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Green TRF, Carey SD, Mannino G, Craig JA, Rowe RK, Zielinski MR. Sleep, inflammation, and hemodynamics in rodent models of traumatic brain injury. Front Neurosci 2024; 18:1361014. [PMID: 38426017 PMCID: PMC10903352 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2024.1361014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2023] [Accepted: 01/29/2024] [Indexed: 03/02/2024] Open
Abstract
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) can induce dysregulation of sleep. Sleep disturbances include hypersomnia and hyposomnia, sleep fragmentation, difficulty falling asleep, and altered electroencephalograms. TBI results in inflammation and altered hemodynamics, such as changes in blood brain barrier permeability and cerebral blood flow. Both inflammation and altered hemodynamics, which are known sleep regulators, contribute to sleep impairments post-TBI. TBIs are heterogenous in cause and biomechanics, which leads to different molecular and symptomatic outcomes. Animal models of TBI have been developed to model the heterogeneity of TBIs observed in the clinic. This review discusses the intricate relationship between sleep, inflammation, and hemodynamics in pre-clinical rodent models of TBI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tabitha R. F. Green
- Department of Integrative Physiology, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, United States
| | - Sean D. Carey
- Veterans Affairs (VA) Boston Healthcare System, West Roxbury, MA, United States
- Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, West Roxbury, MA, United States
| | - Grant Mannino
- Department of Integrative Physiology, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, United States
| | - John A. Craig
- Veterans Affairs (VA) Boston Healthcare System, West Roxbury, MA, United States
| | - Rachel K. Rowe
- Department of Integrative Physiology, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, United States
| | - Mark R. Zielinski
- Veterans Affairs (VA) Boston Healthcare System, West Roxbury, MA, United States
- Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, West Roxbury, MA, United States
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2
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Kundu S, Singh S. What Happens in TBI? A Wide Talk on Animal Models and Future Perspective. Curr Neuropharmacol 2023; 21:1139-1164. [PMID: 35794772 PMCID: PMC10286592 DOI: 10.2174/1570159x20666220706094248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2022] [Revised: 05/05/2022] [Accepted: 05/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a global healthcare concern and a leading cause of death. The most common causes of TBI include road accidents, sports injuries, violence in warzones, and falls. TBI induces neuronal cell death independent of age, gender, and genetic background. TBI survivor patients often experience long-term behavioral changes like cognitive and emotional changes. TBI affects social activity, reducing the quality and duration of life. Over the last 40 years, several rodent models have been developed to mimic different clinical outcomes of human TBI for a better understanding of pathophysiology and to check the efficacy of drugs used for TBI. However, promising neuroprotective approaches that have been used preclinically have been found to be less beneficial in clinical trials. So, there is an urgent need to find a suitable animal model for establishing a new therapeutic intervention useful for TBI. In this review, we have demonstrated the etiology of TBI and post- TBI social life alteration, and also discussed various preclinical TBI models of rodents, zebrafish, and drosophila.
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Affiliation(s)
- Satyabrata Kundu
- Department of Pharmacology, ISF College of Pharmacy, Moga, Punjab, India
| | - Shamsher Singh
- Department of Pharmacology, ISF College of Pharmacy, Moga, Punjab, India
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3
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Mohammed FS, Omay SB, Sheth KN, Zhou J. Nanoparticle-based drug delivery for the treatment of traumatic brain injury. Expert Opin Drug Deliv 2023; 20:55-73. [PMID: 36420918 PMCID: PMC9983310 DOI: 10.1080/17425247.2023.2152001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2022] [Revised: 10/10/2022] [Accepted: 11/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Traumatic brain injuries (TBIs) impact the breadth of society and remain without any approved pharmacological treatments. Despite successful Phase II clinical trials, the failure of many Phase III clinical trials may be explained by insufficient drug targeting and retention, preventing the proper attainment of an observable dosage threshold. To address this challenge, nanoparticles can be functionalized to protect pharmacological payloads, improve targeted drug delivery to sites of injury, and can be combined with supportive scaffolding to improve secondary outcomes. AREAS COVERED This review briefly covers the pathophysiology of TBIs and their subtypes, the current pre-clinical and clinical management strategies, explores the common models of focal, diffuse, and mixed traumatic brain injury employed in experimental animals, and surveys the existing literature on nanoparticles developed to treat TBIs. EXPERT OPINION Nanoparticles are well suited to improve secondary outcomes as their multifunctionality and customizability enhance their potential for efficient targeted delivery, payload protection, increased brain penetration, low off-target toxicity, and biocompatibility in both acute and chronic timescales.
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Affiliation(s)
- Farrah S. Mohammed
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - Sacit Bulent Omay
- Department of Neurosurgery, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - Kevin N. Sheth
- Department of Neurosurgery, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
- Department of Neurology, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - Jiangbing Zhou
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
- Department of Neurosurgery, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
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Snapper DM, Reginauld B, Liaudanskaya V, Fitzpatrick V, Kim Y, Georgakoudi I, Kaplan DL, Symes AJ. Development of a novel bioengineered 3D brain-like tissue for studying primary blast-induced traumatic brain injury. J Neurosci Res 2023; 101:3-19. [PMID: 36200530 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.25123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2022] [Revised: 08/04/2022] [Accepted: 08/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Primary blast injury is caused by the direct impact of an overpressurization wave on the body. Due to limitations of current models, we have developed a novel approach to study primary blast-induced traumatic brain injury. Specifically, we employ a bioengineered 3D brain-like human tissue culture system composed of collagen-infused silk protein donut-like hydrogels embedded with human IPSC-derived neurons, human astrocytes, and a human microglial cell line. We have utilized this system within an advanced blast simulator (ABS) to expose the 3D brain cultures to a blast wave that can be precisely controlled. These 3D cultures are enclosed in a 3D-printed surrogate skull-like material containing media which are then placed in a holder apparatus inside the ABS. This allows for exposure to the blast wave alone without any secondary injury occurring. We show that blast induces an increase in lactate dehydrogenase activity and glutamate release from the cultures, indicating cellular injury. Additionally, we observe a significant increase in axonal varicosities after blast. These varicosities can be stained with antibodies recognizing amyloid precursor protein. The presence of amyloid precursor protein deposits may indicate a blast-induced axonal transport deficit. After blast injury, we find a transient release of the known TBI biomarkers, UCHL1 and NF-H at 6 h and a delayed increase in S100B at 24 and 48 h. This in vitro model will enable us to gain a better understanding of clinically relevant pathological changes that occur following primary blast and can also be utilized for discovery and characterization of biomarkers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dustin M Snapper
- Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Therapeutics, Uniformed Services University, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Bianca Reginauld
- Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Therapeutics, Uniformed Services University, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Volha Liaudanskaya
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Tufts University, Medford, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Vincent Fitzpatrick
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Tufts University, Medford, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Yeonho Kim
- Preclinical Behavior and Modeling Core, Uniformed Services University, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Irene Georgakoudi
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Tufts University, Medford, Massachusetts, USA
| | - David L Kaplan
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Tufts University, Medford, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Aviva J Symes
- Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Therapeutics, Uniformed Services University, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
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5
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Billig AJ, Lad M, Sedley W, Griffiths TD. The hearing hippocampus. Prog Neurobiol 2022; 218:102326. [PMID: 35870677 PMCID: PMC10510040 DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2022.102326] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2022] [Revised: 06/08/2022] [Accepted: 07/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The hippocampus has a well-established role in spatial and episodic memory but a broader function has been proposed including aspects of perception and relational processing. Neural bases of sound analysis have been described in the pathway to auditory cortex, but wider networks supporting auditory cognition are still being established. We review what is known about the role of the hippocampus in processing auditory information, and how the hippocampus itself is shaped by sound. In examining imaging, recording, and lesion studies in species from rodents to humans, we uncover a hierarchy of hippocampal responses to sound including during passive exposure, active listening, and the learning of associations between sounds and other stimuli. We describe how the hippocampus' connectivity and computational architecture allow it to track and manipulate auditory information - whether in the form of speech, music, or environmental, emotional, or phantom sounds. Functional and structural correlates of auditory experience are also identified. The extent of auditory-hippocampal interactions is consistent with the view that the hippocampus makes broad contributions to perception and cognition, beyond spatial and episodic memory. More deeply understanding these interactions may unlock applications including entraining hippocampal rhythms to support cognition, and intervening in links between hearing loss and dementia.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Meher Lad
- Translational and Clinical Research Institute, Newcastle University Medical School, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - William Sedley
- Translational and Clinical Research Institute, Newcastle University Medical School, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Timothy D Griffiths
- Biosciences Institute, Newcastle University Medical School, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK; Wellcome Centre for Human Neuroimaging, UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, University College London, London, UK; Human Brain Research Laboratory, Department of Neurosurgery, University of Iowa Hospitals and Clinics, Iowa City, USA
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6
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Animal model of repeated low-level blast traumatic brain injury displays acute and chronic neurobehavioral and neuropathological changes. Exp Neurol 2021; 349:113938. [PMID: 34863680 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2021.113938] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2021] [Revised: 11/04/2021] [Accepted: 11/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Blast-induced neurotrauma (BINT) is not only a signature injury to soldiers in combat field and training facilities but may also a growing concern in civilian population due to recent increases in the use of improvised explosives by insurgent groups. Unlike moderate or severe BINT, repeated low-level blast (rLLB) is different in its etiology as well as pathology. Due to the constant use of heavy weaponry as part of combat readiness, rLLB usually occurs in service members undergoing training as part of combat readiness. rLLB does not display overt pathological symptoms; however, earlier studies report chronic neurocognitive changes such as altered mood, irritability, and aggressive behavior, all of which may be caused by subtle neuropathological manifestations. Current animal models of rLLB for investigation of neurobehavioral and neuropathological alterations have not been adequate and do not sufficiently represent rLLB conditions. Here, we developed a rat model of rLLB by applying controlled low-level blast pressures (<10 psi) repeated successively five times to mimic the pressures experienced by service members. Using this model, we assessed anxiety-like symptoms, motor coordination, and short-term memory as a function of time. We also examined levels of superoxide-producing enzyme NADPH oxidase, microglial activation, and reactive astrocytosis as factors likely contributing to these neurobehavioral changes. Animals exposed to rLLB displayed acute and chronic anxiety-like symptoms, motor and short-term memory impairments. These changes were paralleled by increased microglial activation and reactive astrocytosis. Conversely, animals exposed to a single low-level blast did not display significant changes. Collectively, this study demonstrates that, unlike a single low-level blast, rLLB exerts a cumulative impact on different brain regions and produces chronic neuropathological changes in so doing, may be responsible for neurobehavioral alterations.
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Arun P, Rossetti F, Eken O, Wilder DM, Wang Y, Long JB. Phosphorylated Neurofilament Heavy Chain in the Cerebrospinal Fluid Is a Suitable Biomarker of Acute and Chronic Blast-Induced Traumatic Brain Injury. J Neurotrauma 2021; 38:2801-2810. [PMID: 34210150 DOI: 10.1089/neu.2021.0144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Blast-induced traumatic brain injury (bTBI) has been documented as a significant concern for both military and civilian populations in response to the increased use of improvised explosive devices. Identifying biomarkers that could aid in the proper diagnosis and assessment of both acute and chronic bTBI is in urgent need since little progress has been made towards this goal. Addressing this knowledge gap is especially important in military veterans who are receiving assessment and care often years after their last blast exposure. Neuron-specific phosphorylated neurofilament heavy chain protein (pNFH) has been successfully evaluated as a reliable biomarker of different neurological disorders, as well as brain trauma resulting from contact sports and acute stages of brain injury of different origin. In the present study, we have evaluated the utility of pNFH levels measured in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) as an acute and chronic biomarker of brain injury resulting from single and tightly coupled repeated blast exposures using experimental rats. The pNFH levels increased at 24 h, returned to normal levels at 1 month, but increased again at 6 months and 1 year post-blast exposures. No significant changes were observed between single and repeated blast-exposed groups. To determine whether the observed increase of pNFH in CSF corresponded with its levels in the brain, we performed fluorescence immunohistochemistry in different brain regions at the four time-points evaluated. We observed decreased pNFH levels in those brain areas at 24 h, 6 months, and 1 year. The results suggest that blast exposure causes axonal degeneration at acute and chronic stages resulting in the release of pNFH, the abundant neuronal cytoskeletal protein. Moreover, the changes in pNFH levels in the CSF negatively correlated with the neurobehavioral functions in the rats, reinforcing suggestions that CSF levels of pNFH can be a suitable biomarker of bTBI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peethambaran Arun
- Blast-Induced Neurotrauma Branch, Center for Military Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
| | - Franco Rossetti
- Blast-Induced Neurotrauma Branch, Center for Military Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
| | - Ondine Eken
- Blast-Induced Neurotrauma Branch, Center for Military Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
| | - Donna M Wilder
- Blast-Induced Neurotrauma Branch, Center for Military Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
| | - Ying Wang
- Blast-Induced Neurotrauma Branch, Center for Military Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
| | - Joseph B Long
- Blast-Induced Neurotrauma Branch, Center for Military Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
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8
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Animal models of traumatic brain injury: a review of pathophysiology to biomarkers and treatments. Exp Brain Res 2021; 239:2939-2950. [PMID: 34324019 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-021-06178-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2020] [Accepted: 07/13/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is one of the main causes of death and disability in both civilian and military population. TBI may occur via a variety of etiologies, all of which involve trauma to the head. However, the neuroprotective drugs which were found to be very effective in animal TBI models failed in phase II or phase III clinical trials, emphasizing a compelling need to review the current status of animal TBI models and therapeutic strategies. No single animal model can adequately mimic all aspects of human TBI owing to the heterogeneity of clinical TBI. However, due to the ethical limitations, it is difficult to precisely emulate the TBI mechanisms that occur in humans. Therefore, many animal models with varying severity and mechanisms of brain injury have been developed, and each model has its own pros and cons in its implementation for TBI research. These challenges pose a need for study of continued TBI mechanisms, brain injury severity, duration, treatment strategies, and optimization of animal models across the neurotrauma research community. The aim of this review is to discuss (1) causes of TBI, (2) its prevalence in military and civilian population, (3) classification and pathophysiology of TBI, (4) biomarkers and detection methods, (5) animal models of TBI, and (6) the advantages and disadvantages of each model and the species used, as well as possible treatments.
