1
|
Bottlang M, DiGiacomo G, Tsai S, Madey S. Effect of helmet design on impact performance of industrial safety helmets. Heliyon 2022; 8:e09962. [PMID: 35982843 PMCID: PMC9379520 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e09962] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2022] [Revised: 04/15/2022] [Accepted: 07/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
|
2
|
DiGiacomo G, Tsai S, Bottlang M. Impact Performance Comparison of Advanced Snow Sport Helmets with Dedicated Rotation-Damping Systems. Ann Biomed Eng 2021; 49:2805-2813. [PMID: 33528683 PMCID: PMC8510952 DOI: 10.1007/s10439-021-02723-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2020] [Accepted: 01/04/2021] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Rotational acceleration of the head is a principal cause of concussion and traumatic brain injury. Several rotation-damping systems for helmets have been introduced to better protect the brain from rotational forces. But these systems have not been evaluated in snow sport helmets. This study investigated two snow sport helmets with different rotation-damping systems, termed MIPS and WaveCel, in comparison to a standard snow sport helmet without a rotation-damping system. Impact performance was evaluated by vertical drops of a helmeted Hybrid III head and neck onto an oblique anvil. Six impact conditions were tested, comprising two impact speeds of 4.8 and 6.2 m/s, and three impact locations. Helmet performance was quantified in terms of the linear and rotational kinematics, and the predicted probability of concussion. Both rotation-damping systems significantly reduced rotational acceleration under all six impact conditions compared to the standard helmet, but their effect on linear acceleration was less consistent. The highest probability of concussion for the standard helmet was 89%, while helmets with MIPS and WaveCel systems exhibited a maximal probability of concussion of 67 and 7%, respectively. In conclusion, rotation-damping systems of advanced snow sport helmets can significantly reduce rotational head acceleration and the associated concussion risk.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gina DiGiacomo
- Biomechanics Laboratory, Legacy Research Institute, Portland, OR, 97232, USA
| | - Stanley Tsai
- Biomechanics Laboratory, Legacy Research Institute, Portland, OR, 97232, USA
| | - Michael Bottlang
- Biomechanics Laboratory, Legacy Research Institute, Portland, OR, 97232, USA.
- Legacy Biomechanics Laboratory, 1225 NE 2nd Ave, Portland, OR, 97215, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Chen K, Gu H, Zhu L, Feng DF. A New Model of Repetitive Traumatic Brain Injury in Mice. Front Neurosci 2020; 13:1417. [PMID: 32038131 PMCID: PMC6985558 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2019.01417] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2019] [Accepted: 12/16/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Repetitive traumatic brain injury (rTBI) is a major health care concern that causes substantial neurological impairment. To better understand rTBI, we introduced a new model of rTBI in mice induced by sudden rotation in the coronal plane combined with lateral translation delivered twice at an interval of 24 h. By routine histology, histological examination of Prussian blue-stained sections revealed the presence of microbleed in the corpus callosum and brain stem. Amyloid precursor protein (β-APP) and neurofilament heavy-chain (NF-200) immunohistochemistry demonstrated axonal injury following rTBI. Swelling, waving, and enlargement axons were observed in the corpus callosum and brain stem 24 h after injury by Bielschowsky staining. Ultrastructural studies by electron microscopy provided further insights into the existence and progression of axonal injury. rTBI led to widespread astrogliosis and microgliosis in white matter, as well as significantly increased levels of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α and interleukin (IL)-1β. rTBI mice showed a significantly increased loss of righting reflex (LRR) duration within each time point compared with that of sham animals, which was under 15 min. rTBI mice exhibited depression-like behavior at 1 month. rTBI mice also demonstrated deficits in MWM testing. These results suggested that this model might be suitable for investigating rTBI pathophysiology and evaluating preclinical candidate therapeutics.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kui Chen
- Department of Neurosurgery, Shanghai Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China.,Institute of Traumatic Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Hao Gu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Shanghai Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China.,Institute of Traumatic Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Liang Zhu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Shanghai Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China.,Institute of Traumatic Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Dong-Fu Feng
- Department of Neurosurgery, Shanghai Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China.,Institute of Traumatic Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Pinchi E, Luigi C, Paola S, Gianpietro V, Raoul T, Mauro A, Paola F. MicroRNAs: The New Challenge for Traumatic Brain Injury Diagnosis. Curr Neuropharmacol 2020; 18:319-331. [PMID: 31729300 PMCID: PMC7327940 DOI: 10.2174/1570159x17666191113100808] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2019] [Revised: 09/30/2019] [Accepted: 11/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The acronym TBI refers to traumatic brain injury, an alteration of brain function, or an evidence of brain pathology, that is caused by an external force. TBI is estimated to become the third leading cause of permanent disability and mortality worldwide. TBI-related injuries can be classified in many ways, according to the degree of severity or the pathophysiology of brain injury (primary and secondary damage). Numerous cellular pathways act in secondary brain damage: excitotoxicity (mediated by excitatory neurotransmitters), free radical generation (due to mitochondrial impairment), neuroinflammatory response (due to central nervous system and immunoactivation) and apoptosis. In this scenario, microRNAs are implicated in the regulation of almost all genes at the post-transcriptional level. Several microRNAs have been demonstrated to be specifically expressed in particular cerebral areas; moreover, physiological changes in microRNA expression during normal cerebral development upon the establishment of neural networks have been characterized. More importantly, microRNAs show profound alteration in expression in response to brain pathological states, both traumatic or not. This review summarizes the most important molecular networks involved in TBI and examines the most recent and important findings on TBI-related microRNAs, both in animal and clinical studies. The importance of microRNA research holds promise to find biomarkers able to unearth primary and secondary molecular patterns altered upon TBI, to ultimately identify key points of regulation, as a valuable support in forensic pathology and potential therapeutic targets for clinical treatment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Enrica Pinchi
- Address correspondence to this author at the Department of Anatomical, Histological, Forensic and Orthopaedic Sciences, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy; E-mail:
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
5
|
Hajiaghamemar M, Seidi M, Oeur RA, Margulies SS. Toward development of clinically translatable diagnostic and prognostic metrics of traumatic brain injury using animal models: A review and a look forward. Exp Neurol 2019; 318:101-123. [PMID: 31055005 PMCID: PMC6612432 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2019.04.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2018] [Revised: 04/11/2019] [Accepted: 04/30/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Traumatic brain injury is a leading cause of cognitive and behavioral deficits in children in the US each year. There is an increasing interest in both clinical and pre-clinical studies to discover biomarkers to accurately diagnose traumatic brain injury (TBI), predict its outcomes, and monitor its progression especially in the developing brain. In humans, the heterogeneity of TBI in terms of clinical presentation, injury causation, and mechanism has contributed to the many challenges associated with finding unifying diagnosis, treatment, and management practices. In addition, findings from adult human research may have little application to pediatric TBI, as age and maturation levels affect the injury biomechanics and neurophysiological consequences of injury. Animal models of TBI are vital to address the variability and heterogeneity of TBI seen in human by isolating the causation and mechanism of injury in reproducible manner. However, a gap between the pre-clinical findings and clinical applications remains in TBI research today. To take a step toward bridging this gap, we reviewed several potential TBI tools such as biofluid biomarkers, electroencephalography (EEG), actigraphy, eye responses, and balance that have been explored in both clinical and pre-clinical studies and have shown potential diagnostic, prognostic, or monitoring utility for TBI. Each of these tools measures specific deficits following TBI, is easily accessible, non/minimally invasive, and is potentially highly translatable between animals and human outcomes because they involve effort-independent and non-verbal tasks. Especially conspicuous is the fact that these biomarkers and techniques can be tailored for infants and toddlers. However, translation of preclinical outcomes to clinical applications of these tools necessitates addressing several challenges. Among the challenges are the heterogeneity of clinical TBI, age dependency of some of the biomarkers, different brain structure, life span, and possible variation between temporal profiles of biomarkers in human and animals. Conducting parallel clinical and pre-clinical research, in addition to the integration of findings across species from several pre-clinical models to generate a spectrum of TBI mechanisms and severities is a path toward overcoming some of these challenges. This effort is possible through large scale collaborative research and data sharing across multiple centers. In addition, TBI causes dynamic deficits in multiple domains, and thus, a panel of biomarkers combining these measures to consider different deficits is more promising than a single biomarker for TBI. In this review, each of these tools are presented along with the clinical and pre-clinical findings, advantages, challenges and prospects of translating the pre-clinical knowledge into the human clinical setting.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marzieh Hajiaghamemar
- Wallace H. Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology and Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA.
| | - Morteza Seidi
- Wallace H. Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology and Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - R Anna Oeur
- Wallace H. Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology and Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Susan S Margulies
- Wallace H. Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology and Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Impact Performance Comparison of Advanced Bicycle Helmets with Dedicated Rotation-Damping Systems. Ann Biomed Eng 2019; 48:68-78. [PMID: 31342338 PMCID: PMC6928098 DOI: 10.1007/s10439-019-02328-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2019] [Accepted: 07/17/2019] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Bicycle helmets effectively mitigate skull fractures, but there is increasing concern on their effectiveness in mitigating traumatic brain injury (TBI) caused by rotational head acceleration. Bicycle falls typically involve oblique impacts that induce rotational head acceleration. Recently, bicycle helmet with dedicated rotation-damping systems have been introduced to mitigate rotational head acceleration. This study investigated the impact performance of four helmets with different rotation-damping systems in comparison to a standard bicycle helmet without a rotation-damping system. Impact performance was tested under oblique impact conditions by vertical drops of a helmeted headform onto an oblique anvil at 6.2 m/s impact speed. Helmet performance was quantified in terms of headform kinematics, corresponding TBI risk, and resulting brain strain. Of the four rotation-damping systems, two systems significantly reduced rotational head acceleration, TBI risk, and brain strain compared to the standard bicycle helmet. One system had no significant effect on impact performance compared to control helmets, and one system significantly increase linear and rotational head acceleration by 62 and 61%, respectively. In conclusion, results revealed significant differences in the effectiveness between rotation-damping systems, whereby some rotation-damping systems significantly reduced rotational head acceleration and associated TBI risk.
