Simulation on the molecular radiosensitization effect of gold nanoparticles in cells irradiated by x-rays

Nuclease-Mimetic Nanomaterials: From Fundamentals to Bioapplications

With the rapid development of nanozymes and nanomedicine, designing novel nanostructures directly acting on deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) has great therapeutic potential because DNA is the carrier of genetic information and plays a vital role on life activities of the organism. Specifically, DNA cleavage is an important step in most of these DNA engineering technologies. While nucleases play crucial roles in the cell metabolism by efficient DNA cutting, the practical applications of natural nucleases suffer from some intrinsic shortcomings such as high cost and intolerance to harsh environments. In the past 20 years, great varieties of engineered nanostructures with DNA cleavage (nuclease-mimetic nanomaterials, abbreviated as nuclease mimics) have been developed rapidly and widely used in biomedical fields. In view of the significant progress of nuclease-mimetic nanomaterials, the possible DNA cleavage mechanism mediated by nuclease-mimetic nanomaterials is systematically discussed in this review, and the classification of nuclease-mimetic nanomaterials is illustrated. Their potential biomedical applications, especially in anti-biofilms and cancer treatment, are also comprehensively summarized. Finally, the current opportunities and challenges are discussed to stimulate the research of understanding and development of nuclease-mimetic nanomaterials.

Exploring the Potential of Gold Nanoparticles in Proton Therapy: Mechanisms, Advances, and Clinical Horizons

Proton therapy represents a groundbreaking advancement in cancer radiotherapy, leveraging the unique spatial energy distribution of protons to deliver precise, high-dose radiation to tumors while sparing surrounding healthy tissues. Despite its clinical success, proton therapy faces challenges in optimizing its therapeutic precision and efficacy. Recent research has highlighted the potential of gold nanoparticles to enhance proton therapy outcomes. Due to their high atomic number and favorable biological properties, gold nanoparticles act as radiosensitizers by amplifying the generation of secondary electrons and reactive oxygen species upon proton irradiation. This enhances DNA damage in tumor cells while preserving healthy tissues. Additionally, functionalization of gold nanoparticles with tumor-targeting ligands offers improved precision, making proton therapy more effective against a broader range of cancers. This review synthesizes current knowledge on the mechanisms of gold nanoparticle radiosensitization, preclinical evidence, and the technological hurdles that must be addressed to integrate this promising approach into clinical practice, aiming to advance the efficacy and accessibility of proton therapy in cancer therapy.

A new era of cancer phototherapy: mechanisms and applications

The past decades have witnessed great strides in phototherapy as an experimental option or regulation-approved treatment in numerous cancer indications. Of particular interest is nanoscale photosensitizer-based phototherapy, which has been established as a prominent candidate for advanced tumor treatment by virtue of its high efficacy and safety. Despite considerable research progress on materials, methods and devices in nanoscale photosensitizing agent-based phototherapy, their mechanisms of action are not always clear, which impedes their practical application in cancer treatment. Hence, from a new perspective, this review elaborates the working mechanisms, involving impairment and moderation effects, of diverse phototherapies on cells, organelles, organs, and tissues. Furthermore, the most current available phototherapy modalities are categorized as photodynamic, photothermal, photo-immune, photo-gas, and radio therapies in this review. A comprehensive understanding of the inferiority and superiority of various phototherapies will facilitate the advent of a new era of cancer phototherapy.

Nanoscale gold nanoparticle (GNP)-laden tumor cell model and its use for estimation of intracellular dose from GNP-induced secondary electrons

BACKGROUND

Gold nanoparticles (GNPs) accumulated within tumor cells have been shown to sensitize tumors to radiotherapy. From a physics point of view, the observed GNP-mediated radiosensitization is due to various downstream effects of the secondary electron (SE) production from internalized GNPs such as GNP-mediated dose enhancement. Over the years, numerous computational investigations on GNP-mediated dose enhancement/radiosensitization have been conducted. However, such investigations have relied mostly on simple cellular geometry models and/or artificial GNP distributions. Thus, it is at least desirable, if not necessary, to conduct further investigations using cellular geometry models that properly reflect realistic cell morphology as well as internalized GNP distributions at the nanoscale.

PURPOSE

The primary aim of this study was to develop a nanometer-resolution geometry model of a GNP-laden tumor cell for computational investigations of GNP-mediated dose enhancement/radiosensitization. The secondary aim was to demonstrate the utility of this model by quantifying GNP-induced SE tracks/dose distribution at sub-cellular levels for further validation of a nanoscopic dose point kernel (nDPK) method against full-fledged Geant4 Monte Carlo (MC) simulation.

METHODS

A transmission electron microscopy (TEM) image of a single cell showing cytoplasm, cellular nucleus, and internalized GNPs in the cellular endosome was segmented into sub-cellular levels based on pixel value thresholding. A corresponding material density was allocated to each pixel, and, by adding a thickness, each pixel was transformed to a geometric voxel and imported as a Geant4-acceptable input geometry file. In Geant4-Penelope MC simulation, a clinical 6 MV photon beam was applied, vertically or horizontally to the cell surface, and energy deposition to the cellular nucleus and cytoplasm, due to SEs emitted by internalized GNPs, was scored. Next, nDPK calculations were performed by generating virtual electron tracks from each GNP voxel to all nucleus and cytoplasm voxels. Subsequently, another set of Geant4 simulation was performed with both Penelope and DNA physics models under the geometry closely mimicking in vitro cell irradiation with a clinical 6 MV photon beam, allowing for derivation of nDPK specific to this geometry and further comparison between Gean4 simulation and nDPK method.