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9
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Huang X, Hu X, Zhang L, Cai Z. Craniocerebral Dynamic Response and Cumulative Effect of Damage Under Repetitive Blast. Ann Biomed Eng 2021; 49:2932-2943. [PMID: 33655420 DOI: 10.1007/s10439-021-02746-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2020] [Accepted: 02/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Soldiers suffer from multiple explosions in complex battlefield environment resulting in aggravated brain injuries. At present, researches mostly focus on the damage to human body caused by single explosion. In the repetitive impact study, small animals are mainly used for related experiments to study brain nerve damage. No in-depth research has been conducted on the dynamic response and damage of human brain under repetitive explosion shock waves. Therefore, this study use the Euler-Lagrange coupling method to construct an explosion shock wave-head fluid-structure coupling model, and numerically simulated the brain dynamic response subjected to single and repetitive blast waves, obtained flow field pressure, skull stress, skull displacement, intracranial pressure to analyze the brain damage. The simulation results of 100 g equivalent of TNT exploding at 1 m in front of the craniocerebral show that repetitive blast increase skull stress, intracranial pressure, skull displacement, and the damage of brain tissue changes from moderate to severe. Repetitive blasts show a certain cumulative damage effect, the severity of damage caused by double blast is 122.5% of single shock, and the severity of damage caused by triple blast is 105.9% of double blast and 131.5% of single blast. The data above shows that it is necessary to reduce soldiers' exposure from repetitive blast waves.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xingyuan Huang
- Hunan University of Science and Technology, Xiangtan, 411201, China
| | - Xiaoping Hu
- Hunan University of Science and Technology, Xiangtan, 411201, China
| | - Lei Zhang
- Research Institute for National Defense Engineering of Academy of Military Science PLA China, Luoyang, 471023, China.
| | - Zhihua Cai
- Hunan University of Science and Technology, Xiangtan, 411201, China.
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Muresanu DF, Sharma A, Sahib S, Tian ZR, Feng L, Castellani RJ, Nozari A, Lafuente JV, Buzoianu AD, Sjöquist PO, Patnaik R, Wiklund L, Sharma HS. Diabetes exacerbates brain pathology following a focal blast brain injury: New role of a multimodal drug cerebrolysin and nanomedicine. PROGRESS IN BRAIN RESEARCH 2020; 258:285-367. [PMID: 33223037 DOI: 10.1016/bs.pbr.2020.09.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Blast brain injury (bBI) is a combination of several forces of pressure, rotation, penetration of sharp objects and chemical exposure causing laceration, perforation and tissue losses in the brain. The bBI is quite prevalent in military personnel during combat operations. However, no suitable therapeutic strategies are available so far to minimize bBI pathology. Combat stress induces profound cardiovascular and endocrine dysfunction leading to psychosomatic disorders including diabetes mellitus (DM). This is still unclear whether brain pathology in bBI could exacerbate in DM. In present review influence of DM on pathophysiology of bBI is discussed based on our own investigations. In addition, treatment with cerebrolysin (a multimodal drug comprising neurotrophic factors and active peptide fragments) or H-290/51 (a chain-breaking antioxidant) using nanowired delivery of for superior neuroprotection on brain pathology in bBI in DM is explored. Our observations are the first to show that pathophysiology of bBI is exacerbated in DM and TiO2-nanowired delivery of cerebrolysin induces profound neuroprotection in bBI in DM, not reported earlier. The clinical significance of our findings with regard to military medicine is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dafin F Muresanu
- Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Medicine & Pharmacy, Cluj-Napoca, Romania; "RoNeuro" Institute for Neurological Research and Diagnostic, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Aruna Sharma
- International Experimental Central Nervous System Injury & Repair (IECNSIR), Department of Surgical Sciences, Anesthesiology & Intensive Care Medicine, Uppsala University Hospital, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden.
| | - Seaab Sahib
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR, United States
| | - Z Ryan Tian
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR, United States
| | - Lianyuan Feng
- Department of Neurology, Bethune International Peace Hospital, Shijiazhuang, Hebei Province, China
| | - Rudy J Castellani
- Department of Pathology, University of Maryland, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Ala Nozari
- Anesthesiology & Intensive Care, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, United States
| | - José Vicente Lafuente
- LaNCE, Department of Neuroscience, University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Leioa, Bizkaia, Spain
| | - Anca D Buzoianu
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, "Iuliu Hatieganu" University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Per-Ove Sjöquist
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Ranjana Patnaik
- Department of Biomaterials, School of Biomedical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
| | - Lars Wiklund
- International Experimental Central Nervous System Injury & Repair (IECNSIR), Department of Surgical Sciences, Anesthesiology & Intensive Care Medicine, Uppsala University Hospital, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Hari Shanker Sharma
- International Experimental Central Nervous System Injury & Repair (IECNSIR), Department of Surgical Sciences, Anesthesiology & Intensive Care Medicine, Uppsala University Hospital, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden.
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11
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Sharma A, Muresanu DF, Sahib S, Tian ZR, Castellani RJ, Nozari A, Lafuente JV, Buzoianu AD, Bryukhovetskiy I, Manzhulo I, Patnaik R, Wiklund L, Sharma HS. Concussive head injury exacerbates neuropathology of sleep deprivation: Superior neuroprotection by co-administration of TiO 2-nanowired cerebrolysin, alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone, and mesenchymal stem cells. PROGRESS IN BRAIN RESEARCH 2020; 258:1-77. [PMID: 33223033 DOI: 10.1016/bs.pbr.2020.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Sleep deprivation (SD) is common in military personnel engaged in combat operations leading to brain dysfunction. Military personnel during acute or chronic SD often prone to traumatic brain injury (TBI) indicating the possibility of further exacerbating brain pathology. Several lines of evidence suggest that in both TBI and SD alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (α-MSH) and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) levels decreases in plasma and brain. Thus, a possibility exists that exogenous supplement of α-MSH and/or BDNF induces neuroprotection in SD compounded with TBI. In addition, mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are very portent in inducing neuroprotection in TBI. We examined the effects of concussive head injury (CHI) in SD on brain pathology. Furthermore, possible neuroprotective effects of α-MSH, MSCs and neurotrophic factors treatment were explored in a rat model of SD and CHI. Rats subjected to 48h SD with CHI exhibited higher leakage of BBB to Evans blue and radioiodine compared to identical SD or CHI alone. Brain pathology was also exacerbated in SD with CHI group as compared to SD or CHI alone together with a significant reduction in α-MSH and BDNF levels in plasma and brain and enhanced level of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α). Exogenous administration of α-MSH (250μg/kg) together with MSCs (1×106) and cerebrolysin (a balanced composition of several neurotrophic factors and active peptide fragments) (5mL/kg) significantly induced neuroprotection in SD with CHI. Interestingly, TiO2 nanowired delivery of α-MSH (100μg), MSCs, and cerebrolysin (2.5mL/kg) induced enhanced neuroprotection with higher levels of α-MSH and BDNF and decreased the TNF-α in SD with CHI. These observations are the first to show that TiO2 nanowired administration of α-MSH, MSCs and cerebrolysin induces superior neuroprotection following SD in CHI, not reported earlier. The clinical significance of our findings in light of the current literature is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aruna Sharma
- International Experimental Central Nervous System Injury & Repair (IECNSIR), Department of Surgical Sciences, Anesthesiology & Intensive Care Medicine, Uppsala University Hospital, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden.
| | - Dafin F Muresanu
- Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Medicine & Pharmacy, Cluj-Napoca, Romania; "RoNeuro" Institute for Neurological Research and Diagnostic, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Seaab Sahib
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR, United States
| | - Z Ryan Tian
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR, United States
| | - Rudy J Castellani
- Department of Pathology, University of Maryland, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Ala Nozari
- Anesthesiology & Intensive Care, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, United States
| | - José Vicente Lafuente
- LaNCE, Department of Neuroscience, University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Leioa, Bizkaia, Spain
| | - Anca D Buzoianu
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, "Iuliu Hatieganu" University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Igor Bryukhovetskiy
- Department of Fundamental Medicine, School of Biomedicine, Far Eastern Federal University, Vladivostok, Russia; Laboratory of Pharmacology, National Scientific Center of Marine Biology, Far East Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Vladivostok, Russia
| | - Igor Manzhulo
- Department of Fundamental Medicine, School of Biomedicine, Far Eastern Federal University, Vladivostok, Russia; Laboratory of Pharmacology, National Scientific Center of Marine Biology, Far East Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Vladivostok, Russia
| | - Ranjana Patnaik
- Department of Biomaterials, School of Biomedical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
| | - Lars Wiklund
- International Experimental Central Nervous System Injury & Repair (IECNSIR), Department of Surgical Sciences, Anesthesiology & Intensive Care Medicine, Uppsala University Hospital, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Hari Shanker Sharma
- International Experimental Central Nervous System Injury & Repair (IECNSIR), Department of Surgical Sciences, Anesthesiology & Intensive Care Medicine, Uppsala University Hospital, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden.
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12
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Oral ascorbic acid 2-glucoside prevents coordination disorder induced via laser-induced shock waves in rat brain. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0230774. [PMID: 32240226 PMCID: PMC7117653 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0230774] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2019] [Accepted: 02/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Oxidative stress is considered to be involved in the pathogenesis of primary blast-related traumatic brain injury (bTBI). We evaluated the effects of ascorbic acid 2-glucoside (AA2G), a well-known antioxidant, to control oxidative stress in rat brain exposed to laser-induced shock waves (LISWs). The design consisted of a controlled animal study using male 10-week-old Sprague-Dawley rats. The study was conducted at the University research laboratory. Low-impulse (54 Pa•s) LISWs were transcranially applied to rat brain. Rats were randomized to control group (anesthesia and head shaving, n = 10), LISW group (anesthesia, head shaving and LISW application, n = 10) or LISW + post AA2G group (AA2G administration after LISW application, n = 10) in the first study. In another study, rats were randomized to control group (n = 10), LISW group (n = 10) or LISW + pre and post AA2G group (AA2G administration before and after LISW application, n = 10). The measured outcomes were as follows: (i) motor function assessed by accelerating rotarod test; (ii) levels of 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG), an oxidative stress marker; (iii) ascorbic acid in each group of rats. Ascorbic acid levels were significantly decreased and 8-OHdG levels were significantly increased in the cerebellum of the LISW group. Motor coordination disorder was also observed in the group. Prophylactic AA2G administration significantly increased the ascorbic acid levels, reduced oxidative stress and mitigated the motor dysfunction. In contrast, the effects of therapeutic AA2G administration alone were limited. The results suggest that the prophylactic administration of ascorbic acid can reduce shock wave-related oxidative stress and prevented motor dysfunction in rats.