Collapse
|
7
|
Hiskens MI, Angoa-Pérez M, Schneiders AG, Vella RK, Fenning AS. Modeling sports-related mild traumatic brain injury in animals-A systematic review. J Neurosci Res 2019; 97:1194-1222. [PMID: 31135069 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.24472] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2019] [Revised: 04/22/2019] [Accepted: 05/07/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Sports-related head trauma has emerged as an important public health issue, as mild traumatic brain injuries (mTBIs) may result in neurodegenerative disorders such as chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE). Research into mTBI and CTE pathophysiology are difficult to undertake in athletes, with observational trials and post-mortem analysis the current mainstays. Thus, animal models play an important role in the study of mTBI, however, traditional animal models have focused on acute, severe injuries rather than the more typical mTBI's seen in sport injuries. Recently, a number of animal models have been developed that are both appropriately scaled and biomechanically relevant to the forces sustained by athletes. This review aimed to examine the literature for variables included in these animal models, and the resulting neurotrauma as evidenced by pathology and behavioral deficits. A systematic search of the literature was performed in multiple electronic databases. The inclusion criteria required mimicry of athlete mTBI conditions: freedom of head movement, lack of surgical alteration of the skull, and application of direct contact force. Studies were analyzed for variables including apparatus design features (impact force, change in animal head velocity, and kinetic energy transfer to the head), demonstrated pathology (phosphorylated tau, TDP-43 aggregation, diffuse axonal injury, gliosis, cytokine inflammation response, and genetic integrity), and behavioral changes. These studies suggested that appropriate animal models can assist in understanding the pathological and functional outcomes of athlete mTBI, and could be used as a platform for future studies of diagnostic/prognostic markers and in the development of treatment interventions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Matthew I Hiskens
- School of Health, Medical and Applied Sciences, Central Queensland University, Rockhampton, Australia
| | - Mariana Angoa-Pérez
- Research & Development Service, John D. Dingell VA Medical Center, Detroit, Michigan.,Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurosciences, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, Michigan
| | - Anthony G Schneiders
- School of Health, Medical and Applied Sciences, Central Queensland University, Branyan, Australia
| | - Rebecca K Vella
- School of Health, Medical and Applied Sciences, Central Queensland University, Rockhampton, Australia
| | - Andrew S Fenning
- School of Health, Medical and Applied Sciences, Central Queensland University, Rockhampton, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Bliven E, Rouhier A, Tsai S, Willinger R, Bourdet N, Deck C, Madey SM, Bottlang M. Evaluation of a novel bicycle helmet concept in oblique impact testing. ACCIDENT; ANALYSIS AND PREVENTION 2019; 124:58-65. [PMID: 30634159 PMCID: PMC6743977 DOI: 10.1016/j.aap.2018.12.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2018] [Revised: 11/27/2018] [Accepted: 12/21/2018] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND A novel bicycle helmet concept has been developed to mitigate rotational head acceleration, which is a predominant mechanism of traumatic brain injury (TBI). This WAVECEL concept employs a collapsible cellular structure that is recessed within the helmet to provide a rotational suspension. This cellular concept differs from other bicycle helmet technologies for mitigation of rotational head acceleration, such as the commercially available Multi-Directional Impact Protection System (MIPS) technology which employs a slip liner to permit sliding between the helmet and the head during impact. This study quantified the efficacy of both, the WAVECEL cellular concept, and a MIPS helmet, in direct comparison to a traditional bicycle helmet made of rigid expanded polystyrene (EPS). METHODS Three bicycle helmet types were subjected to oblique impacts in guided vertical drop tests onto an angled anvil: traditional EPS helmets (CONTROL group); helmets with a MIPS slip liner (SLIP group); and helmets with a WAVECEL cellular structure (CELL group). Helmet performance was evaluated using 4.8 m/s impacts onto anvils angled at 30°, 45°, and 60° from the horizontal plane. In addition, helmet performance was tested at a faster speed of 6.2 m/s onto the 45° anvil. Five helmets were tested under each of the four impact conditions for each of the three groups, requiring a total of 60 helmets. Headform kinematics were acquired and used to calculate an injury risk criterion for Abbreviated Injury Score (AIS) 2 brain injury. RESULTS Linear acceleration of the headform remained below 90 g and was not associated with the risk of skull fracture in any impact scenario and helmet type. Headform rotational acceleration in the CONTROL group was highest for 6.2 m/s impacts onto the 45° anvil (7.2 ± 0.6 krad/s2). In this impact scenario, SLIP helmets and CELL helmets reduced rotational acceleration by 22% (p = 0003) and 73% (p < 0.001), respectively, compared to CONTROL helmets. The CONTROL group had the highest AIS 2 brain injury risk of 59 ± 8% for 6.2 m/s impacts onto the 45° anvil. In this impact scenario, SLIP helmets and CELL helmets reduced the AIS 2 brain injury risk to 34.2% (p = 0.001) and 1.2% (p < 0.001), respectively, compared to CONTROL helmets. DISCUSSION Results of this study are limited to a narrow range of impact conditions, but demonstrated the potential that rotational acceleration and the associated brain injury risk can be significantly reduced by the cellular WAVECEL concept or a MIPS slip liner. Results obtained under specific impact angles and impact velocities indicated performance differences between these mechanisms. These differences emphasize the need for continued research and development efforts toward helmet technologies that further improve protection from brain injury over a wide range a realistic impact parameters.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Emily Bliven
- Biomechanics Laboratory, Legacy Research Institute, Portland, OR, 97232, United States
| | - Alexandra Rouhier
- Biomechanics Laboratory, Legacy Research Institute, Portland, OR, 97232, United States
| | - Stanley Tsai
- Biomechanics Laboratory, Legacy Research Institute, Portland, OR, 97232, United States
| | - Rémy Willinger
- Institut de Mécanique des Fluides et des Solides, Université de Strasbourg, France
| | - Nicolas Bourdet
- Institut de Mécanique des Fluides et des Solides, Université de Strasbourg, France
| | - Caroline Deck
- Institut de Mécanique des Fluides et des Solides, Université de Strasbourg, France
| | - Steven M Madey
- Biomechanics Laboratory, Legacy Research Institute, Portland, OR, 97232, United States
| | - Michael Bottlang
- Biomechanics Laboratory, Legacy Research Institute, Portland, OR, 97232, United States.
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
McAteer KM, Turner RJ, Corrigan F. Animal models of chronic traumatic encephalopathy. Concussion 2017; 2:CNC32. [PMID: 30202573 PMCID: PMC6093772 DOI: 10.2217/cnc-2016-0031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2016] [Accepted: 01/25/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Repeated head impacts have been suggested to be associated with the development of the neurodegenerative disorder, chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE). CTE is characterized by the accumulation of hyperphosphorylated tau within the brain, with accompanying cognitive and behavioral deficits. How a history of repeated head impacts can lead to the later development of CTE is not yet known, and as such appropriate animal models are required. Over the last decade a number of rodent models of repeated mild traumatic brain injury have been developed that are broadly based on traditional traumatic brain injury models, in controlled cortical impact, fluid percussion and weight drop models, with adaptations to allow for better modeling of the mechanical forces associated with concussion.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kelly M McAteer
- Discipline of Anatomy & Pathology, Adelaide Medical School, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia
| | - Renee J Turner
- Discipline of Anatomy & Pathology, Adelaide Medical School, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia
| | - Frances Corrigan
- Discipline of Anatomy & Pathology, Adelaide Medical School, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Vink R. Large animal models of traumatic brain injury. J Neurosci Res 2017; 96:527-535. [PMID: 28500771 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.24079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2017] [Revised: 03/14/2017] [Accepted: 04/12/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Animal models are essential to gain a deeper understanding of the pathophysiology associated with traumatic brain injury (TBI). Rodent models of TBI have proven highly valuable with respect to the information they have provided over the years, particularly when it comes to the molecular understanding of injury mechanisms. However, there has been a failure to translate the successes in therapeutic treatment of TBI in rodents, which many believe may be related to their different brain anatomy compared with humans. Specifically, the rodent lissencephalic brain within its bony skull responds differently to injury than a human gyrencephalic brain, particularly from a biomechanical and physiological perspective. There is now far greater interest in developing more clinically relevant, large animal models of TBI so as to enhance the possibility of successful clinical translation. The current mini-review highlights the differences between lissencephalic and gyrencephalic brains, emphasizing how these differences might impact studies of TBI. Thereafter follows a summary of the different large animal models, with a critical analysis of their strengths and weaknesses.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Robert Vink
- Sansom Institute for Health Research, University of South Australia, Adelaide, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Shultz SR, McDonald SJ, Vonder Haar C, Meconi A, Vink R, van Donkelaar P, Taneja C, Iverson GL, Christie BR. The potential for animal models to provide insight into mild traumatic brain injury: Translational challenges and strategies. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2016; 76:396-414. [PMID: 27659125 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.09.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2015] [Revised: 09/07/2016] [Accepted: 09/16/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) is a common health problem. There is tremendous variability and heterogeneity in human mTBI, including mechanisms of injury, biomechanical forces, injury severity, spatial and temporal pathophysiology, genetic factors, pre-injury vulnerability and resilience factors, and clinical outcomes. Animal models greatly reduce this variability and heterogeneity, and provide a means to study mTBI in a rigorous, controlled, and efficient manner. Rodent models, in particular, are time- and cost-efficient, and they allow researchers to measure morphological, cellular, molecular, and behavioral variables in a single study. However, inter-species differences in anatomy, morphology, metabolism, neurobiology, and lifespan create translational challenges. Although the term "mild" TBI is used often in the pre-clinical literature, clearly defined criteria for mild, moderate, and severe TBI in animal models have not been agreed upon. In this review, we introduce current issues facing the mTBI field, summarize the available research methodologies and previous studies in mTBI animal models, and discuss how a translational research approach may be useful in advancing our understanding and management of mTBI.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sandy R Shultz
- Department of Medicine, The Royal Melbourne Hospital, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia.