RESULTS

The Geant4-calculated SE tracks and associated energy depositions showed significant dependence on photon incidence angle. For perpendicular incidence, nDPK results showed good agreement (average percentage pixel-to-pixel difference of 0.4% for cytoplasm and 0.5% for nucleus) with Geant4 results, while, for parallel incidence, the agreement became worse (-1.7%-0.7% for cytoplasm and -5.5%-0.8% for nucleus). Under the 6 MV cell irradiation geometry, nDPK results showed reasonable agreement (pixel-to-pixel Pearson's product moment correlation coefficient of 0.91 for cytoplasm and 0.98 for nucleus) with Geant4 results.

CONCLUSIONS

The currently developed TEM-based model of a GNP-laden cell offers unprecedented details of realistic intracellular GNP distributions for nanoscopic computational investigations of GNP-mediated dose enhancement/radiosensitization. A benchmarking study performed with this model showed reasonable agreement between Geant4- and nDPK-calculated intracellular dose deposition by SEs emitted from internalized GNPs, especially under perpendicular incidence - a popular cell irradiation geometry and when the Geant4-Penelope physics model was used.

A simulation study on the effect of penetration of gold nanoparticles in the cytoplasm of healthy eye organs on dose enhancement of brachytherapy

PURPOSE

Special properties and recent advances in the synthesis and biomolecular functionalization of gold nanoparticles (GNPs) have led to the evolution of their use in biomedical applications such as photon radiotherapy. Simulation-based studies on the effect of various parameters that govern the dose enhancement due to utilizing GNPs have facilitated the progress of knowledge in this field. Due to their flexibility and easier accessibility compared with experimental works, simulations have the potential to be considered for pre-clinical tests and, therefore, should be close to the realistic conditions as much as possible.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

To this aim, the present work investigates the effect of the presence of GNPs that are accumulated in the cytoplasm of the constituent cells in healthy tissues of a human eye phantom, inspired by the published experimental results which report that non-target tissues also receive the drugs containing GNPs. The GNPs' concentrations are assumed to decrease by moving from the tumor toward the depth of the phantom through a suggested pattern. The MCNPX Monte Carlo code is used for the simulations.

RESULTS

The results show that for four concentrations tested, the dose enhancement factor in the shallower layer reaches 6, and decreases to 1.2 in the last layer. The dose enhancements are also examined for critical structures of the iris, cornea, sclera, and lens, showing maximum deviations of about 3 to 200% compared with the absence of GNPs in the healthy tissue. Considering the reported doses to the lens by clinical institutions, the effect of penetration of GNPs to deep layers on treatment time is also investigated.

CONCLUSIONS

The results show that the penetration of GNPs from the tumor toward healthy tissues strongly controls the dose enhancement over the various eye structures and emphasizes the importance of modeling the GNPs' distribution in the medium on the overall dose enhancement. Considering the current challenges in the clinical use of GNPs, more effort needs to be made to reach an effective endpoint in treatment.

Monte Carlo simulation of gold nanoparticles for X-ray enhancement application

BACKGROUND

Gold nanoparticles (Au NPs) are regarded as potential agents that enhance the radiosensitivity of tumor cells for theranostic applications. To elucidate the biological mechanisms of radiation dose enhancement effects of Au NPs as well as DNA damage attributable to the inclusion of Au NPs, Monte Carlo (MC) simulations have been deployed in a number of studies.

SCOPE OF REVIEW

This review paper concisely collates and reviews the information reported in the simulation research in terms of MC simulation of radiosensitization and dose enhancement effects caused by the inclusion of Au NPs in tumor cells, simulation mechanisms, benefits and limitations.

MAJOR CONCLUSIONS

In this review, we first explore the recent advances in MC simulation on Au NPs radiosensitization. The MC methods, physical dose enhancement and enhanced chemical and biological effects is discussed, followed by some results regarding the prediction of dose enhancement. We then review Multi-scale MC simulations of Au NP-induced DNA damages for X-ray irradiation. Moreover, we explain and look at Multi-scale MC simulations of Au NP-induced DNA damages for X-ray irradiation.

GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE

Using advanced chemical module-implemented MC simulations, there is a need to assess the radiation-induced chemical radicals that contribute to the dose-enhancing and biological effects of multiple Au NPs.

Gold Nanoparticles Enhancing Generation of ROS for Cs-137 Radiotherapy

Radiotherapy is an important modality for the treatment of cancer, e.g., X-ray, Cs-137 γ-ray (peak energy: 662 keV). An important therapy pathway of radiation is to generate the double strand breaks of DNA to prohibit the proliferation of cancer cells. In addition, the excessive amount of reactive oxygen species (ROS) is induced to damage the organelles, which can cause cellular apoptosis or necrosis. Gold nanoparticles (GNPs) have been proven potential as a radiosensitizer due to the high biocompatibility, the low cytotoxicity and the high-Z property (Z = 79) of gold. The latter property may allow GNPs to induce more secondary electrons for generating ROS in cells as irradiated by high-energy photons. In this paper, the radiobiological effects on A431 cells with uptake of 55-nm GNPs were studied to investigate the GNPs-enhanced production of ROS on these cells as irradiated by Cs-137 γ-ray. The fluorescence-labeling image of laser scanning confocal microscopy (LSCM) shows the excessive expression of ROS in these GNPs-uptake cells after irradiation. And then, the follow-up disruption of cytoskeletons and dysfunction of mitochondria caused by the induced ROS are observed. From the curves of cell survival fraction versus the radiation dose, the radiosensitization enhancement factor of GNPs is 1.29 at a survival fraction of 30%. This demonstrates that the tumoricidal efficacy of Cs-137 radiation can be significantly raised by GNPs. Because of facilitating the production of excessive ROS to damage tumor cells, GNPs are proven to be a prospective radiosensitizer for radiotherapy, particularly for the treatment of certain radioresistant tumor cells. Through this pathway, the tumoricidal efficacy of radiotherapy can be raised.