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Satoh Y, Araki Y, Kashitani M, Nishii K, Kobayashi Y, Fujita M, Suzuki S, Morimoto Y, Tokuno S, Tsumatori G, Yamamoto T, Saitoh D, Ishizuka T. Molecular Hydrogen Prevents Social Deficits and Depression-Like Behaviors Induced by Low-Intensity Blast in Mice. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 2019; 77:827-836. [PMID: 30053086 DOI: 10.1093/jnen/nly060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Detonation of explosive devices creates blast waves, which can injure brains even in the absence of external injuries. Among these, blast-induced mild traumatic brain injury (bmTBI) is increasing in military populations, such as in the wars in Afghanistan, Iraq, and Syria. Although the clinical presentation of bmTBI is not precisely defined, it is frequently associated with psycho-neurological deficits and usually manifests in the form of poly-trauma including psychiatric morbidity and cognitive disruption. Although the underlying mechanisms of bmTBI are largely unknown, some studies suggested that bmTBI is associated with blood-brain barrier disruption, oxidative stress, and edema in the brain. The present study investigated the effects of novel antioxidant, molecular hydrogen gas, on bmTBI using a laboratory-scale shock tube model in mice. Hydrogen gas has a strong prospect for clinical use due to easy preparation, low-cost, and no side effects. The administration of hydrogen gas significantly attenuated the behavioral deficits observed in our bmTBI model, suggesting that hydrogen application might be a strong therapeutic method for treatment of bmTBI.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Yoshiyuki Araki
- Department of Defense Medicine, National Defense Medical College, Tokorozawa, Japan
| | - Masashi Kashitani
- Department of Aerospace Engineering, National Defense Academy of Japan, Yokosuka, Japan
| | | | - Yasushi Kobayashi
- Department of Defense Medicine, National Defense Medical College, Tokorozawa, Japan
| | | | - Shinya Suzuki
- Kameda Medical Center, Emergency and Trauma Center, Kamogawa, Chiba, Japan
| | - Yuji Morimoto
- Department of Integrated Physiology Bio-Nano Medicine, National Defense Medical College, Tokorozawa, Japan
| | - Shinichi Tokuno
- Department of Defense Medicine, National Defense Medical College, Tokorozawa, Japan
| | - Gentaro Tsumatori
- Department of Defense Medicine, National Defense Medical College, Tokorozawa, Japan
| | - Tetsuo Yamamoto
- Military Medicine Research Unit, Test and Evaluation Command, Japan Ground Self-Defense Force, Setagaya, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Daizoh Saitoh
- Division of Traumatology, Research Institute, National Defense Medical College, Tokorozawa, Japan
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14
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Sempere L, Rodríguez-Rodríguez A, Boyero L, Egea-Guerrero J. Principales modelos experimentales de traumatismo craneoencefálico: de la preclínica a los modelos in vitro. Med Intensiva 2019; 43:362-372. [DOI: 10.1016/j.medin.2018.04.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2017] [Revised: 04/23/2018] [Accepted: 04/26/2018] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
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15
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Bernardo-Colón A, Vest V, Cooper ML, Naguib SA, Calkins DJ, Rex TS. Progression and Pathology of Traumatic Optic Neuropathy From Repeated Primary Blast Exposure. Front Neurosci 2019; 13:719. [PMID: 31354422 PMCID: PMC6637732 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2019.00719] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2019] [Accepted: 06/26/2019] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Indirect traumatic optic neuropathy (ITON) is a condition that is often associated with traumatic brain injury and can result in significant vision loss due to degeneration of retinal ganglion cell (RGC) axons at the time of injury or within the ensuing weeks. We used a mouse model of eye-directed air-blast exposure to characterize the histopathology of blast-induced ITON. This injury caused a transient elevation of intraocular pressure with subsequent RGC death and axon degeneration that was similar throughout the length of the optic nerve (ON). Deficits in active anterograde axon transport to the superior colliculus accompanied axon degeneration and first appeared in peripheral representations of the retina. Glial area in the ON increased early after injury and involved a later period of additional expansion. The increase in area involved a transient change in astrocyte organization independent of axon degeneration. While levels of many cytokines and chemokines did not change, IL-1α and IL-1β increased in both the ON and retina. In contrast, glaucoma shows distal to proximal axon degeneration with astrocyte remodeling and increases in many cytokines and chemokines. Further, direct traumatic optic neuropathies have a clear site of injury with rapid, progressive axon degeneration and cell death. These data show that blast-induced ITON is a distinct neuropathology from other optic neuropathies.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Victoria Vest
- Vanderbilt Eye Institute, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, United States
| | - Melissa L. Cooper
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN, United States
| | - Sarah A. Naguib
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN, United States
| | - David J. Calkins
- Vanderbilt Eye Institute, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, United States
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN, United States
| | - Tonia S. Rex
- Vanderbilt Eye Institute, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, United States
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN, United States
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16
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Shah EJ, Gurdziel K, Ruden DM. Mammalian Models of Traumatic Brain Injury and a Place for Drosophila in TBI Research. Front Neurosci 2019; 13:409. [PMID: 31105519 PMCID: PMC6499071 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2019.00409] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2019] [Accepted: 04/10/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Traumatic brain injury (TBI), caused by a sudden blow or jolt to the brain that disrupts normal function, is an emerging health epidemic with ∼2.5 million cases occurring annually in the United States that are severe enough to cause hospitalization or death. Most common causes of TBI include contact sports, vehicle crashes and domestic violence or war injuries. Injury to the central nervous system is one of the most consistent candidates for initiating the molecular and cellular cascades that result in Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD) and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). Not every TBI event is alike with effects varying from person to person. The majority of people recover from mild TBI within a short period of time, but repeated incidents can have deleterious long-lasting effects which depend on factors such as the number of TBIs sustained, time till medical attention, age, gender and genetics of the individual. Despite extensive research, many questions still remain regarding diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of long-term effects from TBI as well as recovery of brain function. In this review, we present an overview of TBI pathology, discuss mammalian models for TBI and focus on current methods using Drosophila melanogaster as a model for TBI study. The relatively small brain size (∼100,000 neurons and glia), conserved neurotransmitter signaling mechanisms and sophisticated genetics of Drosophila allows for cell biological, molecular and genetic analyses that are impractical in mammalian models of TBI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ekta J. Shah
- Department of Pharmacology, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, United States
| | - Katherine Gurdziel
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, United States
| | - Douglas M. Ruden
- Department of Pharmacology, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, United States
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, United States
- Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, United States
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Zhang JH, Gu JW, Li BC, Gao FB, Liao XM, Cui SJ. Establishment of a novel rat model of blast-related diffuse axonal injury. Exp Ther Med 2018; 16:93-102. [PMID: 29977358 PMCID: PMC6030930 DOI: 10.3892/etm.2018.6146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2016] [Accepted: 03/05/2018] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Although studies concerning blast-related traumatic brain injury (bTBI) have demonstrated the significance of diffuse axonal injury (DAI), no standard models for this type of injury have been widely accepted. The present study investigated a mechanism of inducing DAI through real blast injury, which was achieved by performing instantaneous high-speed swinging of the rat head, thus establishing a stable animal model of blast DAI. Adult Sprague-Dawley rats weighing 150±10 g were randomly divided into experimental (n=16), control (n=10) and sham control (n=6) groups. The frontal, parietal and occipital cortex of the rats in the experimental group were exposed, whereas those of the control group were unexposed; the sham control group rats were anesthetized and attached to the craniocerebral blast device without experiencing a blast. The rats were subjected to craniocerebral blast injury through a blast equivalent to 400 mg of trinitrotoluene using an electric detonator. Biomechanical parameters, and physical and behavioural changes of the sagittal head swing were measured using a high-speed camera. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans were conducted at 2, 12, 24 and 48 h after craniocerebral injury, only the experimental group indicated brain stem injury. The rats were sacrificed immediately following the MRI at 48 h for pathological examination of the brain stem using haematoxylin and eosin staining. The results indicated that 14 rats (87.5%) in the experimental group exhibited blast DAI, while no DAI was observed in the control and sham control groups, and the difference between the groups was significant (P<0.05). The present results indicated that this experimental design may serve to provide a stable model of blast DAI in rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun-Hai Zhang
- Department of Neurosurgery, The 306th Hospital of The People's Liberation Army, Beijing 100101, P.R. China
| | - Jian-Wen Gu
- Department of Neurosurgery, The 306th Hospital of The People's Liberation Army, Beijing 100101, P.R. China
| | - Bing-Cang Li
- Research Institute of Surgery, State Key Laboratory of Trauma, Burns and Combined Injury, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400042, P.R. China
| | - Fa-Bao Gao
- Department of Radiology and Molecular Imaging Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, P.R. China
| | - Xiao-Ming Liao
- The Professional Laboratory, College of Materials Science and Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610065, P.R. China
| | - Shao-Jie Cui
- Department of Neurosurgery, The 306th Hospital of The People's Liberation Army, Beijing 100101, P.R. China
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18
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Xiong Y, Mahmood A, Chopp M. Current understanding of neuroinflammation after traumatic brain injury and cell-based therapeutic opportunities. Chin J Traumatol 2018; 21:137-151. [PMID: 29764704 PMCID: PMC6034172 DOI: 10.1016/j.cjtee.2018.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 117] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2018] [Revised: 03/02/2018] [Accepted: 03/05/2018] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) remains a major cause of death and disability worldwide. Increasing evidence indicates that TBI is an important risk factor for neurodegenerative diseases including Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and chronic traumatic encephalopathy. Despite improved supportive and rehabilitative care of TBI patients, unfortunately, all late phase clinical trials in TBI have yet to yield a safe and effective neuroprotective treatment. The disappointing clinical trials may be attributed to variability in treatment approaches and heterogeneity of the population of TBI patients as well as a race against time to prevent or reduce inexorable cell death. TBI is not just an acute event but a chronic disease. Among many mechanisms involved in secondary injury after TBI, emerging preclinical studies indicate that posttraumatic prolonged and progressive neuroinflammation is associated with neurodegeneration which may be treatable long after the initiating brain injury. This review provides an overview of recent understanding of neuroinflammation in TBI and preclinical cell-based therapies that target neuroinflammation and promote functional recovery after TBI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ye Xiong
- Department of Neurosurgery Henry Ford Health System, 2799 West Grand Boulevard, Detroit, MI, 48202, USA.