| | - Stuart J McDonald
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Microbiology, La Trobe University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Cole Vonder Haar
- Department of Psychology, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Alicia Meconi
- Division of Medical Sciences, The University of Victoria, Victoria, BC, Canada
| | - Robert Vink
- Division of Health Sciences, The University of South Australia, Adelaide, SA, Australia
| | - Paul van Donkelaar
- School of Health and Exercise Sciences, The University of British Columbia Okanagan, Kelowna, BC, Canada
| | - Chand Taneja
- Division of Medical Sciences, The University of Victoria, Victoria, BC, Canada
| | - Grant L Iverson
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Harvard Medical School, Spaulding Rehabilitation Hospital, Home Base, A Red Sox Foundation and Massachusetts General Hospital Program, and MassGeneral Hospital for Children™ Sports Concussion Program, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Brian R Christie
- Division of Medical Sciences, The University of Victoria, Victoria, BC, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Prediction of Post-Concussive Behavioral Changes in a Rodent Model Based on Head Rotational Acceleration Characteristics. Ann Biomed Eng 2016; 44:3252-3265. [PMID: 27188340 PMCID: PMC5093216 DOI: 10.1007/s10439-016-1647-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2016] [Accepted: 05/11/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Quantifying injury tolerance for concussion is complicated by variability in the type, severity, and time course of post-injury physiological and behavioral changes. The current study outlined acute and chronic changes in behavioral metrics following rotational acceleration-induced concussion in rats. The Medical College of Wisconsin (MCW) rotational injury model independently controlled magnitude and duration of the rotational acceleration pulse. Increasing rotational acceleration magnitude produced longer recovery times, which were used in this study and our prior work as an assessment of acute injury severity. However, longer duration rotational accelerations produced changes in emotionality as measured using the elevated plus maze. Cognitive deficits were for the most part not apparent in the Morris water maze assessment, possibly due to the lower severity of rotational acceleration pulses incorporated in this study. Changes in emotionality evolved between acute and chronic assessments, in some cases increasing in severity and in others reversing polarity. These findings highlight the complexity of quantifying injury tolerance for concussion and demonstrate a need to incorporate rotational acceleration magnitude and duration in proposed injury tolerance metrics. Rotational velocity on its own was not a strong predictor of the magnitude or type of acute behavioral changes following concussion, although its combination with rotational acceleration magnitude using multivariate analysis was the strongest predictor for acute recovery time and some chronic emotional-type behavioral changes.
Collapse
|
13
|
Cullen DK, Harris JP, Browne KD, Wolf JA, Duda JE, Meaney DF, Margulies SS, Smith DH. A Porcine Model of Traumatic Brain Injury via Head Rotational Acceleration. Methods Mol Biol 2016; 1462:289-324. [PMID: 27604725 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-3816-2_17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Unique from other brain disorders, traumatic brain injury (TBI) generally results from a discrete biomechanical event that induces rapid head movement. The large size and high organization of the human brain makes it particularly vulnerable to traumatic injury from rotational accelerations that can cause dynamic deformation of the brain tissue. Therefore, replicating the injury biomechanics of human TBI in animal models presents a substantial challenge, particularly with regard to addressing brain size and injury parameters. Here we present the historical development and use of a porcine model of head rotational acceleration. By scaling up the rotational forces to account for difference in brain mass between swine and humans, this model has been shown to produce the same tissue deformations and identical neuropathologies found in human TBI. The parameters of scaled rapid angular accelerations applied for the model reproduce inertial forces generated when the human head suddenly accelerates or decelerates in falls, collisions, or blunt impacts. The model uses custom-built linkage assemblies and a powerful linear actuator designed to produce purely impulsive non-impact head rotation in different angular planes at controlled rotational acceleration levels. Through a range of head rotational kinematics, this model can produce functional and neuropathological changes across the spectrum from concussion to severe TBI. Notably, however, the model is very difficult to employ, requiring a highly skilled team for medical management, biomechanics, neurological recovery, and specialized outcome measures including neuromonitoring, neurophysiology, neuroimaging, and neuropathology. Nonetheless, while challenging, this clinically relevant model has proven valuable for identifying mechanisms of acute and progressive neuropathologies as well as for the evaluation of noninvasive diagnostic techniques and potential neuroprotective treatments following TBI.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- D Kacy Cullen
- Center for Brain Injury & Repair, Department of Neurosurgery, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, 105E Hayden Hall/3320 Smith Walk, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA. .,Department of Neurology, Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Philadelphia, PA, USA. .,Department of Neurology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
| | - James P Harris
- Department of Neurology, Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Philadelphia, PA, USA.,Center for Brain Injury & Repair, Department of Neurosurgery, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, 105 Hayden Hall/3320 Smith Walk, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Kevin D Browne
- Department of Neurology, Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Philadelphia, PA, USA.,Center for Brain Injury & Repair, Department of Neurosurgery, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, 105 Hayden Hall/3320 Smith Walk, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - John A Wolf
- Department of Neurology, Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Philadelphia, PA, USA.,Center for Brain Injury & Repair, Department of Neurosurgery, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, 371 Stemmler Hall, 3450 Hamilton Walk, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - John E Duda
- Department of Neurology, Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - David F Meaney
- Center for Brain Injury & Repair, Department of Neurosurgery, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, 105C Hayden Hall/3320 Smith Walk, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Susan S Margulies
- Department of Bioengineering, School of Engineering and Applied Science, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA.,Center for Brain Injury & Repair, Department of Neurosurgery, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, 105D Hayden Hall/3320 Smith Walk, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Douglas H Smith
- Center for Brain Injury & Repair, Department of Neurosurgery, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, 105E Hayden Hall/3320 Smith Walk, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Hue CD, Cho FS, Cao S, Nicholls RE, Vogel Iii EW, Sibindi C, Arancio O, Dale Bass CR, Meaney DF, Morrison Iii B. Time Course and Size of Blood-Brain Barrier Opening in a Mouse Model of Blast-Induced Traumatic Brain Injury. J Neurotrauma 2015; 33:1202-11. [PMID: 26414212 DOI: 10.1089/neu.2015.4067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
An increasing number of studies have reported blood-brain barrier (BBB) dysfunction after blast-induced traumatic brain injury (bTBI). Despite this evidence, there is limited quantitative understanding of the extent of BBB opening and the time course of damage after blast injury. In addition, many studies do not report kinematic parameters of head motion, making it difficult to separate contributions of primary and tertiary blast-loading. Detailed characterization of blast-induced BBB damage may hold important implications for serum constituents that may potentially cross the compromised barrier and contribute to neurotoxicity, neuroinflammation, and persistent neurologic deficits. Using an in vivo bTBI model, systemic administration of sodium fluorescein (NaFl; 376 Da), Evans blue (EB; 69 kDa when bound to serum albumin), and dextrans (3-500 kDa) was used to estimate the pore size of BBB opening and the time required for recovery. Exposure to blast with 272 ± 6 kPa peak overpressure, 0.69 ± 0.01 ms duration, and 65 ± 1 kPa*ms impulse resulted in significant acute extravasation of NaFl, 3 kDa dextran, and EB. However, there was no significant acute extravasation of 70 kDa or 500 kDa dextrans, and minimal to no extravasation of NaFl, dextrans, or EB 1 day after exposure. This study presents a detailed analysis of the time course and pore size of BBB opening after bTBI, supported by a characterization of kinematic parameters associated with blast-induced head motion.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Christopher D Hue
- 1 Department of Biomedical Engineering, Columbia University , New York, New York
| | - Frances S Cho
- 1 Department of Biomedical Engineering, Columbia University , New York, New York
| | - Siqi Cao
- 1 Department of Biomedical Engineering, Columbia University , New York, New York
| | - Russell E Nicholls
- 2 Taub Institute for Research on Alzheimer's Disease and the Aging Brain, Columbia University , New York, New York
| | - Edward W Vogel Iii
- 1 Department of Biomedical Engineering, Columbia University , New York, New York
| | - Cosmas Sibindi
- 1 Department of Biomedical Engineering, Columbia University , New York, New York
| | - Ottavio Arancio
- 2 Taub Institute for Research on Alzheimer's Disease and the Aging Brain, Columbia University , New York, New York
| | - Cameron R Dale Bass
- 3 Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University , Durham, North Carolina
| | - David F Meaney
- 4 Department of Bioengineering, University of Pennsylvania , Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Barclay Morrison Iii
- 1 Department of Biomedical Engineering, Columbia University , New York, New York
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Little DM, Cook AJ, Morissette SB, Klocek JW. Considerations for return to work following traumatic brain injury. HANDBOOK OF CLINICAL NEUROLOGY 2015; 131:465-479. [PMID: 26563804 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-444-62627-1.00027-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Population-based studies have demonstrated that a history positive for traumatic brain injury (TBI) can result in cognitive impairment, behavioral alterations, and pain. These outcomes can and do influence occupational function, can affect others in the workplace, and raise concerns about workplace safety upon re-entry to the workplace. Risk for long-term impairment and disability can in some cases be mitigated by assessment of capabilities relative to job duties, conservative return-to-work schedules, and, in some cases, interventions to support that return. For those in occupations at high risk for brain injury, including first responders, soldiers, and construction workers, the long-term risk of brain injury as a risk factor for neurodegenerative disease must and should inform increased concern for those with repeated injuries to the brain over the course of their lifetime and career. This chapter reviews the risks of TBI, considers factors that optimize functional recovery, and discusses potential interventions and factors that aid in return to the workplace.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Deborah M Little
- Baylor Scott and White Healthcare, Temple, TX, USA; Neuroscience Institute, Texas A&M Health Science Center College of Medicine, Temple, TX, USA.