Nitro rotation tuned dissociative electron attachment upon targeted radiosensitizer 4-substituted Z bases

In this work, a set of new potential radiation sensitizers (4-substituted Z-bases: 4XZ, X = F, Cl, Br, and I) are designed based on the artificial 6-amino-5-nitro-3-(1'-β-D-2'-deoxyribofuranosyl)-2(1H)-pyridone (Z), which can selectively bind to breast cancer cells. The calculated electron affinities in water solution show that the halogenated Z-bases are efficient electron acceptors which possess significant electron-withdrawing characters following the order of 4XZ > Z ≫ U. To ensure the effective electron attachment induced dissociation, we constructed the energy profiles related to the X-C bond cleavage of neutral and anionic bases. The results show that the X-C bond becomes relatively weak after the electron attachment. In particular, the electron induced dehalogenations of (4BrZ)^- and (4IZ)^- are low-barrier and exothermic, which support a high radiosensitivity. Furthermore, we characterized the vibrational excitation effect on the dissociative electron attachment, which demonstrates that the charge distribution can be regulated by the rotation-induced structural distortion accompanied by the electron localization on the nitro group. Also examined is the influence of base pairing on the dehalogenation, which is not only conducive to the electron-driven dissociation but is also beneficial to the stabilization of related products. The current study suggests 4BrZ and 4IZ can be regarded as potential targeted radiosensitizers with possible applications in reducing the side effects in radiotherapy.

Quantification of gold nanoparticle photon radiosensitization from direct and indirect effects using a complete human genome single cell model based on Geant4

PURPOSE

To investigate the radiosensitization properties of gold nanoparticles (GNPs) and better understand the intricate deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) damage induction mechanisms involved in GNP-aided radiotherapy, a single cell model with complete human genome based on the Geant4 Monte Carlo toolkit was applied.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A Geant4-DNA model was implemented to simulate direct and indirect DNA damage generated in the physical and chemical stages. In the physical stage, a mixed-physics approach was taken by using Geant4-DNA in water and Livermore in gold. Water radiolysis was created posteriorly in the physicochemical and chemical stages to simulate indirect damage from reactions between DNA molecules and OH• radicals. A mono-energetic photon beam (100 keV) and two clinical photon sources (250-kVp, 6-MV flattening-filter free) were simulated for modeling the irradiation of a single cell with or without GNPs. In order to study the effects of GNP size on radiosensitization, 15, 30, and 100 nm GNPs were simulated. The effects of intracellular distribution were simulated using 90-nm GNPs with different characteristics of distribution within the cell. The time dependence of DNA damage enhancement was also studied with chemistry stage simulation end-time no larger than 10 ns.

RESULTS

Double strand break (DSB) enhancement due to direct and indirect action was quantified under different scenarios. Under realistic cellular uptake condition, the 100-nm GNPs had the most significant increase in DSBs: 40.9% and 28.5% for 100 keV and 250-kVp photon irradiation, respectively. The intracellular localization showed differing levels of radiosensitization with a maximum of 64%, 27%, and 6% DSB enhancements for 100 keV, 250-kVp, and 6-MV respectively, when 90-nm GNPs congregate around the nucleus.

CONCLUSION

The results indicate that photon energy, GNP size, and intracellular distribution play an important role in the enhancement of DSB from direct and indirect damage under scenarios close to cell experiments. The radiosensitization effects due to indirect damage are significant and should be considered carefully.

Application of High-Z Gold Nanoparticles in Targeted Cancer Radiotherapy-Pharmacokinetic Modeling, Monte Carlo Simulation and Radiobiological Effect Modeling

High-Z gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) conjugated to a targeting antibody can help to improve tumor control in radiotherapy while simultaneously minimizing radiotoxicity to adjacent healthy tissue. This paper summarizes the main findings of a joint research program which applied AuNP-conjugates in preclinical modeling of radiotherapy at the Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technical University of Munich and Helmholtz Zentrum München. A pharmacokinetic model of superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles was developed in preparation for a model simulating the uptake and distribution of AuNPs in mice. Multi-scale Monte Carlo simulations were performed on a single AuNP and multiple AuNPs in tumor cells at cellular and molecular levels to determine enhancements in the radiation dose and generation of chemical radicals in close proximity to AuNPs. A biologically based mathematical model was developed to predict the biological response of AuNPs in radiation enhancement. Although simulations of a single AuNP demonstrated a clear dose enhancement, simulations relating to the generation of chemical radicals and the induction of DNA strand breaks induced by multiple AuNPs showed only a minor dose enhancement. The differences in the simulated enhancements at molecular and cellular levels indicate that further investigations are necessary to better understand the impact of the physical, chemical, and biological parameters in preclinical experimental settings prior to a translation of these AuNPs models into targeted cancer radiotherapy.

