coppa A, Al-Zaheri N, Santachiara-Benerecetti AS, Semino O, Scozzari R. A signal, from human mtDNA, of postglacial recolonization in Europe. Am J Hum Genet 2001; 69:844-52. [PMID: 11517423 PMCID: PMC1226069 DOI: 10.1086/323485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 223] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2001] [Accepted: 07/24/2001] [Indexed: 11/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Mitochondrial HVS-I sequences from 10,365 subjects belonging to 56 populations/geographical regions of western Eurasia and northern Africa were first surveyed for the presence of the T-->C transition at nucleotide position 16298, a mutation which has previously been shown to characterize haplogroup V mtDNAs. All mtDNAs with this mutation were then screened for a number of diagnostic RFLP sites, revealing two major subsets of mtDNAs. One is haplogroup V proper, and the other has been termed "pre*V," since it predates V phylogenetically. The rather uncommon pre*V tends to be scattered throughout Europe (and northwestern Africa), whereas V attains two peaks of frequency: one situated in southwestern Europe and one in the Saami of northern Scandinavia. Geographical distributions and ages support the scenario that pre*V originated in Europe before the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), whereas the more recently derived haplogroup V arose in a southwestern European refugium soon after the LGM. The arrival of V in eastern/central Europe, however, occurred much later, possibly with (post-)Neolithic contacts. The distribution of haplogroup V mtDNAs in modern European populations would thus, at least in part, reflect the pattern of postglacial human recolonization from that refugium, affecting even the Saami. Overall, the present study shows that the dissection of mtDNA variation into small and well-defined evolutionary units is an essential step in the identification of spatial frequency patterns. Mass screening of a few markers identified using complete mtDNA sequences promises to be an efficient strategy for inferring features of human prehistory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonio Torroni
- Dipartimento di Genetica e Microbiologia, Università di Pavia, Pavia, Italy; Dipartimenti di Genetica e Biologia Molecolare and Biologia Animale e dell’Uomo, Università “La Sapienza,” Istituto di Medicina Legale, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Dipartimento di Biologia, Università “Tor Vergata,” and Centro di Genetica Evoluzionistica del CNR, Rome; Fachbereich Mathematik, Universität Hamburg, Hamburg; Department of Statistics and Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford; Department of Chemical and Biological Sciences, University of Huddersfield, Huddersfield, United Kingdom; Departamento de Genética, Universidad de La Laguna, La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain; Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Tartu and Estonian Biocentre, Tartu, Estonia; McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, Cambridge, United Kingdom; Institute for Legal Medicine, University of Münster, Münster, Germany; Dipartimento di Zoologia e Antropologia Biologica, Università di Sassari, Sassari, Italy; Institute for Anthropological Research, Zagreb, Croatia; Department of Medical Genetics, University of Turku, Turku, Finland; Dipartimento di Biologia Cellulare, Università della Calabria, Rende, Italy; and Departament de Biologia Animal, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona
| | - Hans-Jürgen Bandelt
- Dipartimento di Genetica e Microbiologia, Università di Pavia, Pavia, Italy; Dipartimenti di Genetica e Biologia Molecolare and Biologia Animale e dell’Uomo, Università “La Sapienza,” Istituto di Medicina Legale, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Dipartimento di Biologia, Università “Tor Vergata,” and Centro di Genetica Evoluzionistica del CNR, Rome; Fachbereich Mathematik, Universität Hamburg, Hamburg; Department of Statistics and Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford; Department of Chemical and Biological Sciences, University of Huddersfield, Huddersfield, United Kingdom; Departamento de Genética, Universidad de La Laguna, La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain; Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Tartu and Estonian Biocentre, Tartu, Estonia; McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, Cambridge, United Kingdom; Institute for Legal Medicine, University of Münster, Münster, Germany; Dipartimento di Zoologia e Antropologia Biologica, Università di Sassari, Sassari, Italy; Institute for Anthropological Research, Zagreb, Croatia; Department of Medical Genetics, University of Turku, Turku, Finland; Dipartimento di Biologia Cellulare, Università della Calabria, Rende, Italy; and Departament de Biologia Animal, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona
| | - Vincent Macaulay
- Dipartimento di Genetica e Microbiologia, Università di Pavia, Pavia, Italy; Dipartimenti di Genetica e Biologia Molecolare and Biologia Animale e dell’Uomo, Università “La Sapienza,” Istituto di Medicina Legale, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Dipartimento di Biologia, Università “Tor Vergata,” and Centro di Genetica Evoluzionistica del CNR, Rome; Fachbereich Mathematik, Universität Hamburg, Hamburg; Department of Statistics and Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford; Department of Chemical and Biological Sciences, University of Huddersfield, Huddersfield, United Kingdom; Departamento de Genética, Universidad de La Laguna, La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain; Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Tartu and Estonian Biocentre, Tartu, Estonia; McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, Cambridge, United Kingdom; Institute for Legal Medicine, University of Münster, Münster, Germany; Dipartimento di Zoologia e Antropologia Biologica, Università di Sassari, Sassari, Italy; Institute for Anthropological Research, Zagreb, Croatia; Department of Medical Genetics, University of Turku, Turku, Finland; Dipartimento di Biologia Cellulare, Università della Calabria, Rende, Italy; and Departament de Biologia Animal, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona
| | - Martin Richards
- Dipartimento di Genetica e Microbiologia, Università di Pavia, Pavia, Italy; Dipartimenti di Genetica e Biologia Molecolare and Biologia Animale e dell’Uomo, Università “La Sapienza,” Istituto di Medicina Legale, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Dipartimento di Biologia, Università “Tor Vergata,” and Centro di Genetica Evoluzionistica del CNR, Rome; Fachbereich Mathematik, Universität Hamburg, Hamburg; Department of Statistics and Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford; Department of Chemical and Biological Sciences, University of Huddersfield, Huddersfield, United Kingdom; Departamento de Genética, Universidad de La Laguna, La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain; Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Tartu and Estonian Biocentre, Tartu, Estonia; McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, Cambridge, United Kingdom; Institute for Legal Medicine, University of Münster, Münster, Germany; Dipartimento di Zoologia e Antropologia Biologica, Università di Sassari, Sassari, Italy; Institute for Anthropological Research, Zagreb, Croatia; Department of Medical Genetics, University of Turku, Turku, Finland; Dipartimento di Biologia Cellulare, Università della Calabria, Rende, Italy; and Departament de Biologia Animal, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona
| | - Fulvio Cruciani
- Dipartimento di Genetica e Microbiologia, Università di Pavia, Pavia, Italy; Dipartimenti di Genetica e Biologia Molecolare and Biologia Animale e dell’Uomo, Università “La Sapienza,” Istituto di Medicina Legale, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Dipartimento di Biologia, Università “Tor Vergata,” and Centro di Genetica Evoluzionistica del CNR, Rome; Fachbereich Mathematik, Universität Hamburg, Hamburg; Department of Statistics and Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford; Department of Chemical and Biological Sciences, University of Huddersfield, Huddersfield, United Kingdom; Departamento de Genética, Universidad de La Laguna, La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain; Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Tartu and Estonian Biocentre, Tartu, Estonia; McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, Cambridge, United Kingdom; Institute for Legal Medicine, University of Münster, Münster, Germany; Dipartimento di Zoologia e Antropologia Biologica, Università di Sassari, Sassari, Italy; Institute for Anthropological Research, Zagreb, Croatia; Department of Medical Genetics, University of Turku, Turku, Finland; Dipartimento di Biologia Cellulare, Università della Calabria, Rende, Italy; and Departament de Biologia Animal, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona
| | - Chiara Rengo
- Dipartimento di Genetica e Microbiologia, Università di Pavia, Pavia, Italy; Dipartimenti di Genetica e Biologia Molecolare and Biologia Animale e dell’Uomo, Università “La Sapienza,” Istituto di Medicina Legale, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Dipartimento di Biologia, Università “Tor Vergata,” and Centro di Genetica Evoluzionistica del CNR, Rome; Fachbereich Mathematik, Universität Hamburg, Hamburg; Department of Statistics and Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford; Department of Chemical and Biological Sciences, University of Huddersfield, Huddersfield, United Kingdom; Departamento de Genética, Universidad de La Laguna, La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain; Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Tartu and Estonian Biocentre, Tartu, Estonia; McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, Cambridge, United Kingdom; Institute for Legal Medicine, University of Münster, Münster, Germany; Dipartimento di Zoologia e Antropologia Biologica, Università di Sassari, Sassari, Italy; Institute for Anthropological Research, Zagreb, Croatia; Department of Medical Genetics, University of Turku, Turku, Finland; Dipartimento di Biologia Cellulare, Università della Calabria, Rende, Italy; and Departament de Biologia Animal, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona
| | - Vicente Martinez-Cabrera
- Dipartimento di Genetica e Microbiologia, Università di Pavia, Pavia, Italy; Dipartimenti di Genetica e Biologia Molecolare and Biologia Animale e dell’Uomo, Università “La Sapienza,” Istituto di Medicina Legale, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Dipartimento di Biologia, Università “Tor Vergata,” and Centro di Genetica Evoluzionistica del CNR, Rome; Fachbereich Mathematik, Universität Hamburg, Hamburg; Department of Statistics and Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford; Department of Chemical and Biological Sciences, University of Huddersfield, Huddersfield, United Kingdom; Departamento de Genética, Universidad de La Laguna, La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain; Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Tartu and Estonian Biocentre, Tartu, Estonia; McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, Cambridge, United Kingdom; Institute for Legal Medicine, University of Münster, Münster, Germany; Dipartimento di Zoologia e Antropologia Biologica, Università di Sassari, Sassari, Italy; Institute for Anthropological Research, Zagreb, Croatia; Department of Medical Genetics, University of Turku, Turku, Finland; Dipartimento di Biologia Cellulare, Università della Calabria, Rende, Italy; and Departament de Biologia Animal, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona
| | - Richard Villems