| | - Andrew J Cook
- Neuroscience Institute, Texas A&M Health Science Center College of Medicine, Temple, TX, USA; Central Texas Veterans Healthcare System, Temple, TX, USA
| | - Sandra B Morissette
- Neuroscience Institute, Texas A&M Health Science Center College of Medicine, Temple, TX, USA; Central Texas Veterans Healthcare System, Temple, TX, USA
| | - John W Klocek
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Baylor University, Waco, TX, USA
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Namjoshi DR, Cheng WH, McInnes KA, Martens KM, Carr M, Wilkinson A, Fan J, Robert J, Hayat A, Cripton PA, Wellington CL. Merging pathology with biomechanics using CHIMERA (Closed-Head Impact Model of Engineered Rotational Acceleration): a novel, surgery-free model of traumatic brain injury. Mol Neurodegener 2014; 9:55. [PMID: 25443413 PMCID: PMC4269957 DOI: 10.1186/1750-1326-9-55] [Citation(s) in RCA: 130] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2014] [Accepted: 11/20/2014] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a major health care concern that currently lacks any effective treatment. Despite promising outcomes from many preclinical studies, clinical evaluations have failed to identify effective pharmacological therapies, suggesting that the translational potential of preclinical models may require improvement. Rodents continue to be the most widely used species for preclinical TBI research. As most human TBIs result from impact to an intact skull, closed head injury (CHI) models are highly relevant, however, traditional CHI models suffer from extensive experimental variability that may be due to poor control over biomechanical inputs. Here we describe a novel CHI model called CHIMERA (Closed-Head Impact Model of Engineered Rotational Acceleration) that fully integrates biomechanical, behavioral, and neuropathological analyses. CHIMERA is distinct from existing neurotrauma model systems in that it uses a completely non-surgical procedure to precisely deliver impacts of prescribed dynamic characteristics to a closed skull while enabling kinematic analysis of unconstrained head movement. In this study, we characterized head kinematics as well as functional, neuropathological, and biochemical outcomes up to 14d following repeated TBI (rTBI) in adult C57BL/6 mice using CHIMERA. Results Head kinematic analysis showed excellent repeatability over two closed head impacts separated at 24h. Injured mice showed significantly prolonged loss of righting reflex and displayed neurological, motor, and cognitive deficits along with anxiety-like behavior. Repeated TBI led to diffuse axonal injury with extensive microgliosis in white matter from 2-14d post-rTBI. Injured mouse brains also showed significantly increased levels of TNF-α and IL-1β and increased endogenous tau phosphorylation. Conclusions Repeated TBI using CHIMERA mimics many of the functional and pathological characteristics of human TBI with a reliable biomechanical response of the head. This makes CHIMERA well suited to investigate the pathophysiology of TBI and for drug development programs. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/1750-1326-9-55) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Cheryl L Wellington
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Namjoshi DR, Good C, Cheng WH, Panenka W, Richards D, Cripton PA, Wellington CL. Towards clinical management of traumatic brain injury: a review of models and mechanisms from a biomechanical perspective. Dis Model Mech 2013; 6:1325-38. [PMID: 24046354 PMCID: PMC3820257 DOI: 10.1242/dmm.011320] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a major worldwide healthcare problem. Despite promising outcomes from many preclinical studies, the failure of several clinical studies to identify effective therapeutic and pharmacological approaches for TBI suggests that methods to improve the translational potential of preclinical studies are highly desirable. Rodent models of TBI are increasingly in demand for preclinical research, particularly for closed head injury (CHI), which mimics the most common type of TBI observed clinically. Although seemingly simple to establish, CHI models are particularly prone to experimental variability. Promisingly, bioengineering-oriented research has advanced our understanding of the nature of the mechanical forces and resulting head and brain motion during TBI. However, many neuroscience-oriented laboratories lack guidance with respect to fundamental biomechanical principles of TBI. Here, we review key historical and current literature that is relevant to the investigation of TBI from clinical, physiological and biomechanical perspectives, and comment on how the current challenges associated with rodent TBI models, particularly those involving CHI, could be improved.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dhananjay R Namjoshi
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V5Z 4H4, Canada
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
18
|
Abstract
Diffuse axonal injury (DAI) remains a prominent feature of human traumatic brain injury (TBI) and a major player in its subsequent morbidity. The importance of this widespread axonal damage has been confirmed by multiple approaches including routine postmortem neuropathology as well as advanced imaging, which is now capable of detecting the signatures of traumatically induced axonal injury across a spectrum of traumatically brain-injured persons. Despite the increased interest in DAI and its overall implications for brain-injured patients, many questions remain about this component of TBI and its potential therapeutic targeting. To address these deficiencies and to identify future directions needed to fill critical gaps in our understanding of this component of TBI, the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke hosted a workshop in May 2011. This workshop sought to determine what is known regarding the pathogenesis of DAI in animal models of injury as well as in the human clinical setting. The workshop also addressed new tools to aid in the identification of this axonal injury while also identifying more rational therapeutic targets linked to DAI for continued preclinical investigation and, ultimately, clinical translation. This report encapsulates the oral and written components of this workshop addressing key features regarding the pathobiology of DAI, the biomechanics implicated in its initiating pathology, and those experimental animal modeling considerations that bear relevance to the biomechanical features of human TBI. Parallel considerations of alternate forms of DAI detection including, but not limited to, advanced neuroimaging, electrophysiological, biomarker, and neurobehavioral evaluations are included, together with recommendations for how these technologies can be better used and integrated for a more comprehensive appreciation of the pathobiology of DAI and its overall structural and functional implications. Lastly, the document closes with a thorough review of the targets linked to the pathogenesis of DAI, while also presenting a detailed report of those target-based therapies that have been used, to date, with a consideration of their overall implications for future preclinical discovery and subsequent translation to the clinic. Although all participants realize that various research gaps remained in our understanding and treatment of this complex component of TBI, this workshop refines these issues providing, for the first time, a comprehensive appreciation of what has been done and what critical needs remain unfulfilled.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Douglas H. Smith
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Ramona Hicks
- National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - John T. Povlishock
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Medical College of Virginia Campus, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
MAO HAOJIE, WAGNER CHRISTINA, GUAN FENGJIAO, YENI YENERN, YANG KINGH. MATERIAL PROPERTIES OF ADULT RAT SKULL. J MECH MED BIOL 2012. [DOI: 10.1142/s021951941100423x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Development of advanced computational rat head models requires accurate material properties of the rat brain, meninges, skull, and other soft tissues. This study investigated adult rat skull material properties, which are very limited in the current literature. A total of 20 skull specimens were harvested from 10 adult rats. High resolution (16 μm) microcomputed tomography scans were performed for each specimen to observe dimensional changes within each specimen and internal porosities through the cross sections. The specimens were tested in three-point bending at loading velocities of 0.02 and 200 mm/s. The elastic modulus, energy absorbed to failure, energy density, and bending stress were calculated using classical beam theory. Results demonstrated that bending velocity (strain rate) had significant effect on elastic modulus and bending stress, but not on energy and energy density. The Young's moduli of rat skull measured in this study were comparable to those measured from the adult human skull.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- HAOJIE MAO
- Bioengineering Center, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, 48201, USA
| | - CHRISTINA WAGNER
- Bioengineering Center, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, 48201, USA
| | - FENGJIAO GUAN
- State Key Laboratory of Advanced Design and Manufacturing for Vehicle Body, Hunan University, Changsha City, Hunan, China
| | | | - KING H. YANG
- Bioengineering Center, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, 48201, USA
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Li Y, Zhang L, Kallakuri S, Zhou R, Cavanaugh JM. Injury predictors for traumatic axonal injury in a rodent head impact acceleration model. STAPP CAR CRASH JOURNAL 2011; 55:25-47. [PMID: 22869303 DOI: 10.4271/2011-22-0002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