Multi-scale Monte Carlo simulations of gold nanoparticle-induced DNA damages for kilovoltage X-ray irradiation in a xenograft mouse model using TOPAS-nBio

Background

Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) are considered as promising agents to increase the radiosensitivity of tumor cells. However, the biological mechanisms of radiation enhancement effects of AuNPs are still not well understood. We present a multi-scale Monte Carlo simulation framework within TOPAS-nBio to investigate the increase of DNA damage due to the presence of AuNPs in mouse tumor models.

Methods

A tumor was placed inside a voxel mouse model and irradiated with either 100 kVp or 200 kVp x-ray beams. Phase spaces were employed to transfer particles from the macroscopic (voxel) scale to the microscopic scale, which consists of a cell geometry including a detailed mouse DNA model. Radiosensitizing effects were calculated in the presence and absence of hybrid nanoparticles with a Fe2O3 core surrounded by a gold layer (AuFeNPs). To simulate DNA damage even for very small energy tracks, Geant4-DNA physics and chemistry models were used on microscopic scale.

Results

An AuFeNP induced enhancement of both dose and DNA strand breaks has been established for different scenarios. Produced chemical radicals including hydroxyl molecules, which were assumed to be responsible for DNA damage through chemical reactions, were found to be significantly increased. We further observed a dependency of the results on the location of the cells within the tumor for 200 kVp x-ray beams.

Conclusions

Our multi-scale approach allows to study irradiation induced physical and chemical effects on cells. We showed a potential increase in cell radiosensitization caused by relatively small concentrations of AuFeNPs. Our new methodology allows the individual adjustment of parameters in each simulation step and therefore can be used for other studies investigating the radiosensitizing effects of AuFeNPs or AuNPs in living cells.

Monte Carlo characterization of the gold nanoparticles dose enhancement and estimation of the physical interactions weight in dose enhancement mechanism

Radiosensitization of the cancer cells by the heavy atoms of nanoparticles was the subject of some studies. But, the physical characterization to determine the weight of all interactions hasn’t been made numerically. The aim of this study was to calculate and compare the dose enhancement (DE) for different energies. The Monte Carlo simulation method was used in the current study. The influence of gold nanoparticles (GNP) size, beam quality, the GNP concentration, and dose inhomogeneity on the radiosensitization by DE was studied. A 35% increase in the photoelectric effect was observed while energy decreased from 18 MV to 300 kV. In the microscopic study which DE calculated in 30 µm from a single GNP, a 79% decreasing in DE within the first 1µm was seen and it declined to 2% in 30 µm from the GNP center. The effect was observed at small distances only. Our study revealed that the dose inhomogeneity around a nanoparticle is the main and very strong effect of DE on a macroscopic scale. In the location which 35% DE occurs most malignant cells survival will be effectively reduced. Our research indicates the need for further research.

Advancements in the use of Auger electrons in science and medicine during the period 2015-2019

Auger electrons can be highly radiotoxic when they are used to irradiate specific molecular sites. This has spurred basic science investigations of their radiobiological effects and clinical investigations of their potential for therapy. Focused symposia on the biophysical aspects of Auger processes have been held quadrennially. This 9th International Symposium on Physical, Molecular, Cellular, and Medical Aspects of Auger Processes at Oxford University brought together scientists from many different fields to review past findings, discuss the latest studies, and plot the future work to be done. This review article examines the research in this field that was published during the years 2015-2019 which corresponds to the period since the last meeting in Japan. In addition, this article points to future work yet to be done. There have been a plethora of advancements in our understanding of Auger processes. These advancements range from basic atomic and molecular physics to new ways to implement Auger electron emitters in radiopharmaceutical therapy. The highly localized doses of radiation that are deposited within a 10 nm of the decay site make them precision tools for discovery across the physical, chemical, biological, and medical sciences.

Advances in Gold Nanoparticle-Based Combined Cancer Therapy

According to the global cancer observatory (GLOBOCAN), there are approximately 18 million new cancer cases per year worldwide. Cancer therapies are largely limited to surgery, radiotherapy, and chemotherapy. In radiotherapy and chemotherapy, the maximum tolerated dose is presently being used to treat cancer patients. The integrated development of innovative nanoparticle (NP) based approaches will be a key to address one of the main issues in both radiotherapy and chemotherapy: normal tissue toxicity. Among other inorganic NP systems, gold nanoparticle (GNP) based systems offer the means to further improve chemotherapy through controlled delivery of chemotherapeutics, while local radiotherapy dose can be enhanced by targeting the GNPs to the tumor. There have been over 20 nanotechnology-based therapeutic products approved for clinical use in the past two decades. Hence, the goal of this review is to understand what we have achieved so far and what else we can do to accelerate clinical use of GNP-based therapeutic platforms to minimize normal tissue toxicity while increasing the efficacy of the treatment. Nanomedicine will revolutionize future cancer treatment options and our ultimate goal should be to develop treatments that have minimum side effects, for improving the quality of life of all cancer patients.

Distribution modeling of nanoparticles for brachytherapy of human eye tumor

BACKGROUND

Due to their unique properties, gold nanoparticles (GNPs) have been proposed to be used for a wide range of applications, especially for photon radiation therapy. In addition to experimental works, there are worthwhile simulation-based studies focused on the investigation of the effect of parameters governing the dose enhancement due to the presence of GNPs in tissue. In a recently published study, we found that the distribution of GNPs in a single cell plays an important role in nucleus dose enhancement.