- Dipartimento di Genetica e Microbiologia, Università di Pavia, Pavia, Italy; Dipartimenti di Genetica e Biologia Molecolare and Biologia Animale e dell’Uomo, Università “La Sapienza,” Istituto di Medicina Legale, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Dipartimento di Biologia, Università “Tor Vergata,” and Centro di Genetica Evoluzionistica del CNR, Rome; Fachbereich Mathematik, Universität Hamburg, Hamburg; Department of Statistics and Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford; Department of Chemical and Biological Sciences, University of Huddersfield, Huddersfield, United Kingdom; Departamento de Genética, Universidad de La Laguna, La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain; Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Tartu and Estonian Biocentre, Tartu, Estonia; McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, Cambridge, United Kingdom; Institute for Legal Medicine, University of Münster, Münster, Germany; Dipartimento di Zoologia e Antropologia Biologica, Università di Sassari, Sassari, Italy; Institute for Anthropological Research, Zagreb, Croatia; Department of Medical Genetics, University of Turku, Turku, Finland; Dipartimento di Biologia Cellulare, Università della Calabria, Rende, Italy; and Departament de Biologia Animal, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona
| | - Toomas Kivisild
- Dipartimento di Genetica e Microbiologia, Università di Pavia, Pavia, Italy; Dipartimenti di Genetica e Biologia Molecolare and Biologia Animale e dell’Uomo, Università “La Sapienza,” Istituto di Medicina Legale, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Dipartimento di Biologia, Università “Tor Vergata,” and Centro di Genetica Evoluzionistica del CNR, Rome; Fachbereich Mathematik, Universität Hamburg, Hamburg; Department of Statistics and Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford; Department of Chemical and Biological Sciences, University of Huddersfield, Huddersfield, United Kingdom; Departamento de Genética, Universidad de La Laguna, La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain; Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Tartu and Estonian Biocentre, Tartu, Estonia; McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, Cambridge, United Kingdom; Institute for Legal Medicine, University of Münster, Münster, Germany; Dipartimento di Zoologia e Antropologia Biologica, Università di Sassari, Sassari, Italy; Institute for Anthropological Research, Zagreb, Croatia; Department of Medical Genetics, University of Turku, Turku, Finland; Dipartimento di Biologia Cellulare, Università della Calabria, Rende, Italy; and Departament de Biologia Animal, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona
| | - Ene Metspalu
- Dipartimento di Genetica e Microbiologia, Università di Pavia, Pavia, Italy; Dipartimenti di Genetica e Biologia Molecolare and Biologia Animale e dell’Uomo, Università “La Sapienza,” Istituto di Medicina Legale, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Dipartimento di Biologia, Università “Tor Vergata,” and Centro di Genetica Evoluzionistica del CNR, Rome; Fachbereich Mathematik, Universität Hamburg, Hamburg; Department of Statistics and Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford; Department of Chemical and Biological Sciences, University of Huddersfield, Huddersfield, United Kingdom; Departamento de Genética, Universidad de La Laguna, La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain; Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Tartu and Estonian Biocentre, Tartu, Estonia; McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, Cambridge, United Kingdom; Institute for Legal Medicine, University of Münster, Münster, Germany; Dipartimento di Zoologia e Antropologia Biologica, Università di Sassari, Sassari, Italy; Institute for Anthropological Research, Zagreb, Croatia; Department of Medical Genetics, University of Turku, Turku, Finland; Dipartimento di Biologia Cellulare, Università della Calabria, Rende, Italy; and Departament de Biologia Animal, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona
| | - Jüri Parik
- Dipartimento di Genetica e Microbiologia, Università di Pavia, Pavia, Italy; Dipartimenti di Genetica e Biologia Molecolare and Biologia Animale e dell’Uomo, Università “La Sapienza,” Istituto di Medicina Legale, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Dipartimento di Biologia, Università “Tor Vergata,” and Centro di Genetica Evoluzionistica del CNR, Rome; Fachbereich Mathematik, Universität Hamburg, Hamburg; Department of Statistics and Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford; Department of Chemical and Biological Sciences, University of Huddersfield, Huddersfield, United Kingdom; Departamento de Genética, Universidad de La Laguna, La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain; Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Tartu and Estonian Biocentre, Tartu, Estonia; McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, Cambridge, United Kingdom; Institute for Legal Medicine, University of Münster, Münster, Germany; Dipartimento di Zoologia e Antropologia Biologica, Università di Sassari, Sassari, Italy; Institute for Anthropological Research, Zagreb, Croatia; Department of Medical Genetics, University of Turku, Turku, Finland; Dipartimento di Biologia Cellulare, Università della Calabria, Rende, Italy; and Departament de Biologia Animal, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona
| | - Helle-Viivi Tolk