A modified Marmarou impact acceleration injury model was developed to study the kinematics of the rat head to quantify traumatic axonal injury (TAI) in the corpus callosum (CC) and brainstem pyramidal tract (Py), to determine injury predictors and to establish injury thresholds for severe TAI. Thirty-one anesthetized male Sprague-Dawley rats (392±13 grams) were impacted using a modified impact acceleration injury device from 2.25 m and 1.25 m heights. Beta-amyloid precursor protein (β-APP) immunocytochemistry was used to assess and quantify axonal changes in CC and Py. Over 600 injury maps in CC and Py were constructed in the 31 impacted rats. TAI distribution along the rostro-caudal direction in CC and Py was determined. Linear and angular responses of the rat head were monitored and measured in vivo with an attached accelerometer and angular rate sensor, and were correlated to TAI data. Logistic regression analysis suggested that the occurrence of severe TAI in CC was best predicted by average linear acceleration, followed by power and time to surface righting. The combination of average linear acceleration and time to surface righting showed an improved predictive result. In Py, severe TAI was best predicted by time to surface righting, followed by peak and average angular velocity. When both CC and Py were combined, power was the best predictor, and the combined average linear acceleration and average angular velocity was also found to have good injury predictive ability. Receiver operator characteristic curves were used to assess the predictive power of individual and paired injury predictors. TAI tolerance curves were also proposed in this study.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yan Li
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan 48202, USA
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
21
|
Viano DC, Hamberger A, Bolouri H, Säljö A. Evaluation of three animal models for concussion and serious brain injury. Ann Biomed Eng 2011; 40:213-26. [PMID: 22012080 DOI: 10.1007/s10439-011-0386-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2011] [Accepted: 08/22/2011] [Indexed: 10/16/2022]
Abstract
Three animal models were evaluated in this study involving head impacts of the rat, including the Marmarou drop-weight and two momentum-exchange techniques. In series 1, 36 Wistar rats were hit on the side of the free-moving head using Marmarou's 450 g impact mass at 4.4, 5.4, and 6.3 m/s. Head acceleration was measured and injuries were observed. The 6.3-m/s side impact resulted in no deaths, no skull fractures, infrequent contusions, and some injuries consistent with diffuse axonal injury. In series 2, 57 Marmarou drop-weight tests were conducted to study head biomechanical responses. Marmarou's technique involves a head impact followed by prolonged loading into a foam pad under the animal. Based on the literature, the 2 m (6.3 m/s) Marmarou drop causes death, skull fracture, brain and spinal cord contusions, and diffuse axonal injury. These injuries are more severe than that occurring with impact of similar mass and velocity to the free-moving head. Impacts to the free-moving head provide more realistic animal models to study concussion and severe brain injury.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- David C Viano
- ProBiomechanics LLC, 265 Warrington Rd., Bloomfield Hills, MI 48304, USA.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
22
|
Davidsson J, Risling M. A new model to produce sagittal plane rotational induced diffuse axonal injuries. Front Neurol 2011; 2:41. [PMID: 21747777 PMCID: PMC3128930 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2011.00041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2011] [Accepted: 06/08/2011] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
A new in vivo animal model that produces diffuse brain injuries in sagittal plane rearward rotational acceleration has been developed. In this model, the skull of an anesthetized adult rat is tightly secured to a rotating bar. During trauma, the bar is impacted by a striker that causes the bar and the animal head to rotate rearward; the acceleration phase last 0.4 ms and is followed by a rotation at constant speed and a gentle deceleration when the bar makes contact with a padded stop. The total head angle change is less than 30°. By adjusting the air pressure in the rifle used to accelerate the striker, resulting rotational acceleration between 0.3 and 2.1 Mrad/s2 can be produced. Numerous combinations of trauma levels, post-trauma survival times, brain and serum retrieval, and tissue preparation techniques were adopted to characterize this new model. The trauma caused subdural bleedings in animals exposed to severe trauma. Staining brain tissue with β-Amyloid Precursor Protein antibodies and FD Neurosilver that detect degenerating axons revealed wide spread axonal injuries (AI) in the corpus callosum, the border between the corpus callosum and cortex and in tracts in the brain stem. The observed AIs were apparent only when the rotational acceleration level was moderate and above. On the contrary, only limited signs of contusion injuries were observed following trauma. Macrophage invasions, glial fibrillary acidic protein redistribution or hypertrophy, and blood brain barrier (BBB) changes were unusual. S100 serum analyses indicate that blood vessel and glia cell injuries occur following moderate levels of trauma despite the absence of obvious BBB injuries. We conclude that this rotational trauma model is capable of producing graded axonal injury, is repeatable and produces limited other types of traumatic brain injuries and as such is useful in the study of injury biomechanics, diagnostics, and treatment strategies following diffuse axonal injury.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Johan Davidsson
- Vehicle Safety Division, Department of Applied Mechanics, Chalmers University of Technology Göteborg, Sweden
| | | |
Collapse
|
23
|
Krave U, Al-Olama M, Hansson HA. Rotational acceleration closed head flexion trauma generates more extensive diffuse brain injury than extension trauma. J Neurotrauma 2011; 28:57-70. [PMID: 21047148 DOI: 10.1089/neu.2010.1431] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Our aim was to investigate if seemingly identical head and neck trauma would generate differing types of brain damage. We experimentally evaluated induced brain injuries immediately after trauma exposure, and at 1 week post-injury. Anesthetized rabbits were exposed once to a sagittal rotational acceleration head and neck injury at either a high or a low load level, using either flexion or extension. A high-load extension trauma induced scattered meningeal petechial hemorrhages and no deaths, in contrast to a flexion trauma of the same level, which resulted in extensive parenchymal and meningeal hemorrhages, and all animals succumbed immediately. A low-level flexion trauma induced scattered meningeal petechiae, but no gross damage, while extension at the same force generated no macroscopically visible acute brain injury. Immunohistochemical investigations carried out at 7 days disclosed that a low-level flexion trauma, as well as both low- and high-level extension exposures, all induced diffuse brain injuries in the cerebral cortex and white matter, corpus callosum, hippocampus, brainstem, and cerebellum, as revealed by abnormal distribution of neurofilaments, a prevalence of β-amyloid precursor protein, and astrogliosis. The diffuse brain injury seen after a low-level flexion trauma was equal to or more extensive than that seen after a high-level extension trauma. A low-level extension trauma induced only minor histopathological abnormalities. We conclude that a sagittal rotational acceleration trauma of the head and neck induced diffuse brain injury, and that flexion caused more extensive damage than extension at the same applied load.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ulrika Krave
- Division of Vehicle Safety, Applied Mechanics, Chalmers University of Technology, Göteborg, Sweden
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
24
|
Li XY, Li J, Feng DF, Gu L. Diffuse axonal injury induced by simultaneous moderate linear and angular head accelerations in rats. Neuroscience 2010; 169:357-69. [PMID: 20451584 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2010.04.075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2010] [Revised: 04/12/2010] [Accepted: 04/26/2010] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Diffuse axonal injury (DAI) is one of the most common and important pathologic features of human traumatic brain injury (TBI), accounting for high mortality and development of persistent post-traumatic neurologic sequelae. Although a relatively high number of therapies have been shown to be effective in experimental models, there are currently few treatments that are effective for improving the prognosis of clinical DAI. A major reason is the failure of current models to validly reproduce the pathophysiological characteristics observed after clinical DAI. In the present study, we employed a specially designed, highly controllable model to induce a sudden rotation in the coronal plane (75 degrees rotation at 1.6x10(4) degrees/s) combined with lateral translation (1.57 cm displacement at 3.4x10(2) cm/s) to the rat's head. We were interested in discovering whether the combined accelerations could reproduce the pathophysiological changes analogous to those seen in human DAI. The axonal injury as assessed with amyloid protein precursor (APP) as a marker was consistently present in all injured rats. The commonly injured brain regions included the subcortical regions, deep white matter, corpus callosum and brain stem. The evolution of APP accumulations in brain sections depicted the detailed progression of axonal pathology. Ultrastructural studies gave further insights into the presence and progression of axonal injury. All injured rats exhibited transient physiological dysfunction, as well as immediate and dramatic neurological impairment that still persisted at 14 days after injury. These results suggest that this model reproduced the major pathophysiological changes analogous to those observed after severe clinical TBI and provides an attractive vehicle for experimental brain injury research.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- X Y Li
- Department of Neurosurgery, No.3 People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, PR China
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
25
|
Wang HC, Duan ZX, Wu FF, Xie L, Zhang H, Ma YB. A New Rat Model for Diffuse Axonal Injury Using a Combination of Linear Acceleration and Angular Acceleration. J Neurotrauma 2010; 27:707-19. [PMID: 20039778 DOI: 10.1089/neu.2009.1071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Hong-Cai Wang
- Department of Neurosurgery, NO.3 People's Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Baoshan District, Shanghai, China
| | - Zhi-Xin Duan
- Department of Neurosurgery, NO.3 People's Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Baoshan District, Shanghai, China
| | - Fang-Fang Wu
- Department of Neurosurgery, NO.3 People's Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Baoshan District, Shanghai, China
| | - Le Xie
- National Die & Mould Engineering Research Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Hong Zhang
- Department of Neurosurgery, NO.3 People's Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Baoshan District, Shanghai, China
| | - Yan-Bin Ma