METHODS

The present work investigates the sensitivity of dose enhancement of a macroscopic phantom to the modeling of GNPs at the cellular level by using the MCNPX Monte Carlo code. A human eye phantom containing the realistic structures and materials was simulated, with a typical tumor located in its corner filled with three different patterns of distribution of GNPs around the nuclei of the cells. The primary photons emit from a COMS eye plaque brachytherapy containing thirteen ¹³¹Cs seeds in the vicinity of the tumor.

RESULTS

The study was extended to estimate dose enhancement for various concentration, size, and density of the GNPs accumulated around the nuclei of the tumor. Moreover, the dose delivered to the healthy eye structures for different models has been investigated and discussed. The results show obvious differences between the dose enhancements in the tumor depending on the modeling of GNPs.

CONCLUSION

The results emphasized that an appropriate small-scale model for the distribution of GNPs in the cell would be of high importance to estimate the degree of dose enhancement in a macroscopic phantom to provide a trustworthy prediction to move towards clinical application.

Mechanisms of nanoparticle radiosensitization

Metal-based nanoparticles applied to potentiating the effects of radiotherapy have drawn significant attention from the research community and are now available clinically. By improving our mechanistic understanding, nanoparticles are likely to evolve to provide very significant improvements in radiotherapy outcomes with only incremental increase in cost. This review critically assesses the inconsistent observations surrounding physical, physicochemical, chemical and biological mechanisms of radiosensitization. In doing so, a number of needs are identified for continuing research and are highlighted. The large degree of variability from one nanoparticle to another emphasizes that it is a mistake to generalize nanoparticle radiosensitizer mechanisms. Nanoparticle formulations should be considered in an analogous way as pharmacological agents and as a broad class of therapeutic agents, needing to be considered with a high degree of individuality with respect to their interactions and ultimate impact on radiobiological response. In the same way that no universal anti-cancer drug exists, it is unlikely that a single nanoparticle formulation will lead to the best therapeutic outcomes for all cancers. The high degree of complexity and variability in mechanistic action provides notable opportunities for nanoparticle formulations to be optimized for specific indications. This article is categorized under: Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Emerging Technologies Nanotechnology Approaches to Biology > Nanoscale Systems in Biology.

Influence of a shape of gold nanoparticles on the dose enhancement in the wide range of gold mass concentration for high-energy X-ray beams from a medical linac

Aim

This work is focused on the Monte Carlo microdosimetric calculations taking into account the influence of the AuNPs' shape, size and mass concentration on the radiation dose enhancement for the high-energy 6 MV and 18 MV X-ray therapeutic beams from a medical linac.

Background

Due to a high atomic number and the photoelectric effect, gold nanoparticles can significantly enhance doses of ionizing radiation. However, this enhancement depends upon several parameters, such as, inter alia, nanoparticles' shape etc.

Method

The simulated system was composed of the therapeutic beam, a water phantom with the target volume (with and without AuNPs) located at the depth of the maximum dose, i.e. at 1.5 cm for the 6 MV beam and at 3.5 cm for the 18 MV one. In the study the GEANT4 code was used because it makes it possible to get a very short step of simulation which is required in case of simulating the radiation interactions with nanostructures.

Results

The dependence between the dose increase and the mass concentration of gold was determined and described by a simple mathematical formula for three different shapes of gold nanoparticles - two nanorods of different sizes and a flat 2D structure. The dose increase with the saturation occurring with the increasing mass concentration of gold was observed.

Conclusions

It was found that relatively large cylindrical gold nanoparticles can limit the increase of the dose absorbed in the target volume much more than the large 2D gold nanostructure.

Low energy (6-18 eV) electron scattering from condensed thymidine (dT) III: absolute electronic excitation cross sections

Absolute cross sections (CSs) for electronic excitation by low-energy electron (LEE) scattering, from condensed thymidine (dT) in the 6-18 eV incident energy range, were measured by high-resolution electron energy loss spectroscopy (HREELS). Various electron energy loss (EEL) spectra were acquired using 1 ML of dT condensed on a multilayer film of Ar held at about 20 K under ultra-high vacuum (∼1 × 10-11 Torr). dT is one of the most complex DNA constituents to be studied by HREELS and these spectra provide the first LEE energy-loss data for electronic excitation of a nucleoside. CSs for transitions to the states 13A', 13A'', 23A', 21A', 33A', 23A'', 43A', 33A'', 53A' and 51A' of dT were extracted from the EEL spectra. These states correlate to those previously measured for the thymine moiety. Two broad resonances are observed in the energy dependence of the CSs at around 8 and 10 eV; these energies are close to those found in earlier gas- and solid-phase studies on the interaction of LEEs with dT, thymine and related molecules. A quantitative comparison between the electronic CSs of dT and those of thymine and tetrahydrofuran indicates that no variation is induced in the electronic CSs of thymine upon chemically binding to a deoxyribose group.