| | - Asim Mahmood
- Department of Neurosurgery Henry Ford Health System, 2799 West Grand Boulevard, Detroit, MI, 48202, USA
| | - Michael Chopp
- Department of Neurology, Henry Ford Health System, 2799 West Grand Boulevard, Detroit, MI, 48202, USA; Department of Physics, Oakland University, Rochester, MI, 48309, USA
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19
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Wood GW, Panzer MB, Cox CA, Bass CR. Interspecies Scaling in Blast Pulmonary Trauma. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s41314-018-0013-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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20
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Cernak I. Understanding blast-induced neurotrauma: how far have we come? Concussion 2017; 2:CNC42. [PMID: 30202583 PMCID: PMC6093818 DOI: 10.2217/cnc-2017-0006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2017] [Accepted: 05/08/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Blast injuries, including blast-induced neurotrauma (BINT), are caused by blast waves generated during an explosion. Accordingly, their history coincides with that of explosives. Hence, it is intriguing that, after more than 1000 years of using explosives, our understanding of the pathological consequences of blast and body/brain interactions is extremely limited. Postconflict recovery mechanisms seemingly include the suppression of painful experiences, such as explosive injuries. Unfortunately, ignoring the knowledge generated by previous generations of scientists retards research progress, leading to superfluous and repetitive studies. This article summarizes clinical and experimental findings published about blast injuries and BINT following the wars of the 20th and 21th centuries. Moreover, it offers a personal view on potential factors interfering with the progress of BINT research working toward providing better diagnosis, treatment and rehabilitation for military personnel affected by blast exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ibolja Cernak
- Faculty of Rehabilitation Medicine, University of Alberta, Corbett Hall 3–48, Edmonton Alberta, T6G 2G4, Canada
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21
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Wang Y, Sawyer TW, Tse YC, Fan C, Hennes G, Barnes J, Josey T, Weiss T, Nelson P, Wong TP. Primary Blast-Induced Changes in Akt and GSK 3β Phosphorylation in Rat Hippocampus. Front Neurol 2017; 8:413. [PMID: 28868045 PMCID: PMC5563325 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2017.00413] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2017] [Accepted: 07/31/2017] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) due to blast from improvised explosive devices has been a leading cause of morbidity and mortality in recent conflicts in Iraq and Afghanistan. However, the mechanisms of primary blast-induced TBI are not well understood. The Akt signal transduction pathway has been implicated in various brain pathologies including TBI. In the present study, the effects of simulated primary blast waves on the phosphorylation status of Akt and its downstream effector kinase, glycogen synthase kinase 3β (GSK3β), in rat hippocampus, were investigated. Male Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats (350–400 g) were exposed to a single pulse shock wave (25 psi; ~7 ms duration) and sacrificed 1 day, 1 week, or 6 weeks after exposure. Total and phosphorylated Akt, as well as phosphorylation of its downstream effector kinase GSK3β (at serine 9), were detected with western blot analysis and immunohistochemistry. Results showed that Akt phosphorylation at both serine 473 and threonine 308 was increased 1 day after blast on the ipsilateral side of the hippocampus, and this elevation persisted until at least 6 weeks postexposure. Similarly, phosphorylation of GSK3β at serine 9, which inhibits GSK3β activity, was also increased starting at 1 day and persisted until at least 6 weeks after primary blast on the ipsilateral side. In contrast, p-Akt was increased at 1 and 6 weeks on the contralateral side, while p-GSK3β was increased 1 day and 1 week after primary blast exposure. No significant changes in total protein levels of Akt and GSK were observed on either side of the hippocampus at any time points. Immunohistochemical results showed that increased p-Akt was mainly of neuronal origin in the CA1 region of the hippocampus and once phosphorylated, the majority was translocated to the dendritic and plasma membranes. Finally, electrophysiological data showed that evoked synaptic N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptor activity was significantly increased 6 weeks after primary blast, suggesting that increased Akt phosphorylation may enhance synaptic NMDA receptor activation, or that enhanced synaptic NMDA receptor activation may increase Akt phosphorylation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yushan Wang
- Defence Research and Development Canada, Suffield Research Centre, Medicine Hat, AB, Canada
| | - Thomas W Sawyer
- Defence Research and Development Canada, Suffield Research Centre, Medicine Hat, AB, Canada
| | - Yiu Chung Tse
- Department of Psychiatry, Douglas Mental Health University Institute, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Changyang Fan
- Defence Research and Development Canada, Suffield Research Centre, Medicine Hat, AB, Canada
| | - Grant Hennes
- Defence Research and Development Canada, Suffield Research Centre, Medicine Hat, AB, Canada
| | - Julia Barnes
- Defence Research and Development Canada, Suffield Research Centre, Medicine Hat, AB, Canada
| | - Tyson Josey
- Defence Research and Development Canada, Suffield Research Centre, Medicine Hat, AB, Canada
| | - Tracy Weiss
- Defence Research and Development Canada, Suffield Research Centre, Medicine Hat, AB, Canada
| | - Peggy Nelson
- Defence Research and Development Canada, Suffield Research Centre, Medicine Hat, AB, Canada
| | - Tak Pan Wong
- Department of Psychiatry, Douglas Mental Health University Institute, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
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22
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Miller AP, Shah AS, Aperi BV, Kurpad SN, Stemper BD, Glavaski-Joksimovic A. Acute death of astrocytes in blast-exposed rat organotypic hippocampal slice cultures. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0173167. [PMID: 28264063 PMCID: PMC5338800 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0173167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2016] [Accepted: 02/16/2017] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Blast traumatic brain injury (bTBI) affects civilians, soldiers, and veterans worldwide and presents significant health concerns. The mechanisms of neurodegeneration following bTBI remain elusive and current therapies are largely ineffective. It is important to better characterize blast-evoked cellular changes and underlying mechanisms in order to develop more effective therapies. In the present study, our group utilized rat organotypic hippocampal slice cultures (OHCs) as an in vitro system to model bTBI. OHCs were exposed to either 138 ± 22 kPa (low) or 273 ± 23 kPa (high) overpressures using an open-ended helium-driven shock tube, or were assigned to sham control group. At 2 hours (h) following injury, we have characterized the astrocytic response to a blast overpressure. Immunostaining against the astrocytic marker glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) revealed acute shearing and morphological changes in astrocytes, including clasmatodendrosis. Moreover, overlap of GFAP immunostaining and propidium iodide (PI) indicated astrocytic death. Quantification of the number of dead astrocytes per counting area in the hippocampal cornu Ammonis 1 region (CA1), demonstrated a significant increase in dead astrocytes in the low- and high-blast, compared to sham control OHCs. However only a small number of GFAP-expressing astrocytes were co-labeled with the apoptotic marker Annexin V, suggesting necrosis as the primary type of cell death in the acute phase following blast exposure. Moreover, western blot analyses revealed calpain mediated breakdown of GFAP. The dextran exclusion additionally indicated membrane disruption as a potential mechanism of acute astrocytic death. Furthermore, although blast exposure did not evoke significant changes in glutamate transporter 1 (GLT-1) expression, loss of GLT-1-expressing astrocytes suggests dysregulation of glutamate uptake following injury. Our data illustrate the profound effect of blast overpressure on astrocytes in OHCs at 2 h following injury and suggest increased calpain activity and membrane disruption as potential underlying mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna P. Miller
- Department of Neurosurgery, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, United States of America
- Department of Cell Biology, Neurobiology & Anatomy, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, United States of America
- Clement J. Zablocki Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Alok S. Shah
- Department of Neurosurgery, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, United States of America
- Clement J. Zablocki Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Brandy V. Aperi
- Department of Neurosurgery, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, United States of America
- Clement J. Zablocki Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Shekar N. Kurpad
- Department of Neurosurgery, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, United States of America
- Department of Cell Biology, Neurobiology & Anatomy, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, United States of America
- Clement J. Zablocki Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Brian D. Stemper
- Department of Neurosurgery, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, United States of America
- Clement J. Zablocki Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Aleksandra Glavaski-Joksimovic
- Department of Neurosurgery, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, United States of America
- Department of Cell Biology, Neurobiology & Anatomy, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, United States of America
- Clement J. Zablocki Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, United States of America
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23
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Kallakuri S, Desai A, Feng K, Tummala S, Saif T, Chen C, Zhang L, Cavanaugh JM, King AI. Neuronal Injury and Glial Changes Are Hallmarks of Open Field Blast Exposure in Swine Frontal Lobe. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0169239. [PMID: 28107370 PMCID: PMC5249202 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0169239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2015] [Accepted: 12/13/2016] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
With the rapid increase in the number of blast induced traumatic brain injuries and associated neuropsychological consequences in veterans returning from the operations in Iraq and Afghanistan, the need to better understand the neuropathological sequelae following exposure to an open field blast exposure is still critical. Although a large body of experimental studies have attempted to address these pathological changes using shock tube models of blast injury, studies directed at understanding changes in a gyrencephalic brain exposed to a true open field blast are limited and thus forms the focus of this study. Anesthetized, male Yucatan swine were subjected to forward facing medium blast overpressure (peak side on overpressure 224-332 kPa; n = 7) or high blast overpressure (peak side on overpressure 350-403 kPa; n = 5) by detonating 3.6 kg of composition-4 charge. Sham animals (n = 5) were subjected to all the conditions without blast exposure. After a 3-day survival period, the brain was harvested and sections from the frontal lobes were processed for histological assessment of neuronal injury and glial reactivity changes. Significant neuronal injury in the form of beta amyloid precursor protein immunoreactive zones in the gray and white matter was observed in the frontal lobe sections from both the blast exposure groups. A significant increase in the number of astrocytes and microglia was also observed in the blast exposed sections compared to sham sections. We postulate that the observed acute injury changes may progress to chronic periods after blast and may contribute to short and long-term neuronal degeneration and glial mediated inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Srinivasu Kallakuri
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan, United States of America
| | - Alok Desai
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan, United States of America
| | - Ke Feng
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan, United States of America
| | - Sharvani Tummala
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan, United States of America
| | - Tal Saif
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan, United States of America
| | - Chaoyang Chen
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan, United States of America
| | - Liying Zhang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan, United States of America
| | - John M. Cavanaugh
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan, United States of America
| | - Albert I. King
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan, United States of America
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Intracranial venous injury, thrombosis and repair as hallmarks of mild blast traumatic brain injury in rats: Lessons from histological and immunohistochemical studies of decalcified sectioned heads and correlative microarray analysis. J Neurosci Methods 2016; 272:56-68. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2016.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2015] [Revised: 02/01/2016] [Accepted: 02/01/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Mishra V, Skotak M, Schuetz H, Heller A, Haorah J, Chandra N. Primary blast causes mild, moderate, severe and lethal TBI with increasing blast overpressures: Experimental rat injury model. Sci Rep 2016; 6:26992. [PMID: 27270403 PMCID: PMC4895217 DOI: 10.1038/srep26992] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2015] [Accepted: 04/27/2016] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Injury severity in blast induced Traumatic Brain Injury (bTBI) increases with blast overpressure (BOP) and impulse in dose-dependent manner. Pure primary blast waves were simulated in compressed gas shock-tubes in discrete increments. Present work demonstrates 24 hour survival of rats in 0–450 kPa (0–800 Pa∙s impulse) range at 10 discrete levels (60, 100, 130, 160, 190, 230, 250, 290, 350 and 420 kPa) and determines the mortality rate as a non-linear function of BOP. Using logistic regression model, predicted mortality rate (PMR) function was calculated, and used to establish TBI severities. We determined a BOP of 145 kPa as upper mild TBI threshold (5% PMR). Also we determined 146–220 kPa and 221–290 kPa levels as moderate and severe TBI based on 35%, and 70% PMR, respectively, while BOP above 290 kPa is lethal. Since there are no standards for animal bTBI injury severity, these thresholds need further refinements using histopathology, immunohistochemistry and behavior. Further, we specifically investigated mild TBI range (0–145 kPa) using physiological (heart rate), pathological (lung injury), immuno-histochemical (oxidative/nitrosative and blood-brain barrier markers) as well as blood borne biomarkers. With these additional data, we conclude that mild bTBI occurs in rats when the BOP is in the range of 85–145 kPa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vikas Mishra