- Department of Neurosurgery, NO.3 People's Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Baoshan District, Shanghai, China
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
Wang HC, Ma YB. Experimental models of traumatic axonal injury. J Clin Neurosci 2009; 17:157-62. [PMID: 20042337 DOI: 10.1016/j.jocn.2009.07.099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2009] [Revised: 07/27/2009] [Accepted: 07/28/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is one of the leading causes of death in people under 45 years of age worldwide. Such injury is characterized by a wide spectrum of mechanisms of injury and pathologies. Traumatic axonal injury (TAI), originally described as diffuse axonal injury, is one of the most common pathological features of TBI and is thought to be responsible for the long-lasting neurological impairments following TBI. Since the late 1980s a series of in vivo and in vitro experimental models of TAI have been developed to better understand the complex mechanisms of axonal injury and to define the relationship between mechanical forces and the structural and functional changes of injured axons. These models are designed to mimic as closely as possible the clinical condition of human TAI and have greatly improved our understanding of different aspects of TAI. The present review summarizes the most widely used experimental models of TAI. Focusing in particular on in vivo models, this survey aims to provide a broad overview of current knowledge and controversies in the development and use of the experimental models of TAI.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hong-Cai Wang
- Department of Neurosurgery, No. 3 People's Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Baoshan, Shanghai 201900, China
| | | |
Collapse
|
27
|
Animal models of human cerebellar ataxias: a cornerstone for the therapies of the twenty-first century. THE CEREBELLUM 2009; 8:137-54. [PMID: 19669387 DOI: 10.1007/s12311-009-0127-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Cerebellar ataxias represent a group of disabling neurological disorders. Our understanding of the pathogenesis of cerebellar ataxias is continuously expanding. A considerable number of laboratory animals with neurological mutations have been reported and numerous relevant animal models mimicking the phenotype of cerebellar ataxias are becoming available. These models greatly help dissecting the numerous mechanisms of cerebellar dysfunction, a major step for the assessment of therapeutics targeting a given deleterious pathway and for the screening of old or newly synthesized chemical compounds. Nevertheless, differences between animal models and human disorders should not be overlooked and difficulties in terms of characterization should not be occulted. The identification of the mutations of many hereditary ataxias, the development of valuable animal models, and the recent identifications of the molecular mechanisms underlying cerebellar disorders represent a combination of key factors for the development of anti-ataxic innovative therapies. It is anticipated that the twenty-first century will be the century of effective therapies in the field of cerebellar ataxias. The animal models are a cornerstone to reach this goal.
Collapse
|
28
|
Ivancevic VG. New mechanics of traumatic brain injury. Cogn Neurodyn 2009; 3:281-93. [PMID: 19031012 PMCID: PMC2727160 DOI: 10.1007/s11571-008-9070-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2008] [Revised: 10/26/2008] [Accepted: 10/26/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The prediction and prevention of traumatic brain injury is a very important aspect of preventive medical science. This paper proposes a new coupled loading-rate hypothesis for the traumatic brain injury (TBI), which states that the main cause of the TBI is an external Euclidean jolt, or SE(3)-jolt, an impulsive loading that strikes the head in several coupled degrees-of-freedom simultaneously. To show this, based on the previously defined covariant force law, we formulate the coupled Newton-Euler dynamics of brain's micro-motions within the cerebrospinal fluid and derive from it the coupled SE(3)-jolt dynamics. The SE(3)-jolt is a cause of the TBI in two forms of brain's rapid discontinuous deformations: translational dislocations and rotational disclinations. Brain's dislocations and disclinations, caused by the SE(3)-jolt, are described using the Cosserat multipolar viscoelastic continuum brain model.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Vladimir G Ivancevic
- Land Operations Division, Defence Science & Technology Organisation, Adelaide, SA, Australia,
| |
Collapse
|
29
|
Potts MB, Adwanikar H, Noble-Haeusslein LJ. Models of traumatic cerebellar injury. THE CEREBELLUM 2009; 8:211-21. [PMID: 19495901 PMCID: PMC2734258 DOI: 10.1007/s12311-009-0114-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2009] [Accepted: 05/07/2009] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a major cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Studies of human TBI demonstrate that the cerebellum is sometimes affected even when the initial mechanical insult is directed to the cerebral cortex. Some of the components of TBI, including ataxia, postural instability, tremor, impairments in balance and fine motor skills, and even cognitive deficits, may be attributed in part to cerebellar damage. Animal models of TBI have begun to explore the vulnerability of the cerebellum. In this paper, we review the clinical presentation, pathogenesis, and putative mechanisms underlying cerebellar damage with an emphasis on experimental models that have been used to further elucidate this poorly understood but important aspect of TBI. Animal models of indirect (supratentorial) trauma to the cerebellum, including fluid percussion, controlled cortical impact, weight drop impact acceleration, and rotational acceleration injuries, are considered. In addition, we describe models that produce direct trauma to the cerebellum as well as those that reproduce specific components of TBI including axotomy, stab injury, in vitro stretch injury, and excitotoxicity. Overall, these models reveal robust characteristics of cerebellar damage including regionally specific Purkinje cell injury or loss, activation of glia in a distinct spatial pattern, and traumatic axonal injury. Further research is needed to better understand the mechanisms underlying the pathogenesis of cerebellar trauma, and the experimental models discussed here offer an important first step toward achieving that objective.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Matthew B Potts
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of California, Brain and Spinal Injury Center, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
30
|
Hamberger A, Viano DC, Säljö A, Bolouri H. CONCUSSION IN PROFESSIONAL FOOTBALL. Neurosurgery 2009; 64:1174-82; discussion 1182. [DOI: 10.1227/01.neu.0000316855.40986.2a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Anders Hamberger
- Institute of Biomedicine, Section of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Göteborg, Göteborg, Sweden
| | - David C. Viano
- Mild Traumatic Brain Injury Committee, National Football League, New York, New York; and ProBiomechanics LLC, Bloomfield Hills, Michigan
| | - Annette Säljö
- Institute of Biomedicine, Section of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Göteborg, Göteborg, Sweden
| | - Hayde Bolouri
- Institute of Biomedicine, Section of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Göteborg, Göteborg, Sweden
| |
Collapse
|
31
|
Viano DC, Hamberger A, Bolouri H, Säljö A. CONCUSSION IN PROFESSIONAL FOOTBALL. Neurosurgery 2009; 64:1162-73; discussion 1173. [DOI: 10.1227/01.neu.0000345863.99099.c7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- David C. Viano
- Mild Traumatic Brain Injury Committee, National Football League, New York, New York, and ProBiomechanics LLC, Bloomfield Hills, Michigan
| | - Anders Hamberger
- Institute of Biomedicine, Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Hayde Bolouri
- Institute of Biomedicine, Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Annette Säljö
- Institute of Biomedicine, Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| |
Collapse
|
32
|
|
33
|
Yoganandan N, Li J, Zhang J, Pintar FA, Gennarelli TA. Influence of angular acceleration–deceleration pulse shapes on regional brain strains. J Biomech 2008; 41:2253-62. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiomech.2008.04.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2008] [Revised: 04/10/2008] [Accepted: 04/14/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
|
34
|
Cloots RJH, Gervaise HMT, van Dommelen JAW, Geers MGD. Biomechanics of traumatic brain injury: influences of the morphologic heterogeneities of the cerebral cortex. Ann Biomed Eng 2008; 36:1203-15. [PMID: 18465248 PMCID: PMC2413127 DOI: 10.1007/s10439-008-9510-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2007] [Accepted: 04/28/2008] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) can be caused by accidents and often leads to permanent health issues or even death. Brain injury criteria are used for assessing the probability of TBI, if a certain mechanical load is applied. The currently used injury criteria in the automotive industry are based on global head kinematics. New methods, based on finite element modeling, use brain injury criteria at lower scale levels, e.g., tissue-based injury criteria. However, most current computational head models lack the anatomical details of the cerebrum. To investigate the influence of the morphologic heterogeneities of the cerebral cortex, a numerical model of a representative part of the cerebral cortex with a detailed geometry has been developed. Several different geometries containing gyri and sulci have been developed for this model. Also, a homogeneous geometry has been made to analyze the relative importance of the heterogeneities. The loading conditions are based on a computational head model simulation. The results of this model indicate that the heterogeneities have an influence on the equivalent stress. The maximum equivalent stress in the heterogeneous models is increased by a factor of about 1.3-1.9 with respect to the homogeneous model, whereas the mean equivalent stress is increased by at most 10%. This implies that tissue-based injury criteria may not be accurately applied to most computational head models used nowadays, which do not account for sulci and gyri.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- R J H Cloots
- Materials Technology Institute, Eindhoven University of Technology, P.O. Box 513, 5600 MB, Eindhoven, The Netherlands.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
35
|