- Dipartimento di Genetica e Microbiologia, Università di Pavia, Pavia, Italy; Dipartimenti di Genetica e Biologia Molecolare and Biologia Animale e dell’Uomo, Università “La Sapienza,” Istituto di Medicina Legale, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Dipartimento di Biologia, Università “Tor Vergata,” and Centro di Genetica Evoluzionistica del CNR, Rome; Fachbereich Mathematik, Universität Hamburg, Hamburg; Department of Statistics and Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford; Department of Chemical and Biological Sciences, University of Huddersfield, Huddersfield, United Kingdom; Departamento de Genética, Universidad de La Laguna, La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain; Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Tartu and Estonian Biocentre, Tartu, Estonia; McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, Cambridge, United Kingdom; Institute for Legal Medicine, University of Münster, Münster, Germany; Dipartimento di Zoologia e Antropologia Biologica, Università di Sassari, Sassari, Italy; Institute for Anthropological Research, Zagreb, Croatia; Department of Medical Genetics, University of Turku, Turku, Finland; Dipartimento di Biologia Cellulare, Università della Calabria, Rende, Italy; and Departament de Biologia Animal, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona
| | - Kristiina Tambets
- Dipartimento di Genetica e Microbiologia, Università di Pavia, Pavia, Italy; Dipartimenti di Genetica e Biologia Molecolare and Biologia Animale e dell’Uomo, Università “La Sapienza,” Istituto di Medicina Legale, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Dipartimento di Biologia, Università “Tor Vergata,” and Centro di Genetica Evoluzionistica del CNR, Rome; Fachbereich Mathematik, Universität Hamburg, Hamburg; Department of Statistics and Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford; Department of Chemical and Biological Sciences, University of Huddersfield, Huddersfield, United Kingdom; Departamento de Genética, Universidad de La Laguna, La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain; Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Tartu and Estonian Biocentre, Tartu, Estonia; McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, Cambridge, United Kingdom; Institute for Legal Medicine, University of Münster, Münster, Germany; Dipartimento di Zoologia e Antropologia Biologica, Università di Sassari, Sassari, Italy; Institute for Anthropological Research, Zagreb, Croatia; Department of Medical Genetics, University of Turku, Turku, Finland; Dipartimento di Biologia Cellulare, Università della Calabria, Rende, Italy; and Departament de Biologia Animal, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona
| | - Peter Forster
- Dipartimento di Genetica e Microbiologia, Università di Pavia, Pavia, Italy; Dipartimenti di Genetica e Biologia Molecolare and Biologia Animale e dell’Uomo, Università “La Sapienza,” Istituto di Medicina Legale, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Dipartimento di Biologia, Università “Tor Vergata,” and Centro di Genetica Evoluzionistica del CNR, Rome; Fachbereich Mathematik, Universität Hamburg, Hamburg; Department of Statistics and Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford; Department of Chemical and Biological Sciences, University of Huddersfield, Huddersfield, United Kingdom; Departamento de Genética, Universidad de La Laguna, La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain; Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Tartu and Estonian Biocentre, Tartu, Estonia; McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, Cambridge, United Kingdom; Institute for Legal Medicine, University of Münster, Münster, Germany; Dipartimento di Zoologia e Antropologia Biologica, Università di Sassari, Sassari, Italy; Institute for Anthropological Research, Zagreb, Croatia; Department of Medical Genetics, University of Turku, Turku, Finland; Dipartimento di Biologia Cellulare, Università della Calabria, Rende, Italy; and Departament de Biologia Animal, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona
| | - Bernd Karger
- Dipartimento di Genetica e Microbiologia, Università di Pavia, Pavia, Italy; Dipartimenti di Genetica e Biologia Molecolare and Biologia Animale e dell’Uomo, Università “La Sapienza,” Istituto di Medicina Legale, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Dipartimento di Biologia, Università “Tor Vergata,” and Centro di Genetica Evoluzionistica del CNR, Rome; Fachbereich Mathematik, Universität Hamburg, Hamburg; Department of Statistics and Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford; Department of Chemical and Biological Sciences, University of Huddersfield, Huddersfield, United Kingdom; Departamento de Genética, Universidad de La Laguna, La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain; Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Tartu and Estonian Biocentre, Tartu, Estonia; McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, Cambridge, United Kingdom; Institute for Legal Medicine, University of Münster, Münster, Germany; Dipartimento di Zoologia e Antropologia Biologica, Università di Sassari, Sassari, Italy; Institute for Anthropological Research, Zagreb, Croatia; Department of Medical Genetics, University of Turku, Turku, Finland; Dipartimento di Biologia Cellulare, Università della Calabria, Rende, Italy; and Departament de Biologia Animal, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona
| | - Paolo Francalacci
- Dipartimento di Genetica e Microbiologia, Università di Pavia, Pavia, Italy; Dipartimenti di Genetica e Biologia Molecolare and Biologia Animale e dell’Uomo, Università “La Sapienza,” Istituto di Medicina Legale, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Dipartimento di Biologia, Università “Tor Vergata,” and Centro di Genetica Evoluzionistica del CNR, Rome; Fachbereich Mathematik, Universität Hamburg, Hamburg; Department of Statistics and Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford; Department of Chemical and Biological Sciences, University of Huddersfield, Huddersfield, United Kingdom; Departamento de Genética, Universidad de La Laguna, La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain; Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Tartu and Estonian Biocentre, Tartu, Estonia; McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, Cambridge, United Kingdom; Institute for Legal Medicine, University of Münster, Münster, Germany; Dipartimento di Zoologia e Antropologia Biologica, Università di Sassari, Sassari, Italy; Institute for Anthropological Research, Zagreb, Croatia; Department of Medical Genetics, University of Turku, Turku, Finland; Dipartimento di Biologia Cellulare, Università della Calabria, Rende, Italy; and Departament de Biologia Animal, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona
| | - Pavao Rudan
- Dipartimento di Genetica e Microbiologia, Università di Pavia, Pavia, Italy; Dipartimenti di Genetica e Biologia Molecolare and Biologia Animale e dell’Uomo, Università “La Sapienza,” Istituto di Medicina Legale, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Dipartimento di Biologia, Università “Tor Vergata,” and Centro di Genetica Evoluzionistica del CNR, Rome; Fachbereich Mathematik, Universität Hamburg, Hamburg; Department of Statistics and Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford; Department of Chemical and Biological Sciences, University of Huddersfield, Huddersfield, United Kingdom; Departamento de Genética, Universidad de La Laguna, La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain; Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Tartu and Estonian Biocentre, Tartu, Estonia; McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, Cambridge, United Kingdom; Institute for Legal Medicine, University of Münster, Münster, Germany; Dipartimento di Zoologia e Antropologia Biologica, Università di Sassari, Sassari, Italy; Institute for Anthropological Research, Zagreb, Croatia; Department of Medical Genetics, University of Turku, Turku, Finland; Dipartimento di Biologia Cellulare, Università della Calabria, Rende, Italy; and Departament de Biologia Animal, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona
| | - Branka Janicijevic
- Dipartimento di Genetica e Microbiologia, Università di Pavia, Pavia, Italy; Dipartimenti di Genetica e Biologia Molecolare and Biologia Animale e dell’Uomo, Università “La Sapienza,” Istituto di Medicina Legale, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Dipartimento di Biologia, Università “Tor Vergata,” and Centro di Genetica Evoluzionistica del CNR, Rome; Fachbereich Mathematik, Universität Hamburg, Hamburg; Department of Statistics and Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford; Department of Chemical and Biological Sciences, University of Huddersfield, Huddersfield, United Kingdom; Departamento de Genética, Universidad de La Laguna, La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain; Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Tartu and Estonian Biocentre, Tartu, Estonia; McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, Cambridge, United Kingdom; Institute for Legal Medicine, University of Münster, Münster, Germany; Dipartimento di Zoologia e Antropologia Biologica, Università di Sassari, Sassari, Italy; Institute for Anthropological Research, Zagreb, Croatia; Department of Medical Genetics, University of Turku, Turku, Finland; Dipartimento di Biologia Cellulare, Università della Calabria, Rende, Italy; and Departament de Biologia Animal, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona
| | - Olga Rickards
- Dipartimento di Genetica e Microbiologia, Università di Pavia, Pavia, Italy; Dipartimenti di Genetica e Biologia Molecolare and Biologia Animale e dell’Uomo, Università “La Sapienza,” Istituto di Medicina Legale, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Dipartimento di Biologia, Università “Tor Vergata,” and Centro di Genetica Evoluzionistica del CNR, Rome; Fachbereich Mathematik, Universität Hamburg, Hamburg; Department of Statistics and Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford; Department of Chemical and Biological Sciences, University of Huddersfield, Huddersfield, United Kingdom; Departamento de Genética, Universidad de La Laguna, La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain; Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Tartu and Estonian Biocentre, Tartu, Estonia; McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, Cambridge, United Kingdom; Institute for Legal Medicine, University of Münster, Münster, Germany; Dipartimento di Zoologia e Antropologia Biologica, Università di Sassari, Sassari, Italy; Institute for Anthropological Research, Zagreb, Croatia; Department of Medical Genetics, University of Turku, Turku, Finland; Dipartimento di Biologia Cellulare, Università della Calabria, Rende, Italy; and Departament de Biologia Animal, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona
| | - Marja-Liisa Savontaus
- Dipartimento di Genetica e Microbiologia, Università di Pavia, Pavia, Italy; Dipartimenti di Genetica e Biologia Molecolare and Biologia Animale e dell’Uomo, Università “La Sapienza,” Istituto di Medicina Legale, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Dipartimento di Biologia, Università “Tor Vergata,” and Centro di Genetica Evoluzionistica del CNR, Rome; Fachbereich Mathematik, Universität Hamburg, Hamburg; Department of Statistics and Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford; Department of Chemical and Biological Sciences, University of Huddersfield, Huddersfield, United Kingdom; Departamento de Genética, Universidad de La Laguna, La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain; Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Tartu and Estonian Biocentre, Tartu, Estonia; McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, Cambridge, United Kingdom; Institute for Legal Medicine, University of Münster, Münster, Germany; Dipartimento di Zoologia e Antropologia Biologica, Università di Sassari, Sassari, Italy; Institute for Anthropological Research, Zagreb, Croatia; Department of Medical Genetics, University of Turku, Turku, Finland; Dipartimento di Biologia Cellulare, Università della Calabria, Rende, Italy; and Departament de Biologia Animal, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona
| | - Kirsi Huoponen