- Center for Injury Biomechanics, Materials and Medicine (CIBM3), Department of Biomedical Engineering, New Jersey Institute of Technology, Newark, NJ 07102-1982, USA
| | - Maciej Skotak
- Center for Injury Biomechanics, Materials and Medicine (CIBM3), Department of Biomedical Engineering, New Jersey Institute of Technology, Newark, NJ 07102-1982, USA
| | - Heather Schuetz
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Neuroscience, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, 68198, NE,USA
| | - Abi Heller
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Neuroscience, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, 68198, NE,USA
| | - James Haorah
- Center for Injury Biomechanics, Materials and Medicine (CIBM3), Department of Biomedical Engineering, New Jersey Institute of Technology, Newark, NJ 07102-1982, USA
| | - Namas Chandra
- Center for Injury Biomechanics, Materials and Medicine (CIBM3), Department of Biomedical Engineering, New Jersey Institute of Technology, Newark, NJ 07102-1982, USA
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26
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Effgen GB, Ong T, Nammalwar S, Ortuño AI, Meaney DF, 'Dale' Bass CR, Morrison B. Primary Blast Exposure Increases Hippocampal Vulnerability to Subsequent Exposure: Reducing Long-Term Potentiation. J Neurotrauma 2016; 33:1901-1912. [PMID: 26699926 DOI: 10.1089/neu.2015.4327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Up to 80% of injuries sustained by U.S. soldiers in Operation Enduring Freedom and Operation Iraqi Freedom were the result of blast exposure from improvised explosive devices. Some soldiers experience multiple blasts while on duty, and it has been suggested that symptoms of repetitive blast are similar to those that follow multiple non-blast concussions, such as sport-related concussion. Despite the interest in the effects of repetitive blast exposure, it remains unknown whether an initial blast renders the brain more vulnerable to subsequent exposure, resulting in a synergistic injury response. To investigate the effect of multiple primary blasts on the brain, organotypic hippocampal slice cultures were exposed to single or repetitive (two or three total) primary blasts of varying intensities. Long-term potentiation was significantly reduced following two Level 2 (92.7 kPa, 1.4 msec, 38.5 kPa·msec) blasts delivered 24 h apart without altering basal evoked response. This deficit persisted when the interval between injuries was increased to 72 h but not when the interval was extended to 144 h. The repeated blast exposure with a 24 h interval increased microglia staining and activation significantly but did not significantly increase cell death or damage axons, dendrites, or principal cell layers. Lack of overt structural damage and change in basal stimulated neuron response suggest that injury from repetitive primary blast exposure may specifically affect long-term potentiation. Our studies suggest repetitive primary blasts can exacerbate injury dependent on the injury severity and interval between exposures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gwen B Effgen
- 1 Department of Biomedical Engineering, Columbia University , New York, New York
| | - Tiffany Ong
- 1 Department of Biomedical Engineering, Columbia University , New York, New York
| | - Shruthi Nammalwar
- 1 Department of Biomedical Engineering, Columbia University , New York, New York
| | - Andrea I Ortuño
- 1 Department of Biomedical Engineering, Columbia University , New York, New York
| | - David F Meaney
- 2 Department of Bioengineering, University of Pennsylvania , Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | | | - Barclay Morrison
- 1 Department of Biomedical Engineering, Columbia University , New York, New York
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27
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Sawyer TW, Wang Y, Ritzel DV, Josey T, Villanueva M, Shei Y, Nelson P, Hennes G, Weiss T, Vair C, Fan C, Barnes J. High-Fidelity Simulation of Primary Blast: Direct Effects on the Head. J Neurotrauma 2016; 33:1181-93. [PMID: 26582146 DOI: 10.1089/neu.2015.3914] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The role of primary blast in blast-induced traumatic brain injury (bTBI) is controversial in part due to the technical difficulties of generating free-field blast conditions in the laboratory. The use of traditional shock tubes often results in artifacts, particularly of dynamic pressure, whereas the forces affecting the head are dependent on where the animal is placed relative to the tube, whether the exposure is whole-body or head-only, and on how the head is actually exposed to the insult (restrained or not). An advanced blast simulator (ABS) has been developed that enables high-fidelity simulation of free-field blastwaves, including sharply defined static and dynamic overpressure rise times, underpressures, and secondary shockwaves. Rats were exposed in head-only fashion to single-pulse blastwaves of 15 to 30 psi static overpressure. Head restraints were configured so as to eliminate concussive and minimize whiplash forces exerted on the head, as shown by kinematic analysis. No overt signs of trauma were present in the animals post-exposure. However, significant changes in brain 2',3'-cyclic nucleotide 3'-phosphohydrolase (CNPase) and neurofilament heavy chain levels were evident by 7 days. In contrast to most studies of primary blast-induced TBI (PbTBI), no elevation of glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) levels was noted when head movement was minimized. The ABS described in this article enables the generation of shockwaves highly representative of free-field blast. The use of this technology, in concert with head-only exposure, minimized head movement, and the kinematic analysis of the forces exerted on the head provide convincing evidence that primary blast directly causes changes in brain function and that GFAP may not be an appropriate biomarker of PbTBI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas W Sawyer
- 1 Defence Research & Development Canada , Medicine Hat, Alberta, Canada
| | - Yushan Wang
- 1 Defence Research & Development Canada , Medicine Hat, Alberta, Canada
| | | | - Tyson Josey
- 1 Defence Research & Development Canada , Medicine Hat, Alberta, Canada
| | - Mercy Villanueva
- 1 Defence Research & Development Canada , Medicine Hat, Alberta, Canada
| | - Yimin Shei
- 1 Defence Research & Development Canada , Medicine Hat, Alberta, Canada
| | - Peggy Nelson
- 1 Defence Research & Development Canada , Medicine Hat, Alberta, Canada
| | - Grant Hennes
- 1 Defence Research & Development Canada , Medicine Hat, Alberta, Canada
| | - Tracy Weiss
- 1 Defence Research & Development Canada , Medicine Hat, Alberta, Canada
| | - Cory Vair
- 1 Defence Research & Development Canada , Medicine Hat, Alberta, Canada
| | - Changyang Fan
- 3 Canada West Biosciences , Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Julia Barnes
- 3 Canada West Biosciences , Calgary, Alberta, Canada
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28
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Yonutas HM, Vekaria HJ, Sullivan PG. Mitochondrial specific therapeutic targets following brain injury. Brain Res 2016; 1640:77-93. [PMID: 26872596 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2016.02.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2015] [Revised: 01/29/2016] [Accepted: 02/02/2016] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Traumatic brain injury is a complicated disease to treat due to the complex multi-factorial secondary injury cascade that is initiated following the initial impact. This secondary injury cascade causes nonmechanical tissue damage, which is where therapeutic interventions may be efficacious for intervention. One therapeutic target that has shown much promise following brain injury are mitochondria. Mitochondria are complex organelles found within the cell. At a superficial level, mitochondria are known to produce the energy substrate used within the cell called ATP. However, their importance to overall cellular homeostasis is even larger than their production of ATP. These organelles are necessary for calcium cycling, ROS production and play a role in the initiation of cell death pathways. When mitochondria become dysfunctional, they can become dysregulated leading to a loss of cellular homeostasis and eventual cell death. Within this review there will be a deep discussion into mitochondrial bioenergetics followed by a brief discussion into traumatic brain injury and how mitochondria play an integral role in the neuropathological sequelae following an injury. The review will conclude with a discussion pertaining to the therapeutic approaches currently being studied to ameliorate mitochondrial dysfunction following brain injury. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled SI:Brain injury and recovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- H M Yonutas
- University of Kentucky, 741 South Limestone Street, BBSRB 475, 30536 Lexington, United States
| | - H J Vekaria
- University of Kentucky, 741 South Limestone Street, BBSRB 475, 30536 Lexington, United States
| | - P G Sullivan
- University of Kentucky, 741 South Limestone Street, BBSRB 475, 30536 Lexington, United States.
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29
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Meabon JS, Huber BR, Cross DJ, Richards TL, Minoshima S, Pagulayan KF, Li G, Meeker KD, Kraemer BC, Petrie EC, Raskind MA, Peskind ER, Cook DG. Repetitive blast exposure in mice and combat veterans causes persistent cerebellar dysfunction. Sci Transl Med 2016; 8:321ra6. [DOI: 10.1126/scitranslmed.aaa9585] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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30
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Kallakuri S, Purkait HS, Dalavayi S, VandeVord P, Cavanaugh JM. Blast overpressure induced axonal injury changes in rat brainstem and spinal cord. J Neurosci Rural Pract 2016; 6:481-7. [PMID: 26752889 PMCID: PMC4692002 DOI: 10.4103/0976-3147.169767] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction: Blast induced neurotrauma has been the signature wound in returning soldiers from the ongoing wars in Iraq and Afghanistan. Of importance is understanding the pathomechansim(s) of blast overpressure (OP) induced axonal injury. Although several recent animal models of blast injury indicate the neuronal and axonal injury in various brain regions, animal studies related to axonal injury in the white matter (WM) tracts of cervical spinal cord are limited. Objective: The purpose of this study was to assess the extent of axonal injury in WM tracts of cervical spinal cord in male Sprague Dawley rats subjected to a single insult of blast OP. Materials and Methods: Sagittal brainstem sections and horizontal cervical spinal cord sections from blast and sham animals were stained by neurofilament light (NF-L) chain and beta amyloid precursor protein immunocytochemistry and observed for axonal injury changes. Results: Observations from this preliminary study demonstrate axonal injury changes in the form of prominent swellings, retraction bulbs, and putative signs of membrane disruptions in the brainstem and cervical spinal cord WM tracts of rats subjected to blast OP. Conclusions: Prominent axonal injury changes following the blast OP exposure in brainstem and cervical spinal WM tracts underscores the need for careful evaluation of blast induced injury changes and associated symptoms. NF-L immunocytochemistry can be considered as an additional tool to assess the blast OP induced axonal injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Srinivasu Kallakuri
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI 48201, USA
| | - Heena S Purkait
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI 48201, USA
| | - Satya Dalavayi
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI 48201, USA
| | - Pamela VandeVord
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI 48201, USA
| | - John M Cavanaugh
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI 48201, USA
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31
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Bailey ZS, Hubbard WB, VandeVord PJ. Cellular Mechanisms and Behavioral Outcomes in Blast-Induced Neurotrauma: Comparing Experimental Setups. Methods Mol Biol 2016; 1462:119-138. [PMID: 27604716 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-3816-2_8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Blast-induced neurotrauma (BINT) has increased in incidence over the past decades and can result in cognitive issues that have debilitating consequences. The exact primary and secondary mechanisms of injury have not been elucidated and appearance of cellular injury can vary based on many factors, such as blast overpressure magnitude and duration. Many methodologies to study blast neurotrauma have been employed, ranging from open-field explosives to experimental shock tubes for producing free-field blast waves. While there are benefits to the various methods, certain specifications need to be accounted for in order to properly examine BINT. Primary cell injury mechanisms, occurring as a direct result of the blast wave, have been identified in several studies and include cerebral vascular damage, blood-brain barrier disruption, axonal injury, and cytoskeletal damage. Secondary cell injury mechanisms, triggered subsequent to the initial insult, result in the activation of several molecular cascades and can include, but are not limited to, neuroinflammation and oxidative stress. The collective result of these secondary injuries can lead to functional deficits. Behavioral measures examining motor function, anxiety traits, and cognition/memory problems have been utilized to determine the level of injury severity. While cellular injury mechanisms have been identified following blast exposure, the various experimental models present both concurrent and conflicting results. Furthermore, the temporal response and progression of pathology after blast exposure have yet to be detailed and remain unclear due to limited resemblance of methodologies. This chapter summarizes the current state of blast neuropathology and emphasizes the need for a standardized preclinical model of blast neurotrauma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zachary S Bailey
- School of Biomedical Engineering and Sciences, Virginia Tech, 447 Kelly Hall, 325 Stanger Street, Blacksburg, VA, 24061, USA
| | - W Brad Hubbard
- School of Biomedical Engineering and Sciences, Virginia Tech, 447 Kelly Hall, 325 Stanger Street, Blacksburg, VA, 24061, USA
| | - Pamela J VandeVord
- School of Biomedical Engineering and Sciences, Virginia Tech, 447 Kelly Hall, 325 Stanger Street, Blacksburg, VA, 24061, USA.