Spaethling JM, Geddes-Klein DM, Miller WJ, von Reyn CR, Singh P, Mesfin M, Bernstein SJ, Meaney DF. Linking impact to cellular and molecular sequelae of CNS injury: modeling in vivo complexity with in vitro simplicity. PROGRESS IN BRAIN RESEARCH 2007; 161:27-39. [PMID: 17618968 DOI: 10.1016/s0079-6123(06)61003-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) represents one of most common disorders to the central nervous system (CNS). Despite significant efforts, though, an effective clinical treatment for TBI is not yet available. The complexity of human TBI is modeled with a broad group of experimental models, with each model matching some aspect of the human condition. In the past 15 years, these in vivo models were complemented with a group of in vitro models, with these in vitro models allowing investigators to more precisely identify the mechanism(s) of TBI, the different intracellular events that occur in acute period following injury, and the possible treatment of this injury in vitro. In this paper, we review the available in vitro models to study TBI, discuss their biomechanical basis for human TBI, and review the findings from these in vitro models. Finally, we synthesize the current knowledge and point out possible future directions for this group of models, especially in the effort toward developing new therapies for the traumatically brain injured patient.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer M Spaethling
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pennsylvania, 3320 Smith Walk, Philadelphia, PA 19104-6392, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
36
|
Bottlang M, Sommers MB, Lusardi TA, Miesch JJ, Simon RP, Xiong ZG. Modeling neural injury in organotypic cultures by application of inertia-driven shear strain. J Neurotrauma 2007; 24:1068-77. [PMID: 17600521 DOI: 10.1089/neu.2006.3772] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
In vitro models of traumatic brain injury (TBI) are indispensable to explore the effects of mechanotrauma on neurological injury cascades and injury thresholds. This study characterizes a novel in vitro model of neural shear injury, which for the first time subjects organotypic cultures to inertia-driven shear strain. In this model, organotypic cultures preserved a high level of biological heterogeneity and spatial cytoarchitecture, while inertia-driven shear strain represented a tissue-level insult typical for closed head TBI in vivo. For neural injury simulation, organotypic hippocampal cultures derived from rats were inserted in an inertial loading module, which was subjected to impacts at five graded impact velocities ranging from 2 to 10 m/sec. The mechanical insult was quantified by measuring the transient shear deformation of the culture surface during impact with a high-speed camera. The resultant cell death was quantified with propidium iodide (PI) staining 24 hours following shear injury. Increasing impact velocities of 2, 4.6, 6.6, 8.1, and 10.4 m/sec caused graded peak shear elongation of 2.0 +/- 0.9%, 5.4 +/- 3.8%, 15.1 +/- 14.6%, 25.4 +/- 14.7%, and 56.3 +/- 51.3%, respectively. Cell death in response to impact velocities of 6.6 m/sec or less was not significantly higher than baseline cell death in sham cultures (4.4 +/- 1.5%). Higher impact velocities of 8.1 and 10.4 m/sec resulted in a significant increase in cell death to 19.9 +/- 12.9% and 36.7 +/- 14.2%, respectively (p < 0.001). The neural shear injury model delivered a gradable, defined mechanotrauma and thereby provides a novel tool for investigation of biological injury cascades in organotypic cultures.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Michael Bottlang
- Biomechanics Laboratory, Legacy Research Center, Portland, Oregon 97232, USA.
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
37
|
Fijalkowski RJ, Stemper BD, Pintar FA, Yoganandan N, Crowe MJ, Gennarelli TA. New Rat Model for Diffuse Brain Injury Using Coronal Plane Angular Acceleration. J Neurotrauma 2007; 24:1387-98. [PMID: 17711400 DOI: 10.1089/neu.2007.0268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
A new experimental model was developed to induce diffuse brain injury (DBI) in rats through pure coronal plane angular acceleration. An impactor was propelled down a guide tube toward the lateral extension of the helmet fixture. Upon impactor-helmet contact, helmet and head were constrained to rotate in the coronal plane. In the present experimental series, the model was optimized to generate rotational kinematics necessary for concussion. Twenty-six rats were subjected to peak angular accelerations of 368 +/- 30 krad/sec2 (mean +/- standard deviation) with 2.1 +/- 0.5-msec durations. Following rotational loading, unconsciousness was defined as time between reversal agent administration and return of corneal reflex. All experimental rats demonstrated transient unconsciousness lasting 8.8 +/- 3.7 min that was significantly longer than control rats. Macroscopic damage was noted in 51% of experimental animals: 38% subarachnoid hemorrhage, and 15% intraparenchymal lesion. Microscopic analysis indicated no evidence of axonal swellings at sacrifice times of 24, 48, 72, and 96 h. All rats survived rotational loading without skull fracture. Injuries were classified as concussion based on transient unconsciousness, scaled biomechanics, limited macroscopic damage, and minimal histological abnormalities. The experimental methodology remains adjustable, permitting investigation of increasing DBI severities through modulation of model parameters, and inclusion of further functional and histological outcome measures.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ronald J Fijalkowski
- Department of Neurosurgery, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI 53226, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
38
|
Morales DM, Marklund N, Lebold D, Thompson HJ, Pitkanen A, Maxwell WL, Longhi L, Laurer H, Maegele M, Neugebauer E, Graham DI, Stocchetti N, McIntosh TK. Experimental models of traumatic brain injury: do we really need to build a better mousetrap? Neuroscience 2005; 136:971-89. [PMID: 16242846 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2005.08.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 248] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2005] [Revised: 06/08/2005] [Accepted: 08/04/2005] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Approximately 4000 human beings experience a traumatic brain injury each day in the United States ranging in severity from mild to fatal. Improvements in initial management, surgical treatment, and neurointensive care have resulted in a better prognosis for traumatic brain injury patients but, to date, there is no available pharmaceutical treatment with proven efficacy, and prevention is the major protective strategy. Many patients are left with disabling changes in cognition, motor function, and personality. Over the past two decades, a number of experimental laboratories have attempted to develop novel and innovative ways to replicate, in animal models, the different aspects of this heterogenous clinical paradigm to better understand and treat patients after traumatic brain injury. Although several clinically-relevant but different experimental models have been developed to reproduce specific characteristics of human traumatic brain injury, its heterogeneity does not allow one single model to reproduce the entire spectrum of events that may occur. The use of these models has resulted in an increased understanding of the pathophysiology of traumatic brain injury, including changes in molecular and cellular pathways and neurobehavioral outcomes. This review provides an up-to-date and critical analysis of the existing models of traumatic brain injury with a view toward guiding and improving future research endeavors.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- D M Morales
- Traumatic Brain Injury Laboratory, Department of Neurosurgery, University of Pennsylvania, 3320 Smith Walk, 105C Hayden Hall, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
39
|
Krave U, Höjer S, Hansson HA. Transient, powerful pressures are generated in the brain by a rotational acceleration impulse to the head. Eur J Neurosci 2005; 21:2876-82. [PMID: 15926935 DOI: 10.1111/j.1460-9568.2005.04115.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
A rotational acceleration impulse to a head, as occurs at traffic accidents, sport injuries, assaults and falls, induces a diffuse brain damage that eventually could result in persistent neuropsychiatric deficits and neurodegeneration. Emphasis has been concentrated on the relative motion of the brain inside the skull during head impact, whereas less attention has been paid to whether intracranial pressure changes are generated and, if so, the implications thereof. In the present experimental study we investigated in an animal model system, based on rabbits, if a sagittal, anterior-posterior rotational acceleration of a head generated intracranial pressure changes, recorded by fibre optic pressure sensors, inserted ipsilaterally in the parieto-temporal and the occipital lobes. Two levels of rotational acceleration were used in the experiments; one higher, corresponding to the threshold limit for moderate diffuse brain injury, and one lower, close to being noninjurious. Several pressure recordings were performed in each rabbit at the two acceleration levels. The pressure recordings invariably revealed the same general characteristics of rapid, positive and negative pressures within the brain, with variations in amplitude and duration, lasting for up to 10 ms. A major finding was the generation of powerful negative pressures, as low as 0.3 bars in absolute pressure. The most prominent difference in amplitudes of the negative peak pressures between the two applied acceleration levels was demonstrated at the parieto-temporal location. The presented pressure recordings are the first to disclose the generation of transient, powerful intracerebral pressures at rotational acceleration of the head, which must be considered in studies of brain injury generation and distribution as well as prevention.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ulrika Krave
- Vehicle Safety, Department of Applied Mechanics, Chalmers University of Technology, SE 412 96 Göteborg, Sweden
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
40
|
Abstract