Systematic quantification of nanoscopic dose enhancement of gold nanoparticles in ion beams

High-Z material nanoparticles are being studied as localized dose enhancers in radiotherapeutic applications. Here, the nano-scale physical dose enhancement of proton, carbon and oxygen ion beam radiation by gold nanoparticles was studied by means of Monte Carlo track structure simulation with the TRAX code. We present 2D distributions and radial profiles of the additional dose and the dose enhancement factor for two geometries which consider an isolated and a water-embedded nanoparticle, respectively. Different nanoparticle sizes (radius of 1.2-22 nm) were found to yield qualitatively different absolute and relative dose enhancement distributions and different maximum dose enhancement factors (up to 20). Whereas the smallest nanoparticles produced the highest local dose enhancement factor close to the metal, larger ones led to lower, more diffuse dose enhancement factors that contributed more at larger distances. Differential absorption effects inside the metal were found to be responsible for those characteristics. For the energy range 15-204 MeVu^-1, also a mild trend with ion E/A, regardless of the ion species, was found for embedded nanoparticles. In analogy to the width of the ion track itself, slower ions increased the enhancement at the nanoparticle surface. In contrast, no dependence on linear energy transfer was encountered. For slower ions (3-10 MeVu^-1), the enhancement effect began to break down over all distances. Finally, the significance of any indirect physical effect was excluded, giving important hints especially in view of the low probabilities (at realistic concentrations and fluences) of direct ion-NP-hits. The very localized nature of the physical dose enhancement found suggests a strong action upon targets closeby, but no relevant effect at cellular distances. When pondering different possible damage enhancement mechanisms of gold nanoparticles in the context of published in vitro and in vivo experimental results, biological pathways are likely to play the key role.

Intercomparison of dose enhancement ratio and secondary electron spectra for gold nanoparticles irradiated by X-rays calculated using multiple Monte Carlo simulation codes

PURPOSE

Targeted radiation therapy has seen an increased interest in the past decade. In vitro and in vivo experiments showed enhanced radiation doses due to gold nanoparticles (GNPs) to tumors in mice and demonstrated a high potential for clinical application. However, finding a functionalized molecular formulation for actively targeting GNPs in tumor cells is challenging. Furthermore, the enhanced energy deposition by secondary electrons around GNPs, particularly by short-ranged Auger electrons is difficult to measure. Computational models, such as Monte Carlo (MC) radiation transport codes, have been used to estimate the physical quantities and effects of GNPs. However, as these codes differ from one to another, the reliability of physical and dosimetric quantities needs to be established at cellular and molecular levels, so that the subsequent biological effects can be assessed quantitatively.

METHODS

In this work, irradiation of single GNPs of 50 nm and 100 nm diameter by X-ray spectra generated by 50 and 100 peak kilovoltages was simulated for a defined geometry setup, by applying multiple MC codes in the EURADOS framework.

RESULTS

The mean dose enhancement ratio of the first 10 nm-thick water shell around a 100 nm GNP ranges from 400 for 100 kVp X-rays to 600 for 50 kVp X-rays with large uncertainty factors up to 2.3.

CONCLUSIONS

It is concluded that the absolute dose enhancement effects have large uncertainties and need an inter-code intercomparison for a high quality assurance; relative properties may be a better measure until more experimental data is available to constrain the models.

Enhanced melanoma cell-killing by combined phototherapy/radiotherapy using a mesoporous platinum nanostructure

BACKGROUND

Metal nanomaterials have a significant potential as photosensitizer and radiosensitizer. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the cytotoxicity of a platinum mesoporous nanostructure (Pt MN) toward a melanoma cancer cell line upon combined laser radiation (808 nm, 1 and 1.5 W cm^-2) and X-ray irradiation (6 MV, 2, 4, and 6 Gy).

METHODS

Pt MN was synthesized by a simple procedure and characterized by field emission scanning and transmission electron microscopy. A mouse malignant melanoma cell line C540 (B16/F10) was treated with Pt MN, laser light and/or X-ray.

RESULTS

Pt MN had a mesoporous structure with a sponge-resemble shape comprised of ensembles of very small adhered particles of <11 nm and about 5-nm pores. While Pt MN represented a low toxicity toward and considerable uptake into the cell line in a concentration range of 10-100 μg mL^-1, laser light radiation alone was also not toxic, and X-ray irradiation alone induced a limited toxicity, Pt MN was toxic against the cells in a dose dependent manner upon laser light radiation, X-ray irradiation, or their combined exposure. The killing efficacy of Pt MN upon X-ray irradiation was more obvious at 72 h post-treatment. The combined exposure (laser radiation followed by X-ray irradiation) led to a deep cell killing and a very low melanoma cell viability (∼1%). Significant melanoma cancer cell killing of Pt MN was due to reactive oxygen species (ROS) production upon combined exposure of laser and X-ray, while cell killing upon laser light radiation was due to heat generation.

CONCLUSION

Pt MN was introduced as a supreme laser/X-ray sensitizer for treatment of cancer with a high ability to produce ROS and a potent impact on decreasing cell viability.