- Dipartimento di Genetica e Microbiologia, Università di Pavia, Pavia, Italy; Dipartimenti di Genetica e Biologia Molecolare and Biologia Animale e dell’Uomo, Università “La Sapienza,” Istituto di Medicina Legale, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Dipartimento di Biologia, Università “Tor Vergata,” and Centro di Genetica Evoluzionistica del CNR, Rome; Fachbereich Mathematik, Universität Hamburg, Hamburg; Department of Statistics and Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford; Department of Chemical and Biological Sciences, University of Huddersfield, Huddersfield, United Kingdom; Departamento de Genética, Universidad de La Laguna, La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain; Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Tartu and Estonian Biocentre, Tartu, Estonia; McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, Cambridge, United Kingdom; Institute for Legal Medicine, University of Münster, Münster, Germany; Dipartimento di Zoologia e Antropologia Biologica, Università di Sassari, Sassari, Italy; Institute for Anthropological Research, Zagreb, Croatia; Department of Medical Genetics, University of Turku, Turku, Finland; Dipartimento di Biologia Cellulare, Università della Calabria, Rende, Italy; and Departament de Biologia Animal, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona
| | - Virpi Laitinen
- Dipartimento di Genetica e Microbiologia, Università di Pavia, Pavia, Italy; Dipartimenti di Genetica e Biologia Molecolare and Biologia Animale e dell’Uomo, Università “La Sapienza,” Istituto di Medicina Legale, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Dipartimento di Biologia, Università “Tor Vergata,” and Centro di Genetica Evoluzionistica del CNR, Rome; Fachbereich Mathematik, Universität Hamburg, Hamburg; Department of Statistics and Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford; Department of Chemical and Biological Sciences, University of Huddersfield, Huddersfield, United Kingdom; Departamento de Genética, Universidad de La Laguna, La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain; Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Tartu and Estonian Biocentre, Tartu, Estonia; McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, Cambridge, United Kingdom; Institute for Legal Medicine, University of Münster, Münster, Germany; Dipartimento di Zoologia e Antropologia Biologica, Università di Sassari, Sassari, Italy; Institute for Anthropological Research, Zagreb, Croatia; Department of Medical Genetics, University of Turku, Turku, Finland; Dipartimento di Biologia Cellulare, Università della Calabria, Rende, Italy; and Departament de Biologia Animal, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona
| | - Satu Koivumäki
- Dipartimento di Genetica e Microbiologia, Università di Pavia, Pavia, Italy; Dipartimenti di Genetica e Biologia Molecolare and Biologia Animale e dell’Uomo, Università “La Sapienza,” Istituto di Medicina Legale, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Dipartimento di Biologia, Università “Tor Vergata,” and Centro di Genetica Evoluzionistica del CNR, Rome; Fachbereich Mathematik, Universität Hamburg, Hamburg; Department of Statistics and Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford; Department of Chemical and Biological Sciences, University of Huddersfield, Huddersfield, United Kingdom; Departamento de Genética, Universidad de La Laguna, La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain; Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Tartu and Estonian Biocentre, Tartu, Estonia; McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, Cambridge, United Kingdom; Institute for Legal Medicine, University of Münster, Münster, Germany; Dipartimento di Zoologia e Antropologia Biologica, Università di Sassari, Sassari, Italy; Institute for Anthropological Research, Zagreb, Croatia; Department of Medical Genetics, University of Turku, Turku, Finland; Dipartimento di Biologia Cellulare, Università della Calabria, Rende, Italy; and Departament de Biologia Animal, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona
| | - Bryan Sykes
- Dipartimento di Genetica e Microbiologia, Università di Pavia, Pavia, Italy; Dipartimenti di Genetica e Biologia Molecolare and Biologia Animale e dell’Uomo, Università “La Sapienza,” Istituto di Medicina Legale, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Dipartimento di Biologia, Università “Tor Vergata,” and Centro di Genetica Evoluzionistica del CNR, Rome; Fachbereich Mathematik, Universität Hamburg, Hamburg; Department of Statistics and Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford; Department of Chemical and Biological Sciences, University of Huddersfield, Huddersfield, United Kingdom; Departamento de Genética, Universidad de La Laguna, La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain; Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Tartu and Estonian Biocentre, Tartu, Estonia; McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, Cambridge, United Kingdom; Institute for Legal Medicine, University of Münster, Münster, Germany; Dipartimento di Zoologia e Antropologia Biologica, Università di Sassari, Sassari, Italy; Institute for Anthropological Research, Zagreb, Croatia; Department of Medical Genetics, University of Turku, Turku, Finland; Dipartimento di Biologia Cellulare, Università della Calabria, Rende, Italy; and Departament de Biologia Animal, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona
| | - Eileen Hickey