Animal models of traumatic brain injury (TBI) are used to elucidate primary and secondary sequelae underlying human head injury in an effort to identify potential neuroprotective therapies for developing and adult brains. The choice of experimental model depends upon both the research goal and underlying objectives. The intrinsic ability to study injury-induced changes in behavior, physiology, metabolism, the blood/tissue interface, the blood brain barrier, and/or inflammatory- and immune-mediated responses, makes in vivo TBI models essential for neurotrauma research. Whereas human TBI is a highly complex multifactorial disorder, animal trauma models tend to replicate only single factors involved in the pathobiology of head injury using genetically well-defined inbred animals of a single sex. Although such an experimental approach is helpful to delineate key injury mechanisms, the simplicity and hence inability of animal models to reflect the complexity of clinical head injury may underlie the discrepancy between preclinical and clinical trials of neuroprotective therapeutics. Thus, a search continues for new animal models, which would more closely mimic the highly heterogeneous nature of human TBI, and address key factors in treatment optimization.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ibolja Cernak
- Department of Neuroscience, Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, D.C. 20057, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
41
|
Johnson EAC, Young PG. On the use of a patient-specific rapid-prototyped model to simulate the response of the human head to impact and comparison with analytical and finite element models. J Biomech 2005; 38:39-45. [PMID: 15519338 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiomech.2004.03.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/24/2004] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Every year, thousands of fatalities result from head injuries, the majority of which are sustained in automotive accidents. In this paper, an experimental study of the response of the human head to impact is presented. A rapid prototyped model of a human head was generated based on high-resolution magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scan data. The physical model was subjected to low velocity impacts using a metallic pendulum and a sensitivity study was performed to explore the influence of various parameters, including mass and velocity of the impactor, on the response. The experimental response characteristics are compared with predictions from an analytical model as well as with numerical predictions from finite element (FE) models generated from the same MRI data set. The results from the experimental tests closely match those predicted by both the analytical and the FE models and thus provide us with substantive corroboration of all three approaches. The remarkable agreement obtained between the measured response characteristics of rapid-prototyped skulls and numerical (FE) models obtained from in vivo MRI data clearly demonstrates the potential use of rapid-prototyping to generate experimental models for head impact studies, and, more generally, for the study of the response of complex bio-structures to loading. In addition, the quantitative and qualitative accuracy of the predictions from the analytical model is clearly demonstrated by the FE and experimental corroboration. In particular, the analytical prediction that, as impact mass drops the impact duration becomes increasingly short, appears to be substantiated, which has important implications for the onset of high pressure and shear strain gradients in the brain with potentially deleterious effects.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- E A C Johnson
- School of Engineering and Computer Science, University of Exeter, Harrison Building, North Park Road, Exeter, Devon EX4 4QF, UK.
| | | |
Collapse
|
42
|
Zhu H, Wang ZY, Hansson HA. Visualization of proliferating cells in the adult mammalian brain with the aid of ribonucleotide reductase. Brain Res 2003; 977:180-9. [PMID: 12834878 DOI: 10.1016/s0006-8993(03)02627-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Proliferating cells are hardly detectable in the adult mammalian brain by microscopy of stained sections, but after pre-labeling with radioactive thymidine or 5'-bromo-2-deoxyuridine (BrdU), either marks the nucleus, as do mitosis-related proteins such as Ki67 and PCNA. Engineered virus may also be used to mark proliferating cells. One alternative approach is to use the enzyme ribonucleotide reductase (RNR), expressed by proliferating cells, but not by quiescent ones. A monoclonal antibody against the M1 subunit of RNR was used to visualize proliferating cells in the brains of adult normal rats, rabbits, pigs and sheep. Stem cells were distinctly outlined. In the subgranular layer in the hippocampal dentate gyrus, most RNR immunoreactive cells were bipolar to multipolar, and had a large cell body and long processes. Two different populations of RNR expressing cells were visualized in the subventricular zone in the forebrain, one dominated by small, bipolar cells extending into the rostral migratory stream, while the other was formed by large multipolar cells, adjacent to the ependyma, with processes extending to the lateral ventricle. Furthermore, rare RNR-expressing cells were recognized throughout the brain. The RNR immunoreactive cells were immature, as they did not express any marker characterizing differentiated neurons and glial cells, except for a fraction that co-expressed the gliofibrillary acidic protein. BrdU and RNR were co-localized in proliferating cells in animals pretreated with BrdU. We conclude that RNR immunohistochemistry can accurately visualize proliferating cells, including stem cells, in adult mammalian brains. The occurrence of processes at cell proliferation is elucidated. Further, the advocated approach does not require any pre-labeling, and can be carried out on fixed tissues.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hong Zhu
- Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Göteborg University, P.O. Box 420, SE 40530 Gothenburg, Sweden
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
43
|
Hamberger A, Huang YL, Zhu H, Bao F, Ding M, Blennow K, Olsson A, Hansson HA, Viano D, Haglid KG. Redistribution of neurofilaments and accumulation of beta-amyloid protein after brain injury by rotational acceleration of the head. J Neurotrauma 2003; 20:169-78. [PMID: 12675970 DOI: 10.1089/08977150360547080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Rotational acceleration of the head, as occurs in falls, car crashes, and sport injuries, may result in diffuse brain damage, with acute and chronic neurological and psychiatric symptoms. The present study addresses the effects of rotational trauma on the neuronal cytoskeleton, which stabilizes perikaryal, dendritic and axonal shape and function. The study focuses upon the distribution of (1) the phosphorylated form of the heavy neurofilament subunit, (2) the light neurofilament subunit, and (3) beta-amyloid, a marker for brain injury. While normally restricted to axons, the phosphorylated heavy neurofilament subunits were drastically decreased in the axons after rotational trauma. Instead, they accumulated in the neuronal perikarya, normally devoid of the phosphorylated subunit. This alteration was seen, not only in the cerebral cortex, but also in the hippocampus, the cervical spinal cord, the cerebellum, the cranial nerves and the pyramidal tract. The distribution of the light subunit of neurofilaments was also altered post trauma. Only a weak beta-amyloid immunoreactivity was detected in the brains of control animals. Promptly after the trauma, a large number of beta-amyloid positive neurons appeared. Intensely co-localized immunoreactivity for the light subunit of neurofilaments and of beta-amyloid was seen 3 days after the rotational trauma axons of in the subcortical white matter and in the granule cell layer of the dentate gyrus as well as in neurons of the hypoglossal nucleus. The reported alterations in the central nervous system neurons are similar to those in the human brain after closed head injury and in chronic degenerative diseases. Regions of importance for social behavior, memory and body movement were affected.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anders Hamberger
- Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Göteborg, Göteborg, Sweden.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
44
|
Abstract
Animal models have played a critical role in elucidating the complex pathogenesis of traumatic brain injury, the major cause of death and disability in young adults in Western countries. This review discusses how different types of animal models are useful for the study of neuropathologic processes in traumatic, blunt, nonmissile head injury.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- J W Finnie
- Veterinary Services Division, Institute of Medical & Veterinary Science, University of Adelaide, Australia
| | | |
Collapse
|
45
|
Runnerstam M, Bao F, Huang Y, Shi J, Gutierrez E, Hamberger A, Hansson HA, Viano D, Haglid K. A new model for diffuse brain injury by rotational acceleration: II. Effects on extracellular glutamate, intracranial pressure, and neuronal apoptosis. J Neurotrauma 2001; 18:259-73. [PMID: 11284547 DOI: 10.1089/08977150151070892] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
The aim of this study is to monitor excitatory amino acids (EAAs) in the extracellular fluids of the brain and to characterize regional neuronal damage in a new experimental model for brain injury, in which rabbits were exposed to 180-260 krad/s2 rotational head acceleration. This loading causes extensive subarachnoid hemorrhage, focal tissue bleeding, reactive astrocytosis, and axonal damage. Animals were monitored for intracranial pressure (ICP) and for amino acids in the extracellular fluids. Immunohistochemistry was used to study expression of the gene c-Jun and apoptosis with the terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase nick-end labeling (TUNEL) technique. Extracellular glutamate, glycine, and taurine increased significantly in the hippocampus within a few hours and remained high after 24 h. Neuronal nuclei in the granule layers of the hippocampus and cerebellum were positive for c-Jun after 24 h. Little immunoreactivity was detected in the cerebral cortex. c-Jun-positive neuronal perikarya and processes were found in granule and pyramidal CA4 layers of the hippocampus and among the Purkinje cells of the cerebellum. Also some microglial cells stained positively for c-Jun. TUNEL reactivity was most intense at 10 days after trauma and was extensive in neurons of the cerebral cortex, hippocampus, and cerebellum. The initial response of the brain after rotational head injury involves brain edema after 24 h and an excitotoxic neuronal microenvironment in the first hour, which leads to extensive delayed neuronal cell death by apoptosis necrosis in the cerebral cortex, hippocampus and cerebellum.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- M Runnerstam
- Department of Neurosurgery, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|