Radio-enhancement by gold nanoparticles and their impact on water radiolysis for x-ray, proton and carbon-ion beams

Gold nanoparticle (GNP) radio-enhancement is a promising technique to increase the dose deposition in a tumor while sparing neighboring healthy tissue. Previous experimental studies showed effects on cell survival and tumor control for keV x-rays but surprisingly also for MV-photons, proton and carbon-ion beams. In a systematic study, we use the Monte Carlo simulation tool TOPAS-nBio to model the GNP radio-enhancement within a cell as a function of GNP concentration, size and clustering for a wide range of energies for photons, protons and, for the first time, carbon-ions. Moreover, we include water radiolysis, which has been recognized as a major pathway of GNP mediated radio-enhancement. At a GNP concentration of 0.5% and a GNP diameter of 10 nm, the dose enhancement ratio was highest for 50 keV x-rays (1.36) and decreased in the orthovoltage (1.04 at 250 keV) and megavoltage range (1.01 at 1 MeV). The dose enhancement linearly increased with GNP concentration and decreased with GNP size and degree of clustering for all radiation modalities. While the highest physical dose enhancement at 5% concentrations was only 1.003 for 10 MeV protons and 1.004 for 100 MeV carbon-ions, we find the number of hydroxyl ([Formula: see text]) altered by 23% and 3% after 1 [Formula: see text]s at low, clinically-relevant concentrations. For the same concentration and proton-impact, the G-value is most sensitive to the nanoparticle size with 46 times more radical interactions at GNPs for 2 nm than for 50 nm GNP diameter within 1 [Formula: see text]s. Nanoparticle clustering was found to decrease the number of interactions at GNPs, e.g. for a cluster of 25 GNPs by a factor of 3.4. The changes in G-value correlate to the average distance between the chemical species and the GNPs. While the radiochemistry of GNP-loaded water has yet to be fully understood, this work offers a first relative quantification of radiolysis products for a broad parameter-set.

A Monte Carlo study on the radio-sensitization effect of gold nanoparticles in brachytherapy of prostate by 103Pd seeds

103Pd seed is being used for prostate brachytherapy. Additionally, the dose enhancement effect of gold nanoparticles (GNP) has been reported in previous studies. The aim of this study was to characterize the dosimetric effect of gold nanoparticles in brachytherapy with a 103Pd source. Two brachytherapy seeds including 103 Pd source was simulated using MCNPX Monte Carlo code. The seeds’ models were validated by comparing the MC with reported results. Then, GNPs (10 nm in diameter) with a concentration of 7mg Au/g were simulated uniformly inside the prostate of a humanoid computational phantom. Additionally, the dose enhancement factor (DEF) of nanoparticles was calculated for both modeled brachytherapy seeds. A good agreement was found between the MC calculated and the reported dosimetric parameters. For both seeds, an average DEF of 23% was obtained in tumor volume for prostate brachytherapy. The application of GNPs in conjunction with 103Pd seed in brachytherapy can enhance the delivered dose to the tumor and consequently leads to better treatment outcome.

AN ALGORITHM TO DETERMINE THE NANODOSIMETRIC IMPACT OF GOLD NANOPARTICLES ON CELL MODELS

High-Z nanomaterials, e.g. gold nanoparticles (GNPs), are being investigated worldwide for potential application in radiation imaging and therapy. Photon irradiation of cells containing GNP was shown to produce enhanced DNA damage which is believed to be related to the increased secondary electron (SE) yield and ionization density. In this work, an algorithm was developed for simulating the physical radiation damage inside the nucleus of a spherical cell model for the case of uniformly distributed GNPs within the cytoplasm. Previously calculated energy spectra of SE emerging from a single NP irradiated with different photon sources are used as input to obtain the SE energy spectrum at the surface of the cell nucleus. In a second step, the SE transport inside the cell nucleus is simulated with a track structure Monte Carlo code to obtain the spatial distribution of ionizations. The preliminary results presented here show that the developed algorithm allows for a fast calculation of the SE spectra at the cell nucleus surface, thus enabling a more realistic assessment of the ionization density inside the cell nucleus than that obtained by the simulation of a single GNP. Furthermore, the algorithm can be easily adapted to investigate both the effect of GNP clustering and the impact of GNP-GNP interactions on SE spectra.

Evaluation of dose point kernel rescaling methods for nanoscale dose estimation around gold nanoparticles using Geant4 Monte Carlo simulations

The absence of proper nanoscale experimental techniques to investigate the dose-enhancing properties of gold nanoparticles (GNPs) interacting with radiation has prompted the development of various Monte Carlo (MC)-based nanodosimetry techniques that generally require considerable computational knowledge, time and specific tools/platforms. Thus, this study investigated a hybrid computational framework, based on the electron dose point kernel (DPK) method, by combining Geant4 MC simulations with an analytical approach. This hybrid framework was applied to estimate the dose distributions around GNPs due to the secondary electrons emitted from GNPs irradiated by various photon sources. Specifically, the equivalent path length approximation was used to rescale the homogeneous DPKs for heterogeneous GNPs embedded in water/tissue. Compared with Geant4 simulations, the hybrid framework halved calculation time while utilizing fewer computer resources, and also resulted in mean discrepancies less than 20 and 5% for Yb-169 and 6 MV photon irradiation, respectively. Its appropriateness and computational efficiency in handling more complex cases were also demonstrated using an example derived from a transmission electron microscopy image of a cancer cell containing internalized GNPs. Overall, the currently proposed hybrid computational framework can be a practical alternative to full-fledged MC simulations, benefiting a wide range of GNP- and radiation-related applications.

Gold Nanoparticles in Radiotherapy and Recent Progress in Nanobrachytherapy

Over the last few decades, gold nanoparticles (GNPs) have emerged as "radiosensitizers" in oncology. Radiosensitizers are additives that can enhance the effects of radiation on biological tissues treated with radiotherapy. The interaction of photons with GNPs leads to the emission of low-energy and short-range secondary electrons, which in turn increase the dose deposited in tissues. In this context, GNPs are the subject of intensive theoretical and experimental studies aiming at optimizing the parameters leading to greater dose enhancement and highest therapeutic effect. This review describes the main mechanisms occurring between photons and GNPs that lead to dose enhancement. The outcome of theoretical simulations of the interactions between GNPs and photons is presented. Finally, the findings of the most recent in vivo studies about interactions between GNPs and photon sources (e.g., external beams, brachytherapy sources, and molecules labeled with radioisotopes) are described. The advantages and challenges inherent to each of these approaches are discussed. Future directions, providing new guidelines for the successful translation of GNPs into clinical applications, are also highlighted.

