Cost-effectiveness of hepatitis A-B vaccine versus hepatitis B vaccine for healthcare and public safety workers in the western United States

A Randomized Controlled Trial to Evaluate a Potential Hepatitis B Booster Vaccination Strategy Using Combined Hepatitis A and B Vaccine

BACKGROUND

Booster doses could play a major role in no responders or low responders to primary hepatitis B (HB) vaccine. Planed time point for hepatitis A vaccination in China provides a good opportunity to carry out HB booster dose by using combined hepatitis A and B vaccine.

METHODS

A randomized, double-blinded clinical trial was conducted to compare the immunogenicity and safety of toddlers 18-24 months of age receiving 3 different vaccination regimens: 2 doses of inactivated hepatitis A vaccine (group 1), 1 dose of inactivated hepatitis A vaccine plus 1 dose of combined hepatitis A and B vaccine (group 2) or 2 doses of combined hepatitis A and B vaccine (group 3).

RESULTS

All 3 groups showed 100% seroprotection for antihepatitis A virus antibody after vaccination. Seroprotection rate for anti-HB antibody before vaccination ranged from 79.5% to 92.9% in the 3 groups. After second inoculation, anti-HBs seroprotection increased from 92.9% to 100% in group 2 with postvaccination geometric mean concentration (GMC) of 2258.3 mIU/mL and from 79.5% to 98.9% in group 3 with postvaccination GMC of 2055.3 mIU/mL. The adverse events were not statistically different among groups (P = 0.345).

CONCLUSIONS

Combined hepatitis A and B vaccine could stimulate high level of both antihepatitis A virus and anti-HBs antibodies and not increase adverse events, providing a new choice for HB booster.

Hepatitis A Virus Infection, Vaccination and Iranian Healthcare Workers

CONTEXT

Hepatitis A virus (HAV) infection is an important public health problem. It is estimated that about 1.4 million cases of HAV infection occur every year worldwide. Non-immune healthcare workers (HCWs) can be at higher risk of HAV infection in comparison to general population and an appropriate preventive method should be considered for them.

EVIDENCE ACQUISITION

For finding related articles, a comprehensive search was performed in Scopus, PubMed and Google Scholar and all appropriate combinations of following keywords were considered; "healthcare provider", "healthcare personnel", "healthcare worker", "nurse" "medical students", "Iran", "Hepatitis A" and "vaccination". Also we did a search in Persian language in Google scholar and scientific information database (SID) to find related Persian literature.

RESULTS

A gradual shift in age of HAV infection has been seen from childhood toward adulthood. Data about HAV seropositivity among Iranian HCWs are very limited. However based on the recent studies, it seems that HAV seropositivity has been reduced among HCWs in comparison with the past. All recent studies have suggested HAV vaccination for HCWs.

CONCLUSIONS

Available limited studies show that Iranian healthcare personnel need HAV vaccination. However, for selecting an appropriate preventive method for this high risk group, more original studies are still needed.

Computational modeling of interventions and protective thresholds to prevent disease transmission in deploying populations

Military personnel are deployed abroad for missions ranging from humanitarian relief efforts to combat actions; delay or interruption in these activities due to disease transmission can cause operational disruptions, significant economic loss, and stressed or exceeded military medical resources. Deployed troops function in environments favorable to the rapid and efficient transmission of many viruses particularly when levels of protection are suboptimal. When immunity among deployed military populations is low, the risk of vaccine-preventable disease outbreaks increases, impacting troop readiness and achievement of mission objectives. However, targeted vaccination and the optimization of preexisting immunity among deployed populations can decrease the threat of outbreaks among deployed troops. Here we describe methods for the computational modeling of disease transmission to explore how preexisting immunity compares with vaccination at the time of deployment as a means of preventing outbreaks and protecting troops and mission objectives during extended military deployment actions. These methods are illustrated with five modeling case studies for separate diseases common in many parts of the world, to show different approaches required in varying epidemiological settings.

Economic evaluations of hepatitis A vaccination in middle-income countries

Economic evaluations of hepatitis A vaccination are important to assist national and international policy makers in different jurisdictions on making effective decisions. Up to now, a comprehensive review of the potential health and economic benefits on hepatitis A vaccination in middle-income countries (MICs) has not been performed yet. In this study, we reviewed the literature on the cost-effectiveness of hepatitis A vaccination in MICs. Most of the studies confirmed that hepatitis A vaccination was cost effective or even cost saving under certain conditions. We found that vaccine price, medical costs, incidence and discount rate were the most influential parameters on the sensitivity analyses. Vaccine price has been shown as a barrier for MICs in implementing universal vaccination of hepatitis A. Given their relatively limited financial resources, implementation of single-dose vaccination could be considered. Despite our findings, we argue that further economic evaluations in MICs are still required in the near future.