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32
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Osier ND, Carlson SW, DeSana A, Dixon CE. Chronic Histopathological and Behavioral Outcomes of Experimental Traumatic Brain Injury in Adult Male Animals. J Neurotrauma 2015; 32:1861-82. [PMID: 25490251 PMCID: PMC4677114 DOI: 10.1089/neu.2014.3680] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The purpose of this review is to survey the use of experimental animal models for studying the chronic histopathological and behavioral consequences of traumatic brain injury (TBI). The strategies employed to study the long-term consequences of TBI are described, along with a summary of the evidence available to date from common experimental TBI models: fluid percussion injury; controlled cortical impact; blast TBI; and closed-head injury. For each model, evidence is organized according to outcome. Histopathological outcomes included are gross changes in morphology/histology, ventricular enlargement, gray/white matter shrinkage, axonal injury, cerebrovascular histopathology, inflammation, and neurogenesis. Behavioral outcomes included are overall neurological function, motor function, cognitive function, frontal lobe function, and stress-related outcomes. A brief discussion is provided comparing the most common experimental models of TBI and highlighting the utility of each model in understanding specific aspects of TBI pathology. The majority of experimental TBI studies collect data in the acute postinjury period, but few continue into the chronic period. Available evidence from long-term studies suggests that many of the experimental TBI models can lead to progressive changes in histopathology and behavior. The studies described in this review contribute to our understanding of chronic TBI pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole D. Osier
- Safar Center for Resuscitation Research, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
- School of Nursing, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Shaun W. Carlson
- Safar Center for Resuscitation Research, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Brain Trauma Research Center, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Anthony DeSana
- Safar Center for Resuscitation Research, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
- Seton Hill University, Greensburg, Pennsylvania
| | - C. Edward Dixon
- Safar Center for Resuscitation Research, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Brain Trauma Research Center, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
- V.A. Pittsburgh Healthcare System, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
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33
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Smith DH, Hicks RR, Johnson VE, Bergstrom DA, Cummings DM, Noble LJ, Hovda D, Whalen M, Ahlers ST, LaPlaca M, Tortella FC, Duhaime AC, Dixon CE. Pre-Clinical Traumatic Brain Injury Common Data Elements: Toward a Common Language Across Laboratories. J Neurotrauma 2015; 32:1725-35. [PMID: 26058402 DOI: 10.1089/neu.2014.3861] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a major public health issue exacting a substantial personal and economic burden globally. With the advent of "big data" approaches to understanding complex systems, there is the potential to greatly accelerate knowledge about mechanisms of injury and how to detect and modify them to improve patient outcomes. High quality, well-defined data are critical to the success of bioinformatics platforms, and a data dictionary of "common data elements" (CDEs), as well as "unique data elements" has been created for clinical TBI research. There is no data dictionary, however, for preclinical TBI research despite similar opportunities to accelerate knowledge. To address this gap, a committee of experts was tasked with creating a defined set of data elements to further collaboration across laboratories and enable the merging of data for meta-analysis. The CDEs were subdivided into a Core module for data elements relevant to most, if not all, studies, and Injury-Model-Specific modules for non-generalizable data elements. The purpose of this article is to provide both an overview of TBI models and the CDEs pertinent to these models to facilitate a common language for preclinical TBI research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Douglas H Smith
- 1 Department of Neurosurgery, University of Pennsylvania , Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Ramona R Hicks
- 2 One Mind, Seattle, Washington.,3 National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke , Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Victoria E Johnson
- 1 Department of Neurosurgery, University of Pennsylvania , Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Debra A Bergstrom
- 3 National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke , Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Diana M Cummings
- 3 National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke , Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Linda J Noble
- 4 Department of Neurological Surgery, University of California , San Francisco, San Francisco, California
| | - David Hovda
- 5 Department of Neurosurgery, University of California Los Angeles , Los Angeles, California
| | - Michael Whalen
- 6 Department of Pediatrics, Neuroscience Center at Massachusetts General Hospital , Charlestown, Massachusetts
| | - Stephen T Ahlers
- 7 Operational & Undersea Medicine Directorate, Naval Medical Research Center , Silver Spring, Maryland
| | - Michelle LaPlaca
- 8 Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Tech and Emory University , Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Frank C Tortella
- 9 Walter Reed Army Institute of Research , Silver Spring, Maryland
| | | | - C Edward Dixon
- 11 Department of Neurological Surgery, University of Pittsburgh , Pittsburgh, Pennsyvania
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34
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Cui B, Li K, Gai Z, She X, Zhang N, Xu C, Chen X, An G, Ma Q, Wang R. Chronic Noise Exposure Acts Cumulatively to Exacerbate Alzheimer's Disease-Like Amyloid-β Pathology and Neuroinflammation in the Rat Hippocampus. Sci Rep 2015; 5:12943. [PMID: 26251361 PMCID: PMC4528219 DOI: 10.1038/srep12943] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2015] [Accepted: 07/10/2015] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
A putative etiological association exists between noise exposure and Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Amyloid-β (Aβ) pathology is thought to be one of the primary initiating factors in AD. It has been further suggested that subsequent dysregulation of Aβ may play a mechanistic role in the AD-like pathophysiology associated with noise exposure. Here, we used ELISA, immunoblotting, cytokine arrays, and RT-PCR, to examine both hippocampal Aβ pathology and neuroinflammation in rats at different time points after noise exposure. We found that chronic noise exposure significantly accelerated the progressive overproduction of Aβ, which persisted for 7 to 14 days after the cessation of exposure. This effect was accompanied by up-regulated expression of amyloid precursor protein (APP) and its cleavage enzymes, β- and γ-secretases. Cytokine analysis revealed that chronic noise exposure increased levels of tumor necrosis factor-α and the receptor for advanced glycation end products, while decreasing the expression of activin A and platelet-derived growth factor- AA. Furthermore, we found persistent elevations of glial fibrillary acidic protein and ionized calcium-binding adapter molecule 1 expression that closely corresponded to the noise-induced increases in Aβ and neuroinflammation. These studies suggest that lifelong environmental noise exposure may have cumulative effects on the onset and development of AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bo Cui
- Department of Occupational Hygiene, Tianjin Institute of Health and Environmental Medicine, Tianjin, China
| | - Kang Li
- Department of Occupational Hygiene, Tianjin Institute of Health and Environmental Medicine, Tianjin, China
| | - Zhihui Gai
- 1] Department of Occupational Hygiene, Tianjin Institute of Health and Environmental Medicine, Tianjin, China [2] Shandong academy of occupational health and occupational medicine, Shandong academy of medical sciences, Jinan, China
| | - Xiaojun She
- Department of Occupational Hygiene, Tianjin Institute of Health and Environmental Medicine, Tianjin, China
| | - Na Zhang
- Department of Occupational Hygiene, Tianjin Institute of Health and Environmental Medicine, Tianjin, China
| | - Chuanxiang Xu
- Department of Occupational Hygiene, Tianjin Institute of Health and Environmental Medicine, Tianjin, China
| | - Xuewei Chen
- Department of Occupational Hygiene, Tianjin Institute of Health and Environmental Medicine, Tianjin, China
| | - Gaihong An
- Department of Occupational Hygiene, Tianjin Institute of Health and Environmental Medicine, Tianjin, China
| | - Qiang Ma
- Department of Occupational Hygiene, Tianjin Institute of Health and Environmental Medicine, Tianjin, China
| | - Rui Wang
- Shandong academy of occupational health and occupational medicine, Shandong academy of medical sciences, Jinan, China
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35
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Veeramuthu V, Narayanan V, Kuo TL, Delano-Wood L, Chinna K, Bondi MW, Waran V, Ganesan D, Ramli N. Diffusion Tensor Imaging Parameters in Mild Traumatic Brain Injury and Its Correlation with Early Neuropsychological Impairment: A Longitudinal Study. J Neurotrauma 2015; 32:1497-509. [PMID: 25952562 PMCID: PMC4589266 DOI: 10.1089/neu.2014.3750] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
We explored the prognostic value of diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) parameters of selected white matter (WM) tracts in predicting neuropsychological outcome, both at baseline and 6 months later, among well-characterized patients diagnosed with mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI). Sixty-one patients with mTBI (mean age=27.08; standard deviation [SD], 8.55) underwent scanning at an average of 10 h (SD, 4.26) post-trauma along with assessment of their neuropsychological performance at an average of 4.35 h (SD, 7.08) upon full Glasgow Coma Scale recovery. Results were then compared to 19 healthy control participants (mean age=29.05; SD, 5.84), both in the acute stage and 6 months post-trauma. DTI and neuropsychological measures between acute and chronic phases were compared, and significant differences emerged. Specifically, chronic-phase fractional anisotropy and radial diffusivity values showed significant group differences in the corona radiata, anterior limb of internal capsule, cingulum, superior longitudinal fasciculus, optic radiation, and genu of corpus callosum. Findings also demonstrated associations between DTI indices and neuropsychological outcome across two time points. Our results provide new evidence for the use of DTI as an imaging biomarker and indicator of WM damage occurring in the context of mTBI, and they underscore the dynamic nature of brain injury and possible biological basis of chronic neurocognitive alterations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vigneswaran Veeramuthu
- 1 Division of Neurosurgery, Department of Surgery, University of Malaya , Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Vairavan Narayanan
- 1 Division of Neurosurgery, Department of Surgery, University of Malaya , Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Tan Li Kuo
- 2 University Malaya Research Imaging Center, University of Malaya , Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Lisa Delano-Wood
- 3 VA San Diego Healthcare System , San Diego, California.,4 Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego , San Diego, California
| | - Karuthan Chinna
- 5 Julius Center University Malaya, Department of Social and Preventive Medicine, University of Malaya , Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Mark William Bondi
- 3 VA San Diego Healthcare System , San Diego, California.,4 Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego , San Diego, California
| | - Vicknes Waran
- 1 Division of Neurosurgery, Department of Surgery, University of Malaya , Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Dharmendra Ganesan
- 1 Division of Neurosurgery, Department of Surgery, University of Malaya , Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Norlisah Ramli
- 2 University Malaya Research Imaging Center, University of Malaya , Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
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36
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Liu M, Zhang C, Liu W, Luo P, Zhang L, Wang Y, Wang Z, Fei Z. A novel rat model of blast-induced traumatic brain injury simulating different damage degree: implications for morphological, neurological, and biomarker changes. Front Cell Neurosci 2015; 9:168. [PMID: 25983677 PMCID: PMC4416450 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2015.00168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2015] [Accepted: 04/16/2015] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
In current military conflicts and civilian terrorism, blast-induced traumatic brain injury (bTBI) is the primary cause of neurotrauma. However, the effects and mechanisms of bTBI are poorly understood. Although previous researchers have made significant contributions to establishing animal models for the simulation of bTBI, the precision and controllability of blast-induced injury in animal models must be improved. Therefore, we established a novel rat model to simulate blast-wave injury to the brain. To simulate different extents of bTBI injury, the animals were divided into moderate and severe injury groups. The miniature spherical explosives (pentaerythritol tetranitrate) used in each group were of different sizes (2.5 mm diameter in the moderate injury group and 3.0 mm diameter in the severe injury group). A specially designed apparatus was able to precisely adjust the positions of the miniature explosives and create eight rats with bTBI simultaneously, using a single electric detonator. Neurological functions, gross pathologies, histopathological changes and the expression levels of various biomarkers were examined after the explosion. Compared with the moderate injury group, there were significantly more neurological dysfunctions, cortical contusions, intraparenchymal hemorrhages, cortical expression of S-100β, myelin basic protein, neuron-specific enolase, IL-8, IL-10, inducible nitric oxide synthase, and HIF-1α in the severe injury group. These results demonstrate that we have created a reliable and reproducible bTBI model in rats. This model will be helpful for studying the mechanisms of bTBI and developing strategies for clinical bTBI treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mengdong Liu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University , Xi'an , China
| | - Chi Zhang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University , Xi'an , China
| | - Wenbo Liu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University , Xi'an , China
| | - Peng Luo
- Department of Neurosurgery, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University , Xi'an , China
| | - Lei Zhang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University , Xi'an , China
| | - Yuan Wang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University , Xi'an , China
| | - Zhanjiang Wang
- Northwest Institute of Nuclear Technology , Xi'an , China
| | - Zhou Fei
- Department of Neurosurgery, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University , Xi'an , China
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37
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Kawa L, Arborelius UP, Yoshitake T, Kehr J, Hökfelt T, Risling M, Agoston D. Neurotransmitter Systems in a Mild Blast Traumatic Brain Injury Model: Catecholamines and Serotonin. J Neurotrauma 2015; 32:1190-9. [PMID: 25525686 DOI: 10.1089/neu.2014.3669] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Exposure to improvised explosive devices can result in a unique form of traumatic brain injury--blast-induced traumatic brain injury (bTBI). At the mild end of the spectrum (mild bTBI [mbTBI]), there are cognitive and mood disturbances. Similar symptoms have been observed in post-traumatic stress disorder caused by exposure to extreme psychological stress without physical injury. A role of the monoaminergic system in mood regulation and stress is well established but its involvement in mbTBI is not well understood. To address this gap, we used a rodent model of mbTBI and detected a decrease in immobility behavior in the forced swim test at 1 d post-exposure, coupled with an increase in climbing behavior, but not after 14 d or later, possibly indicating a transient increase in anxiety-like behavior. Using in situ hybridization, we found elevated messenger ribonucleic acid levels of both tyrosine hydroxylase and tryptophan hydroxylase 2 in the locus coeruleus and the dorsal raphe nucleus, respectively, as early as 2 h post-exposure. High-performance liquid chromatography analysis 1 d post-exposure primarily showed elevated noradrenaline levels in several forebrain regions. Taken together, we report that exposure to mild blast results in transient changes in both anxiety-like behavior and brain region-specific molecular changes, implicating the monoaminergic system in the pathobiology of mbTBI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lizan Kawa