Intratumoral Injection of Low-Energy Photon-Emitting Gold Nanoparticles: A Microdosimetric Monte Carlo-Based Model

Gold nanoparticles (Au NPs) distributed in the vicinity of low-dose rate (LDR) brachytherapy seeds could multiply their efficacy thanks to the secondary emissions induced by the photoelectric effect. Injections of radioactive LDR gold nanoparticles (LDR Au NPs), instead of conventional millimeter-size radioactive seeds surrounded by Au NPs, could further enhance the dose by distributing the radioactivity more precisely and homogeneously in tumors. However, the potential of LDR Au NPs as an emerging strategy to treat cancer is strongly dependent on the macroscopic diffusion of the NPs in tumors, as well as on their microscopic internalization within the cells. Understanding the relationship between interstitial and intracellular distribution of NPs, and the outcomes of dose deposition in the cancer tissue is essential for considering future applications of radioactive Au NPs in oncology. Here, LDR Au NPs (¹⁰³Pd:Pd@Au-PEG NPs) were injected in prostate cancer tumors. The particles were visualized at time-points by computed tomography imaging ( in vivo), transmission electron microscopy ( ex vivo), and optical microscopy ( ex vivo). These data were used in a Monte Carlo-based dosimetric model to reveal the dose deposition produced by LDR Au NPs both at tumoral and cellular scales. ¹⁰³Pd:Pd@Au-PEG NPs injected in tumors produce a strong dose enhancement at the intracellular level. However, energy deposition is mainly confined around vesicles filled with NPs, and not necessarily close to the nuclei. This suggests that indirect damage caused by the production of reactive oxygen species might be the leading therapeutic mechanism of tumor growth control, over direct damage to the DNA.

Modelling direct DNA damage for gold nanoparticle enhanced proton therapy

Gold nanoparticles have been proven as potential radiosensitizer when combined with protons. Initially the radiosensitization effect was attributed to the physical interactions of radiation with the gold and the production of secondary electrons that induce DNA damage. However, emerging data challenge this hypothesis, supporting the existence of alternative or supplementary radiosensitization mechanisms. In this work we incorporate a realistic cell model with detailed DNA geometry and a realistic gold nanoparticle biodistribution based on experimental data. The DNA single and double strand breaks, and damage complexity are counted under various scenarios of different gold nanoparticle size, biodistribution and concentration, and proton energy. The locality of the effect, i.e. the existence of higher damage at a location close to the gold distribution, is also addressed by investigating the DNA damage at a chromosomal territory. In all the cases we do not observe any significant increase in the single/double strand break yield or damage complexity in the presence of gold nanoparticles under proton irradiation; nor there is a locality to the effect. Our results show for the first time that the physical interactions of protons with the gold nanoparticles should not be considered directly responsible for the observed radiosensitization effect. The model used only accounts for DNA damage from direct interactions, whilst considering the indirect effect, and it is possible the radiosensitization effect to be due to other physical effects, although we consider that possibility unlikely. Our conclusion suggests that other mechanisms might have greater contribution to the radiosensitization effect and further investigation should be conducted.

Biological mechanisms of gold nanoparticle radiosensitization

There has been growing interest in the use of nanomaterials for a range of biomedical applications over the last number of years. In particular, gold nanoparticles (GNPs) possess a number of unique properties that make them ideal candidates as radiosensitizers on the basis of their strong photoelectric absorption coefficient and ease of synthesis. However, despite promising preclinical evidence in vitro supported by a limited amount of in vivo experiments, along with advances in mechanistic understanding, GNPs have not yet translated into the clinic. This may be due to disparity between predicted levels of radiosensitization based on physical action, observed biological response and an incomplete mechanistic understanding, alongside current experimental limitations. This paper provides a review of the current state of the field, highlighting the potential underlying biological mechanisms in GNP radiosensitization and examining the barriers to clinical translation.

Targeted nanoparticles for tumour radiotherapy enhancement-the long dawn of a golden era?

Despite considerable progress in (I) our understanding of the aetiopathology of head and neck cancer and (II) the precise delivery of radiotherapy, long-term survival rates for many patients with head and neck cancer remain disappointingly low. Over the past years, gold nanoparticles (NP) have emerged as promising radiation dose enhancers. In a recent study published in Nanoscale, Popovtzer et al. have used gold NP coated with an antibody against the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) in an attempt to enhance radiation-induced tumour cell killing in a head and neck cancer xenograft model. They report a significant impact of the combined treatment with radiation and gold NP on tumour growth and suggest an involvement of apoptosis, inhibition of angiogenesis and diminished tissue repair. In this perspective, we illustrate the underlying radiobiophysical concepts and discuss some of the challenges associated with this and related nanoparticle-radiotherapy studies from a physics, chemistry, biology and therapy angle. We conclude that strong interdisciplinary collaborations spanning all these areas are crucially important to proceed towards effective cancer treatment with gold NP "from bench to bedside".