- Dipartimento di Genetica e Microbiologia, Università di Pavia, Pavia, Italy; Dipartimenti di Genetica e Biologia Molecolare and Biologia Animale e dell’Uomo, Università “La Sapienza,” Istituto di Medicina Legale, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Dipartimento di Biologia, Università “Tor Vergata,” and Centro di Genetica Evoluzionistica del CNR, Rome; Fachbereich Mathematik, Universität Hamburg, Hamburg; Department of Statistics and Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford; Department of Chemical and Biological Sciences, University of Huddersfield, Huddersfield, United Kingdom; Departamento de Genética, Universidad de La Laguna, La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain; Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Tartu and Estonian Biocentre, Tartu, Estonia; McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, Cambridge, United Kingdom; Institute for Legal Medicine, University of Münster, Münster, Germany; Dipartimento di Zoologia e Antropologia Biologica, Università di Sassari, Sassari, Italy; Institute for Anthropological Research, Zagreb, Croatia; Department of Medical Genetics, University of Turku, Turku, Finland; Dipartimento di Biologia Cellulare, Università della Calabria, Rende, Italy; and Departament de Biologia Animal, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona
| | - Andrea Novelletto
- Dipartimento di Genetica e Microbiologia, Università di Pavia, Pavia, Italy; Dipartimenti di Genetica e Biologia Molecolare and Biologia Animale e dell’Uomo, Università “La Sapienza,” Istituto di Medicina Legale, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Dipartimento di Biologia, Università “Tor Vergata,” and Centro di Genetica Evoluzionistica del CNR, Rome; Fachbereich Mathematik, Universität Hamburg, Hamburg; Department of Statistics and Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford; Department of Chemical and Biological Sciences, University of Huddersfield, Huddersfield, United Kingdom; Departamento de Genética, Universidad de La Laguna, La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain; Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Tartu and Estonian Biocentre, Tartu, Estonia; McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, Cambridge, United Kingdom; Institute for Legal Medicine, University of Münster, Münster, Germany; Dipartimento di Zoologia e Antropologia Biologica, Università di Sassari, Sassari, Italy; Institute for Anthropological Research, Zagreb, Croatia; Department of Medical Genetics, University of Turku, Turku, Finland; Dipartimento di Biologia Cellulare, Università della Calabria, Rende, Italy; and Departament de Biologia Animal, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona
| | - Pedro Moral
- Dipartimento di Genetica e Microbiologia, Università di Pavia, Pavia, Italy; Dipartimenti di Genetica e Biologia Molecolare and Biologia Animale e dell’Uomo, Università “La Sapienza,” Istituto di Medicina Legale, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Dipartimento di Biologia, Università “Tor Vergata,” and Centro di Genetica Evoluzionistica del CNR, Rome; Fachbereich Mathematik, Universität Hamburg, Hamburg; Department of Statistics and Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford; Department of Chemical and Biological Sciences, University of Huddersfield, Huddersfield, United Kingdom; Departamento de Genética, Universidad de La Laguna, La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain; Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Tartu and Estonian Biocentre, Tartu, Estonia; McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, Cambridge, United Kingdom; Institute for Legal Medicine, University of Münster, Münster, Germany; Dipartimento di Zoologia e Antropologia Biologica, Università di Sassari, Sassari, Italy; Institute for Anthropological Research, Zagreb, Croatia; Department of Medical Genetics, University of Turku, Turku, Finland; Dipartimento di Biologia Cellulare, Università della Calabria, Rende, Italy; and Departament de Biologia Animal, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona
| | - Daniele Sellitto
- Dipartimento di Genetica e Microbiologia, Università di Pavia, Pavia, Italy; Dipartimenti di Genetica e Biologia Molecolare and Biologia Animale e dell’Uomo, Università “La Sapienza,” Istituto di Medicina Legale, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Dipartimento di Biologia, Università “Tor Vergata,” and Centro di Genetica Evoluzionistica del CNR, Rome; Fachbereich Mathematik, Universität Hamburg, Hamburg; Department of Statistics and Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford; Department of Chemical and Biological Sciences, University of Huddersfield, Huddersfield, United Kingdom; Departamento de Genética, Universidad de La Laguna, La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain; Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Tartu and Estonian Biocentre, Tartu, Estonia; McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, Cambridge, United Kingdom; Institute for Legal Medicine, University of Münster, Münster, Germany; Dipartimento di Zoologia e Antropologia Biologica, Università di Sassari, Sassari, Italy; Institute for Anthropological Research, Zagreb, Croatia; Department of Medical Genetics, University of Turku, Turku, Finland; Dipartimento di Biologia Cellulare, Università della Calabria, Rende, Italy; and Departament de Biologia Animal, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona
| | - Alfredo Coppa
- Dipartimento di Genetica e Microbiologia, Università di Pavia, Pavia, Italy; Dipartimenti di Genetica e Biologia Molecolare and Biologia Animale e dell’Uomo, Università “La Sapienza,” Istituto di Medicina Legale, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Dipartimento di Biologia, Università “Tor Vergata,” and Centro di Genetica Evoluzionistica del CNR, Rome; Fachbereich Mathematik, Universität Hamburg, Hamburg; Department of Statistics and Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford; Department of Chemical and Biological Sciences, University of Huddersfield, Huddersfield, United Kingdom; Departamento de Genética, Universidad de La Laguna, La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain; Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Tartu and Estonian Biocentre, Tartu, Estonia; McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, Cambridge, United Kingdom; Institute for Legal Medicine, University of Münster, Münster, Germany; Dipartimento di Zoologia e Antropologia Biologica, Università di Sassari, Sassari, Italy; Institute for Anthropological Research, Zagreb, Croatia; Department of Medical Genetics, University of Turku, Turku, Finland; Dipartimento di Biologia Cellulare, Università della Calabria, Rende, Italy; and Departament de Biologia Animal, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona
| | - Nadia Al-Zaheri
- Dipartimento di Genetica e Microbiologia, Università di Pavia, Pavia, Italy; Dipartimenti di Genetica e Biologia Molecolare and Biologia Animale e dell’Uomo, Università “La Sapienza,” Istituto di Medicina Legale, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Dipartimento di Biologia, Università “Tor Vergata,” and Centro di Genetica Evoluzionistica del CNR, Rome; Fachbereich Mathematik, Universität Hamburg, Hamburg; Department of Statistics and Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford; Department of Chemical and Biological Sciences, University of Huddersfield, Huddersfield, United Kingdom; Departamento de Genética, Universidad de La Laguna, La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain; Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Tartu and Estonian Biocentre, Tartu, Estonia; McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, Cambridge, United Kingdom; Institute for Legal Medicine, University of Münster, Münster, Germany; Dipartimento di Zoologia e Antropologia Biologica, Università di Sassari, Sassari, Italy; Institute for Anthropological Research, Zagreb, Croatia; Department of Medical Genetics, University of Turku, Turku, Finland; Dipartimento di Biologia Cellulare, Università della Calabria, Rende, Italy; and Departament de Biologia Animal, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona
| | - A. Silvana Santachiara-Benerecetti
- Dipartimento di Genetica e Microbiologia, Università di Pavia, Pavia, Italy; Dipartimenti di Genetica e Biologia Molecolare and Biologia Animale e dell’Uomo, Università “La Sapienza,” Istituto di Medicina Legale, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Dipartimento di Biologia, Università “Tor Vergata,” and Centro di Genetica Evoluzionistica del CNR, Rome; Fachbereich Mathematik, Universität Hamburg, Hamburg; Department of Statistics and Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford; Department of Chemical and Biological Sciences, University of Huddersfield, Huddersfield, United Kingdom; Departamento de Genética, Universidad de La Laguna, La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain; Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Tartu and Estonian Biocentre, Tartu, Estonia; McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, Cambridge, United Kingdom; Institute for Legal Medicine, University of Münster, Münster, Germany; Dipartimento di Zoologia e Antropologia Biologica, Università di Sassari, Sassari, Italy; Institute for Anthropological Research, Zagreb, Croatia; Department of Medical Genetics, University of Turku, Turku, Finland; Dipartimento di Biologia Cellulare, Università della Calabria, Rende, Italy; and Departament de Biologia Animal, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona
| | - Ornella Semino
- Dipartimento di Genetica e Microbiologia, Università di Pavia, Pavia, Italy; Dipartimenti di Genetica e Biologia Molecolare and Biologia Animale e dell’Uomo, Università “La Sapienza,” Istituto di Medicina Legale, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Dipartimento di Biologia, Università “Tor Vergata,” and Centro di Genetica Evoluzionistica del CNR, Rome; Fachbereich Mathematik, Universität Hamburg, Hamburg; Department of Statistics and Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford; Department of Chemical and Biological Sciences, University of Huddersfield, Huddersfield, United Kingdom; Departamento de Genética, Universidad de La Laguna, La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain; Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Tartu and Estonian Biocentre, Tartu, Estonia; McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, Cambridge, United Kingdom; Institute for Legal Medicine, University of Münster, Münster, Germany; Dipartimento di Zoologia e Antropologia Biologica, Università di Sassari, Sassari, Italy; Institute for Anthropological Research, Zagreb, Croatia; Department of Medical Genetics, University of Turku, Turku, Finland; Dipartimento di Biologia Cellulare, Università della Calabria, Rende, Italy; and Departament de Biologia Animal, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona
| | - Rosaria Scozzari
- Dipartimento di Genetica e Microbiologia, Università di Pavia, Pavia, Italy; Dipartimenti di Genetica e Biologia Molecolare and Biologia Animale e dell’Uomo, Università “La Sapienza,” Istituto di Medicina Legale, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Dipartimento di Biologia, Università “Tor Vergata,” and Centro di Genetica Evoluzionistica del CNR, Rome; Fachbereich Mathematik, Universität Hamburg, Hamburg; Department of Statistics and Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford; Department of Chemical and Biological Sciences, University of Huddersfield, Huddersfield, United Kingdom; Departamento de Genética, Universidad de La Laguna, La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain; Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Tartu and Estonian Biocentre, Tartu, Estonia; McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, Cambridge, United Kingdom; Institute for Legal Medicine, University of Münster, Münster, Germany; Dipartimento di Zoologia e Antropologia Biologica, Università di Sassari, Sassari, Italy; Institute for Anthropological Research, Zagreb, Croatia; Department of Medical Genetics, University of Turku, Turku, Finland; Dipartimento di Biologia Cellulare, Università della Calabria, Rende, Italy; and Departament de Biologia Animal, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona
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