- 1 Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet , Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Ulf P Arborelius
- 1 Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet , Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Takashi Yoshitake
- 2 Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Karolinska Institutet , Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Jan Kehr
- 2 Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Karolinska Institutet , Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Tomas Hökfelt
- 1 Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet , Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Mårten Risling
- 1 Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet , Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Denes Agoston
- 3 Department of Anatomy, Physiology and Genetics, the Uniformed Services University , Bethesda, Maryland
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Miller AP, Shah AS, Aperi BV, Budde MD, Pintar FA, Tarima S, Kurpad SN, Stemper BD, Glavaski-Joksimovic A. Effects of blast overpressure on neurons and glial cells in rat organotypic hippocampal slice cultures. Front Neurol 2015; 6:20. [PMID: 25729377 PMCID: PMC4325926 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2015.00020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2014] [Accepted: 01/25/2015] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Due to recent involvement in military conflicts, and an increase in the use of explosives, there has been an escalation in the incidence of blast-induced traumatic brain injury (bTBI) among US military personnel. Having a better understanding of the cellular and molecular cascade of events in bTBI is prerequisite for the development of an effective therapy that currently is unavailable. The present study utilized organotypic hippocampal slice cultures (OHCs) exposed to blast overpressures of 150 kPa (low) and 280 kPa (high) as an in vitro bTBI model. Using this model, we further characterized the cellular effects of the blast injury. Blast-evoked cell death was visualized by a propidium iodide (PI) uptake assay as early as 2 h post-injury. Quantification of PI staining in the cornu Ammonis 1 and 3 (CA1 and CA3) and the dentate gyrus regions of the hippocampus at 2, 24, 48, and 72 h following blast exposure revealed significant time dependent effects. OHCs exposed to 150 kPa demonstrated a slow increase in cell death plateauing between 24 and 48 h, while OHCs from the high-blast group exhibited a rapid increase in cell death already at 2 h, peaking at ~24 h post-injury. Measurements of lactate dehydrogenase release into the culture medium also revealed a significant increase in cell lysis in both low- and high-blast groups compared to sham controls. OHCs were fixed at 72 h post-injury and immunostained for markers against neurons, astrocytes, and microglia. Labeling OHCs with PI, neuronal, and glial markers revealed that the blast-evoked extensive neuronal death and to a lesser extent loss of glial cells. Furthermore, our data demonstrated activation of astrocytes and microglial cells in low- and high-blasted OHCs, which reached a statistically significant difference in the high-blast group. These data confirmed that our in vitro bTBI model is a useful tool for studying cellular and molecular changes after blast exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna P Miller
- Department of Neurosurgery, Medical College of Wisconsin , Milwaukee, WI , USA ; Department of Cell Biology, Neurobiology and Anatomy, Medical College of Wisconsin , Milwaukee, WI , USA ; Clement J. Zablocki Veterans Affairs Medical Center , Milwaukee, WI , USA
| | - Alok S Shah
- Department of Neurosurgery, Medical College of Wisconsin , Milwaukee, WI , USA ; Clement J. Zablocki Veterans Affairs Medical Center , Milwaukee, WI , USA
| | - Brandy V Aperi
- Department of Neurosurgery, Medical College of Wisconsin , Milwaukee, WI , USA ; Clement J. Zablocki Veterans Affairs Medical Center , Milwaukee, WI , USA
| | - Matthew D Budde
- Department of Neurosurgery, Medical College of Wisconsin , Milwaukee, WI , USA ; Clement J. Zablocki Veterans Affairs Medical Center , Milwaukee, WI , USA
| | - Frank A Pintar
- Department of Neurosurgery, Medical College of Wisconsin , Milwaukee, WI , USA ; Department of Cell Biology, Neurobiology and Anatomy, Medical College of Wisconsin , Milwaukee, WI , USA ; Clement J. Zablocki Veterans Affairs Medical Center , Milwaukee, WI , USA
| | - Sergey Tarima
- Division of Biostatistics, Institute for Health and Society, Medical College of Wisconsin , Milwaukee, WI , USA
| | - Shekar N Kurpad
- Department of Neurosurgery, Medical College of Wisconsin , Milwaukee, WI , USA ; Department of Cell Biology, Neurobiology and Anatomy, Medical College of Wisconsin , Milwaukee, WI , USA ; Clement J. Zablocki Veterans Affairs Medical Center , Milwaukee, WI , USA
| | - Brian D Stemper
- Department of Neurosurgery, Medical College of Wisconsin , Milwaukee, WI , USA ; Clement J. Zablocki Veterans Affairs Medical Center , Milwaukee, WI , USA
| | - Aleksandra Glavaski-Joksimovic
- Department of Neurosurgery, Medical College of Wisconsin , Milwaukee, WI , USA ; Department of Cell Biology, Neurobiology and Anatomy, Medical College of Wisconsin , Milwaukee, WI , USA ; Clement J. Zablocki Veterans Affairs Medical Center , Milwaukee, WI , USA
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Johnson VE, Meaney DF, Cullen DK, Smith DH. Animal models of traumatic brain injury. HANDBOOK OF CLINICAL NEUROLOGY 2015; 127:115-28. [PMID: 25702213 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-444-52892-6.00008-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a major health issue comprising a heterogeneous and complex array of pathologies. Over the last several decades, numerous animal models have been developed to address the diverse nature of human TBI. The clinical relevance of these models has been a major point of reflection given the poor translation of pharmacologic TBI interventions to the clinic. While previously characterized broadly as either focal or diffuse, this classification is falling out of favor with increased awareness of the overlap in pathologic outcomes between models and an emerging consensus that no one model is sufficient. Moreover, an appreciation of injury biomechanics is essential in recapitulating and interpreting the spectrum of TBI neuropathology observed in various established models of dynamic closed-head TBI. While these models have replicated many specific features of human TBI, an enhanced context with clinical relevancy will facilitate the further elucidation of the mechanisms and treatment of injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victoria E Johnson
- Penn Center for Brain Injury and Repair and Department of Neurosurgery, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - David F Meaney
- Departments of Bioengineering and Neurosurgery, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - D Kacy Cullen
- Penn Center for Brain Injury and Repair and Department of Neurosurgery, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Douglas H Smith
- Penn Center for Brain Injury and Repair and Department of Neurosurgery, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
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Robinson ME, Lindemer ER, Fonda JR, Milberg WP, McGlinchey RE, Salat DH. Close-range blast exposure is associated with altered functional connectivity in Veterans independent of concussion symptoms at time of exposure. Hum Brain Mapp 2014; 36:911-22. [PMID: 25366378 DOI: 10.1002/hbm.22675] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2014] [Revised: 09/22/2014] [Accepted: 10/21/2014] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Although there is emerging data on the effects of blast-related concussion (or mTBI) on cognition, the effects of blast exposure itself on the brain have only recently been explored. Toward this end, we examine functional connectivity to the posterior cingulate cortex, a primary region within the default mode network (DMN), in a cohort of 134 Iraq and Afghanistan Veterans characterized for a range of common military-associated comorbidities. Exposure to a blast at close range (<10 meters) was associated with decreased connectivity of bilateral primary somatosensory and motor cortices, and these changes were not different from those seen in participants with blast-related mTBI. These results remained significant when clinical factors such as sleep quality, chronic pain, or post traumatic stress disorder were included in the statistical model. In contrast, differences in functional connectivity based on concussion history and blast exposures at greater distances were not apparent. Despite the limitations of a study of this nature (e.g., assessments long removed from injury, self-reported blast history), these data demonstrate that blast exposure per se, which is prevalent among those who served in Iraq and Afghanistan, may be an important consideration in Veterans' health. It further offers a clinical guideline for determining which blasts (namely, those within 10 meters) are likely to lead to long-term health concerns and may be more accurate than using concussion symptoms alone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meghan E Robinson
- Neuroimaging Research for Veterans Center (NeRVe), VA Boston Healthcare System, Boston, Massachusetts; Translational Research Center for TBI and Stress Disorders (TRACTS), VA Boston Healthcare System, Boston, Massachusetts
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Scaling in neurotrauma: How do we apply animal experiments to people? Exp Neurol 2014; 261:120-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2014.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2014] [Revised: 06/26/2014] [Accepted: 07/02/2014] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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Shetty AK, Mishra V, Kodali M, Hattiangady B. Blood brain barrier dysfunction and delayed neurological deficits in mild traumatic brain injury induced by blast shock waves. Front Cell Neurosci 2014; 8:232. [PMID: 25165433 PMCID: PMC4131244 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2014.00232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2014] [Accepted: 07/24/2014] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) resulting from exposure to blast shock waves (BSWs) is one of the most predominant causes of illnesses among veterans who served in the recent Iraq and Afghanistan wars. Such mTBI can also happen to civilians if exposed to shock waves of bomb attacks by terrorists. While cognitive problems, memory dysfunction, depression, anxiety and diffuse white matter injury have been observed at both early and/or delayed time-points, an initial brain pathology resulting from exposure to BSWs appears to be the dysfunction or disruption of the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Studies in animal models suggest that exposure to relatively milder BSWs (123 kPa) initially induces free radical generating enzymes in and around brain capillaries, which enhances oxidative stress resulting in loss of tight junction (TJ) proteins, edema formation, and leakiness of BBB with disruption or loss of its components pericytes and astrocyte end-feet. On the other hand, exposure to more intense BSWs (145-323 kPa) causes acute disruption of the BBB with vascular lesions in the brain. Both of these scenarios lead to apoptosis of endothelial and neural cells and neuroinflammation in and around capillaries, which may progress into chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE) and/or a variety of neurological impairments, depending on brain regions that are afflicted with such lesions. This review discusses studies that examined alterations in the brain milieu causing dysfunction or disruption of the BBB and neuroinflammation following exposure to different intensities of BSWs. Furthermore, potential of early intervention strategies capable of easing oxidative stress, repairing the BBB or blocking inflammation for minimizing delayed neurological deficits resulting from exposure to BSWs is conferred.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashok K Shetty
- Texas A&M Health Science Center College of Medicine at Scott & White, Institute for Regenerative Medicine Temple, TX, USA ; Department of Molecular and Cellular Medicine, Texas A&M Health Science Center College of Medicine College Station, TX, USA ; Research Service, Olin E. Teague Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Central Texas Veterans Health Care System Temple, TX, USA
| | - Vikas Mishra
- Texas A&M Health Science Center College of Medicine at Scott & White, Institute for Regenerative Medicine Temple, TX, USA ; Department of Molecular and Cellular Medicine, Texas A&M Health Science Center College of Medicine College Station, TX, USA ; Research Service, Olin E. Teague Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Central Texas Veterans Health Care System Temple, TX, USA
| | - Maheedhar Kodali
- Texas A&M Health Science Center College of Medicine at Scott & White, Institute for Regenerative Medicine Temple, TX, USA ; Department of Molecular and Cellular Medicine, Texas A&M Health Science Center College of Medicine College Station, TX, USA ; Research Service, Olin E. Teague Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Central Texas Veterans Health Care System Temple, TX, USA
| | - Bharathi Hattiangady
- Texas A&M Health Science Center College of Medicine at Scott & White, Institute for Regenerative Medicine Temple, TX, USA ; Department of Molecular and Cellular Medicine, Texas A&M Health Science Center College of Medicine College Station, TX, USA ; Research Service, Olin E. Teague Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Central Texas Veterans Health Care System Temple, TX, USA
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43
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Combes RD. A critical review of anaesthetised animal models and alternatives for military research, testing and training, with a focus on blast damage, haemorrhage and resuscitation. Altern Lab Anim 2014; 41:385-415. [PMID: 24329746 DOI: 10.1177/026119291304100508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Military research, testing, and surgical and resuscitation training, are aimed at mitigating the consequences of warfare and terrorism to armed forces and civilians. Traumatisation and tissue damage due to explosions, and acute loss of blood due to haemorrhage, remain crucial, potentially preventable, causes of battlefield casualties and mortalities. There is also the additional threat from inhalation of chemical and aerosolised biological weapons. The use of anaesthetised animal models, and their respective replacement alternatives, for military purposes -- particularly for blast injury, haemorrhaging and resuscitation training -- is critically reviewed. Scientific problems with the animal models include the use of crude, uncontrolled and non-standardised methods for traumatisation, an inability to model all key trauma mechanisms, and complex modulating effects of general anaesthesia on target organ physiology. Such effects depend on the anaesthetic and influence the cardiovascular system, respiration, breathing, cerebral haemodynamics, neuroprotection, and the integrity of the blood-brain barrier. Some anaesthetics also bind to the NMDA brain receptor with possible differential consequences in control and anaesthetised animals. There is also some evidence for gender-specific effects. Despite the fact that these issues are widely known, there is little published information on their potential, at best, to complicate data interpretation and, at worst, to invalidate animal models. There is also a paucity of detail on the anaesthesiology used in studies, and this can hinder correct data evaluation. Welfare issues relate mainly to the possibility of acute pain as a side-effect of traumatisation in recovered animals. Moreover, there is the increased potential for animals to suffer when anaesthesia is temporary, and the procedures invasive. These dilemmas can be addressed, however, as a diverse range of replacement approaches exist, including computer and mathematical dynamic modelling of the human body, cadavers, interactive human patient simulators for training, in vitro techniques involving organotypic cultures of target organs, and epidemiological and clinical studies. While the first four of these have long proven useful for developing protective measures and predicting the consequences of trauma, and although many phenomena and their sequelae arising from different forms of trauma in vivo can be induced and reproduced in vitro, non-animal approaches require further development, and their validation and use need to be coordinated and harmonised. Recommendations to these ends are proposed, and the scientific and welfare problems associated with animal models are addressed, with the future focus being on the use of batteries of complementary replacement methods deployed in integrated strategies, and on greater transparency and scientific cooperation.