Effects of an ageing population and the replacement of immune birth cohorts on the burden of hepatitis A in the Netherlands

BACKGROUND

In populations in which the incidence of hepatitis A virus (HAV) infection has declined due to socio-economic improvements, better sanitation and hygiene, and vaccination, birth cohorts who have long-term immunity through exposure early in life are now being replaced by non-immune cohorts, meaning that more cases in the elderly may occur in future. Our goal was to qualitatively investigate the interaction of this cohort effect and demographic change (population ageing) on the estimated disease burden of HAV infection in the Netherlands.

METHODS

We used dynamic MSIR (maternal immunity-susceptible-infectious-recovered) transmission and demographic models to simulate annual HAV incidence over the period 2000-2030, and estimated disease burden using the disability-adjusted life years (DALY) measure and a pre-defined disease progression model. Five scenarios representing different force of infection situations were simulated.

RESULTS

The overall disease burden was projected to decrease over the simulation period in the baseline scenario (310 DALYs in 2000 compared with 67 in 2030). This decreasing trend was absent for the 55+ years age group; 23.5% of all new infections were predicted to occur in the 55+ group in 2030, compared with 5.5% in the 55+ group in 2000.

CONCLUSIONS

In the absence of further public health interventions and under the assumption of a continued steady decline in the force of infection, the HAV disease burden in the Netherlands is predicted to decrease over the coming decades, but with proportionally more of the burden occurring within the increasingly larger segment of the population represented by elderly persons who are no longer naturally immune.

Combined hepatitis A and B vaccine: providing a bright future for preventing hepatitis

The first combined hepatitis A and B vaccine has been available in the United States since 2001. The vaccine provides protection against viral hepatitis with rapid seroprotection and lasting immunogenicity. This review outlines the product's components, clinical efficacy and opportunities for use in special circumstances. The vaccine has a good safety profile and has good tolerability. The combined hepatitis A and B vaccine is a well studied vaccine that provides rapid seroconversion with a good safety profile.

Hepatitis infection in the treatment of opioid dependence and abuse

Many new and existing cases of viral hepatitis infections are related to injection drug use. Transmission of these infections can result directly from the use of injection equipment that is contaminated with blood containing the hepatitis B or C virus or through sexual contact with an infected individual. In the latter case, drug use can indirectly contribute to hepatitis transmission through the dis-inhibited at-risk behavior, that is, unprotected sex with an infected partner. Individuals who inject drugs are at-risk for infection from different hepatitis viruses, hepatitis A, B, or C. Those with chronic hepatitis B virus infection also face additional risk should they become co-infected with hepatitis D virus. Protection from the transmission of hepatitis viruses A and B is best achieved by vaccination. For those with a history of or who currently inject drugs, the medical management of viral hepatitis infection comprising screening, testing, counseling and providing care and treatment is evolving. Components of the medical management of hepatitis infection, for persons considering, initiating, or receiving pharmacologic therapy for opioid addiction include: testing for hepatitis B and C infections; education and counseling regarding at-risk behavior and hepatitis transmission, acute and chronic hepatitis infection, liver disease and its care and treatment; vaccination against hepatitis A and B infection; and integrative primary care as part of the comprehensive treatment approach for recovery from opioid abuse and dependence. In addition, participation in a peer support group as part of integrated medical care enhances treatment outcomes. Liver disease is highly prevalent in patient populations seeking recovery from opioid addiction or who are currently receiving pharmacotherapy for opioid addiction. Pharmacotherapy for opioid addiction is not a contraindication to evaluation, care, or treatment of liver disease due to hepatitis virus infection. Successful pharmacotherapy for opioid addiction stabilizes patients and improves patient compliance to care and treatment regimens as well as promotes good patient outcomes. Implementation and integration of effective hepatitis prevention programs, care programs, and treatment regimens in concert with the pharmacological therapy of opioid addiction can reduce the public health burdens of hepatitis and injection drug use.

Cost-effectiveness analyses of hepatitis A vaccine: a systematic review to explore the effect of methodological quality on the economic attractiveness of vaccination strategies