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44
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Huber BR, Meabon JS, Martin TJ, Mourad PD, Bennett R, Kraemer BC, Cernak I, Petrie EC, Emery MJ, Swenson ER, Mayer C, Mehic E, Peskind ER, Cook DG. Blast exposure causes early and persistent aberrant phospho- and cleaved-tau expression in a murine model of mild blast-induced traumatic brain injury. J Alzheimers Dis 2014; 37:309-23. [PMID: 23948882 DOI: 10.3233/jad-130182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 117] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) is considered the 'signature injury' of combat veterans that have served during the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan. This prevalence of mTBI is due in part to the common exposure to high explosive blasts in combat zones. In addition to the threats of blunt impact trauma caused by flying objects and the head itself being propelled against objects, the primary blast overpressure (BOP) generated by high explosives is capable of injuring the brain. Compared to other means of causing TBI, the pathophysiology of mild-to-moderate BOP is less well understood. To study the consequences of BOP exposure in mice, we employed a well-established approach using a compressed gas-driven shock tube that recapitulates battlefield-relevant open-field BOP. We found that 24 hours post-blast a single mild BOP provoked elevation of multiple phospho- and cleaved-tau species in neurons, as well as elevating manganese superoxide-dismutase (MnSOD or SOD2) levels, a cellular response to oxidative stress. In hippocampus, aberrant tau species persisted for at least 30 days post-exposure, while SOD2 levels returned to sham control levels. These findings suggest that elevated phospho- and cleaved-tau species may be among the initiating pathologic processes induced by mild blast exposure. These findings may have important implications for efforts to prevent blast-induced insults to the brain from progressing into long-term neurodegenerative disease processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bertrand R Huber
- Northwest Network Mental Illness, Research, Education, and Clinical Center (MIRECC), Veterans Affairs Puget Sound Health Care System, Seattle, WA, USA
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45
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Kovacs SK, Leonessa F, Ling GSF. Blast TBI Models, Neuropathology, and Implications for Seizure Risk. Front Neurol 2014; 5:47. [PMID: 24782820 PMCID: PMC3988378 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2014.00047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2014] [Accepted: 03/26/2014] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) due to explosive blast exposure is a leading combat casualty. It is also implicated as a key contributor to war related mental health diseases. A clinically important consequence of all types of TBI is a high risk for development of seizures and epilepsy. Seizures have been reported in patients who have suffered blast injuries in the Global War on Terror but the exact prevalence is unknown. The occurrence of seizures supports the contention that explosive blast leads to both cellular and structural brain pathology. Unfortunately, the exact mechanism by which explosions cause brain injury is unclear, which complicates development of meaningful therapies and mitigation strategies. To help improve understanding, detailed neuropathological analysis is needed. For this, histopathological techniques are extremely valuable and indispensable. In the following we will review the pathological results, including those from immunohistochemical and special staining approaches, from recent preclinical explosive blast studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Krisztian Kovacs
- Laboratory of Neurotrauma, Department of Neurology, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences , Bethesda, MD , USA
| | - Fabio Leonessa
- Laboratory of Neurotrauma, Department of Neurology, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences , Bethesda, MD , USA
| | - Geoffrey S F Ling
- Laboratory of Neurotrauma, Department of Neurology, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences , Bethesda, MD , USA
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46
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Calabrese E, Du F, Garman RH, Johnson GA, Riccio C, Tong LC, Long JB. Diffusion tensor imaging reveals white matter injury in a rat model of repetitive blast-induced traumatic brain injury. J Neurotrauma 2014; 31:938-50. [PMID: 24392843 DOI: 10.1089/neu.2013.3144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Blast-induced traumatic brain injury (bTBI) is one of the most common combat-related injuries seen in U.S. military personnel, yet relatively little is known about the underlying mechanisms of injury. In particular, the effects of the primary blast pressure wave are poorly understood. Animal models have proven invaluable for the study of primary bTBI, because it rarely occurs in isolation in human subjects. Even less is known about the effects of repeated primary blast wave exposure, but existing data suggest cumulative increases in brain damage with a second blast. MRI and, in particular, diffusion tensor imaging (DTI), have become important tools for assessing bTBI in both clinical and preclinical settings. Computational statistical methods such as voxelwise analysis have shown promise in localizing and quantifying bTBI throughout the brain. In this study, we use voxelwise analysis of DTI to quantify white matter injury in a rat model of repetitive primary blast exposure. Our results show a significant increase in microstructural damage with a second blast exposure, suggesting that primary bTBI may sensitize the brain to subsequent injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evan Calabrese
- 1 Center for In Vivo Microscopy, Department of Radiology, Duke University Medical Center , Durham, North Carolina
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47
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Gold EM, Su D, López-Velázquez L, Haus DL, Perez H, Lacuesta GA, Anderson AJ, Cummings BJ. Functional assessment of long-term deficits in rodent models of traumatic brain injury. Regen Med 2014; 8:483-516. [PMID: 23826701 DOI: 10.2217/rme.13.41] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) ranks as the leading cause of mortality and disability in the young population worldwide. The annual US incidence of TBI in the general population is estimated at 1.7 million per year, with an estimated financial burden in excess of US$75 billion a year in the USA alone. Despite the prevalence and cost of TBI to individuals and society, no treatments have passed clinical trial to clinical implementation. The rapid expansion of stem cell research and technology offers an alternative to traditional pharmacological approaches targeting acute neuroprotection. However, preclinical testing of these approaches depends on the selection and characterization of appropriate animal models. In this article we consider the underlying pathophysiology for the focal and diffuse TBI subtypes, discuss the existing preclinical TBI models and functional outcome tasks used for assessment of injury and recovery, identify criteria particular to preclinical animal models of TBI in which stem cell therapies can be tested for safety and efficacy, and review these criteria in the context of the existing TBI literature. We suggest that 2 months post-TBI is the minimum period needed to evaluate human cell transplant efficacy and safety. Comprehensive review of the published TBI literature revealed that only 32% of rodent TBI papers evaluated functional outcome ≥1 month post-TBI, and only 10% evaluated functional outcomes ≥2 months post-TBI. Not all published papers that evaluated functional deficits at a minimum of 2 months post-TBI reported deficits; hence, only 8.6% of overall TBI papers captured in this review demonstrated functional deficits at 2 months or more postinjury. A 2-month survival and assessment period would allow sufficient time for differentiation and integration of human neural stem cells with the host. Critically, while trophic effects might be observed at earlier time points, it will also be important to demonstrate the sustainability of such an effect, supporting the importance of an extended period of in vivo observation. Furthermore, regulatory bodies will likely require at least 6 months survival post-transplantation for assessment of toxicology/safety, particularly in the context of assessing cell abnormalities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric M Gold
- Sue & Bill Gross Stem Cell Research Center, University of California, Irvine 2030 Gross Hall, CA 92697-1705, USA
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48
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Valiyaveettil M, Alamneh YA, Wang Y, Arun P, Oguntayo S, Wei Y, Long JB, Nambiar MP. Cytoskeletal protein α-II spectrin degradation in the brain of repeated blast exposed mice. Brain Res 2014; 1549:32-41. [PMID: 24412202 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2013.12.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2013] [Revised: 12/20/2013] [Accepted: 12/24/2013] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Repeated blast exposures commonly induce traumatic brain injury (TBI) characterized by diffuse axonal injury (DAI). We hypothesized that degradation of cytoskeletal proteins in the brain can lead to DAI, and evaluated α-II spectrin degradation in the pathophysiology of blast-induced TBI using the tightly-coupled three repetitive blast exposure mice model with a 1-30 min window in between exposures. Degradation of α-II spectrin and the expression profiles of caspase-3 and calpain-2, the major enzymes involved in the degradation were analyzed in the frontal cortex and cerebellum using Western blotting with specific antibodies. DAI at different brain regions was evaluated by neuropathology with silver staining. Repeated blast exposures resulted in significant increases in the α-II spectrin degradation products in the frontal cortex and cerebellum compared to sham controls. Expression of active caspase-3, which degrades α-II spectrin, showed significant increase in the frontal cortex after blast exposure at all the time points studied, while cerebellum showed an acute increase which was normalized over time. The expression of another α-II spectrin degrading enzyme, calpain-2, showed a rapid increase in the frontal cortex after blast exposure and it was significantly higher in the cerebellum at later time points. Neuropathological analysis showed significant levels of DAI at the frontal cortex and cerebellum at multiple time points after repeated blast injury. In summary, repeated blast exposure results in specific degradation of α-II spectrin in the brain along with differential expression of caspase-3/calpain-2 suggesting cytoskeletal breakdown as a possible contributor of DAI after repeated blast exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manoj Valiyaveettil
- Blast-Induced Neurotrauma Branch, Center for Military Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD 20910, USA.
| | - Yonas A Alamneh
- Blast-Induced Neurotrauma Branch, Center for Military Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD 20910, USA
| | - Ying Wang
- Blast-Induced Neurotrauma Branch, Center for Military Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD 20910, USA
| | - Peethambaran Arun
- Blast-Induced Neurotrauma Branch, Center for Military Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD 20910, USA
| | - Samuel Oguntayo
- Blast-Induced Neurotrauma Branch, Center for Military Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD 20910, USA
| | - Yanling Wei
- Blast-Induced Neurotrauma Branch, Center for Military Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD 20910, USA
| | - Joseph B Long
- Blast-Induced Neurotrauma Branch, Center for Military Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD 20910, USA
| | - Madhusoodana P Nambiar
- Blast-Induced Neurotrauma Branch, Center for Military Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD 20910, USA.
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Kobeissy F, Mondello S, Tümer N, Toklu HZ, Whidden MA, Kirichenko N, Zhang Z, Prima V, Yassin W, Anagli J, Chandra N, Svetlov S, Wang KKW. Assessing neuro-systemic & behavioral components in the pathophysiology of blast-related brain injury. Front Neurol 2013; 4:186. [PMID: 24312074 PMCID: PMC3836009 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2013.00186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2012] [Accepted: 11/02/2013] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Among the U.S. military personnel, blast injury is among the leading causes of brain injury. During the past decade, it has become apparent that even blast injury as a form of mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) may lead to multiple different adverse outcomes, such as neuropsychiatric symptoms and long-term cognitive disability. Blast injury is characterized by blast overpressure, blast duration, and blast impulse. While the blast injuries of a victim close to the explosion will be severe, majority of victims are usually at a distance leading to milder form described as mild blast TBI (mbTBI). A major feature of mbTBI is its complex manifestation occurring in concert at different organ levels involving systemic, cerebral, neuronal, and neuropsychiatric responses; some of which are shared with other forms of brain trauma such as acute brain injury and other neuropsychiatric disorders such as post-traumatic stress disorder. The pathophysiology of blast injury exposure involves complex cascades of chronic psychological stress, autonomic dysfunction, and neuro/systemic inflammation. These factors render blast injury as an arduous challenge in terms of diagnosis and treatment as well as identification of sensitive and specific biomarkers distinguishing mTBI from other non-TBI pathologies and from neuropsychiatric disorders with similar symptoms. This is due to the “distinct” but shared and partially identified biochemical pathways and neuro-histopathological changes that might be linked to behavioral deficits observed. Taken together, this article aims to provide an overview of the current status of the cellular and pathological mechanisms involved in blast overpressure injury and argues for the urgent need to identify potential biomarkers that can hint at the different mechanisms involved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Firas Kobeissy
- Department of Psychiatry, Center of Neuroproteomics & Biomarker Research, University of Florida , Gainesville, FL , USA ; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, American University of Beirut Medical Center , Beirut , Lebanon
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50
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Tompkins P, Tesiram Y, Lerner M, Gonzalez LP, Lightfoot S, Rabb CH, Brackett DJ. Brain Injury: Neuro-Inflammation, Cognitive Deficit, and Magnetic Resonance Imaging in a Model of Blast Induced Traumatic Brain Injury. J Neurotrauma 2013; 30:1888-97. [DOI: 10.1089/neu.2012.2674] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Paul Tompkins
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Oklahoma, HSC, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma
| | - Yasvir Tesiram
- Advanced Magnetic Resonance Center, Free Radical Biology and Aging Research Program, MS21, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma. (Current address: Center for Advanced Imaging, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Australia.)
| | - Megan Lerner
- Department of Surgery, University of Oklahoma, HSC and the Veterans Medical Administration Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma
| | - Larry P. Gonzalez
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Oklahoma, HSC, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma
| | - Stan Lightfoot
- Department of Pathology, University of Oklahoma, HSC and the Veterans Medical Administration Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma
| | - Craig H. Rabb
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Oklahoma, HSC, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma
| | - Daniel J. Brackett
- Department of Surgery, University of Oklahoma, HSC and the Veterans Medical Administration Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma
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