Hepatitis A vaccines have been available for more than a decade. Because the burden of hepatitis A virus has fallen in developed countries, the appropriate role of vaccination programmes, especially universal vaccination strategies, remains unclear. Cost-effectiveness analysis is a useful method of relating the costs of vaccination to its benefits, and may inform policy. This article systematically reviews the evidence on the cost effectiveness of hepatitis A vaccination in varying populations, and explores the effects of methodological quality and key modelling issues on the cost-effectiveness ratios.Cost-effectiveness/cost-utility studies of hepatitis A vaccine were identified via a series of literature searches (MEDLINE, EMBASE, HSTAR and SSCI). Citations and full-text articles were reviewed independently by two reviewers. Reference searching, author searches and expert consultation ensured literature saturation. Incremental cost-effectiveness ratios (ICERs) were abstracted for base-case analyses, converted to $US, year 2005 values, and categorised to reflect various levels of cost effectiveness. Quality of reporting, methodological issues and key modelling issues were assessed using frameworks published in the literature.Thirty-one cost-effectiveness studies (including 12 cost-utility analyses) were included from full-text article review (n = 58) and citation screening (n = 570). These studies evaluated universal mass vaccination (n = 14), targeted vaccination (n = 17) and vaccination of susceptibles (i.e. individuals initially screened for antibody and, if susceptible, vaccinated) [n = 13]. For universal vaccination, 50% of the ICERs were <$US20 000 per QALY or life-year gained. Analyses evaluating vaccination in children, particularly in high incidence areas, produced the most attractive ICERs. For targeted vaccination, cost effectiveness was highly dependent on the risk of infection.Incidence, vaccine cost and discount rate were the most influential parameters in sensitivity analyses. Overall, analyses that evaluated the combined hepatitis A/hepatitis B vaccine, adjusted incidence for under-reporting, included societal costs and that came from studies of higher methodological quality tended to have more attractive cost-effectiveness ratios. Methodological quality varied across studies. Major methodological flaws included inappropriate model type, comparator, incidence estimate and inclusion/exclusion of costs.

A dynamic model for assessing universal Hepatitis A vaccination in Canada

Vaccination against Hepatitis A virus (HAV) in Canada is currently targeted toward high-risk groups. However, universal vaccination has been adopted in several other countries with a similar disease burden. Here we develop an age-structured compartmental model of HAV transmission and vaccination in Canada to assess potential universal vaccination strategies. The model predicts that universal vaccination at age 1 (respectively 4, 9, 15), with phasing out of targeted vaccination, would reduce reported incidence by 60% (respectively 52, 36, 31%) and mortality attributable to HAV by 56% (respectively 45, 26, 25%), relative to continued targeted vaccination, over 80 years.

Cohort effects in dynamic models and their impact on vaccination programmes: an example from hepatitis A

Background

Infection rates for many infectious diseases have declined over the past century. This has created a cohort effect, whereby older individuals experienced a higher infection rate in their past than younger individuals do now. As a result, age-stratified seroprevalence profiles often differ from what would be expected from constant infection rates.

Methods

Here, we account for the cohort effect by fitting an age-structured compartmental model with declining transmission rates to Hepatitis A seroprevalence data for Canadian-born individuals. We compare the predicted impact of universal vaccination with and without including the cohort effect in the dynamic model.

Results

We find that Hepatitis A transmissibility has declined by a factor of 2.8 since the early twentieth century. When the cohort effect is not included in the model, incidence and mortality both with and without vaccination are significantly over-predicted. Incidence (respectively mortality) over a 20 year period of universal vaccination is 34% (respectively 90%) higher than if the cohort effect is included. The percentage reduction in incidence and mortality due to vaccination are also over-predicted when the cohort effect is not included. Similar effects are likely for many other infectious diseases where infection rates have declined significantly over past decades and where immunity is lifelong.

Conclusion

Failure to account for cohort effects has implications for interpreting seroprevalence data and predicting the impact of vaccination programmes with dynamic models. Cohort effects should be included in dynamic modelling studies whenever applicable.

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Nosocomial pertussis: costs of an outbreak and benefits of vaccinating health care workers

BACKGROUND

In September 2003, 17 symptomatic cases of pertussis among health care workers (HCWs) resulted from a 1-day exposure to an infant who was later confirmed to have pertussis. These HCWs identified 307 close contacts. The hospital implemented extensive infection-control measures. The objective of this study was to determine direct and indirect costs incurred by the hospital and symptomatic HCWs as a result of the September 2003 outbreak and to estimate possible benefits of vaccinating HCWs from the hospital perspective.

METHODS

We determined costs by interviewing infection-control and hospital personnel, reviewing billing records, and surveying symptomatic HCWs. We calculated the benefits and costs of a vaccination program for HCWs, using a probabilistic model to estimate the number of pertussis exposures that would require control measures annually. Sensitivity and threshold analyses were performed.

RESULTS

The outbreak cost to the hospital was 74,870 dollars. The total measured cost of the outbreak was 81,382 dollars, including costs incurred by HCWs (6512 dollars). Our model predicted that vaccinating HCWs against pertussis would prevent >46% of exposures from HCWs with pertussis per year and would provide net savings. The benefit for the hospital was estimated to be 2.38 times the dollar amount invested in vaccinating HCWs. The number of exposures prevented and the benefit-cost ratio were sensitive to the number of exposures identified, the incidence of pertussis among HCWs, and HCW turnover.

CONCLUSIONS

A single nosocomial pertussis outbreak resulted in substantial disruption and costs to the hospital and to HCWs. Our model suggests that cost savings and benefits could be accrued by vaccinating HCWs against pertussis.