Presence ofCoxiella burnetiiin Fleas in Cyprus

Current Risks and Prevention Strategies Against Vector-Borne Diseases in Cyprus

The island of Cyprus has historically been prone to vector-borne diseases due to its location at the crossroads of three continents. The introduction of novel vectors, microorganisms, or strains in Cyprus, coupled with the global climate change and antimicrobial resistance crisis, can lead to an altered infectious disease landscape and entomological status, causing a rise in vector-borne diseases on the island. The current review provides a broad snapshot of the status of vector-borne infectious diseases and associated risks in Cyprus. Our research has uncovered a pressing issue, the risk of the spread and emergence of various infectious diseases, including West Nile virus and malaria, respectively, due to the presence of Aedes and Anopheles spp. mosquitoes on the island, while underscoring the animal reservoirs of several pathogenic microorganisms. Our research emphasizes the importance of the One Health approach and the collaboration between communities for the improvement of vector control strategies to limit the spread of vector borne diseases.

Detection of spotted fever group rickettsiae and Coxiella burnetii in long-tailed ground squirrels (Spermophilus undulatus) and their ectoparasites

Long-tailed ground squirrels (LTGRs, Spermophilus undulatus) are known as reservoirs of multiple arthropod-borne pathogens, such as Yersinia pestis and Bartonella rochalimae. However, data on the prevalence of spotted fever group rickettsiae (SFGR) and Coxiella burnetii in LTGRs and its ectoparasites are limited. In two alpine regions of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region (XUAR, northwestern China), a total of 346 samples were collected from 142 LTGRs, including 142 livers and 204 pooled ectoparasites (Citellophilus tesquorum dzetysuensis: 120 pools of 484 fleas; Frontopsylla elatoides elatoides: 19 pools of 71 fleas; Neopsylla mana: 1 pool of 4 fleas; and Linognathoides urocitelli: 64 pools of 865 lice). From these samples, the DNA was extracted, followed by PCR amplification of different genetic markers. Particularly, genes encoding the outer membrane protein A and B (ompA, ompB), citrate synthase (gltA), and surface cell antigen 1 (sca1) were used to identify the SFGR. Additionly, the capsular outer membrane protein (Com1) gene and insertion sequence (IS1111) genes were used to detect Coxiella. Rickettsia sibirica subsp. sibirica, Rickettsia felis, and C. burnetii were detected in LTGRs, as well as in flea and louse pools. Rickettsia raoultii was found in LTGRs and flea pools. Furthermore, Rickettsia slovaca was also identified in the flea pools. This study provides molecular evidence for the occurrence of SFGR and C. burnetii in LTGRs and their ectoparasites. These findings suggest that R. sibirica, R. slovaca, R. raoultii, R. felis and C. burnetii are transmitted between LTGRs (as potential reservoirs) and their fleas and lice (as potential vectors).

Coxiella burnetii (Q fever) exposure in wildlife professionals

Introduction

Although occupational exposure to Coxiella burnetii has been studied previously, the zoonotic risk in wildlife environments remains unclear and has yet to be fully established.

Methods

Accordingly, the present study aimed to serologically assess professionals with daily contact with free-living and captive wildlife in Paraná State, Brazil, along with the potential associated risk factors for C. burnetii exposure.

Results

Overall, 25 out of 309 (8.1%) wildlife professionals were seropositive, including 6/54 (11.1%) national and 7/125 (5.6%) state park employees, 6/92 (6.5%) zookeepers, and 6/38 (15.8%) animal service workers, with titers ranging from 32 to 128. No statistical association was found between seropositivity and associated risk factors, including the working location.

Discussion

Our results differ from those of previous studies in Brazil, which found 8/893 (0.9%) indigenous, 1/18 (5.5%) police officers, and 44/200 (22.0%) former Black slaves to be seropositive. This study is the first serological investigation of C. burnetii among park rangers, zookeepers, and animal service workers in Brazil, showing no statistically significant risk factors for seropositivity. As the seroprevalence in this study was higher than that in previous surveys of healthy (asymptomatic) human populations, C. burnetii exposure may also be an occupational risk for wildlife professionals owing to their contact with the natural environment in Brazil.

New records of pathogenic bacteria in different species of fleas collected from domestic and peridomestic animals in Spain. A potential zoonotic threat?

Climate change is causing many vectors of infectious diseases to expand their geographic distribution as well as the pathogens they transmit are also conditioned by temperature for their multiplication. Within this context, it is worth highlighting the significant role that fleas can play as vectors of important pathogenic bacteria. For this purpose, our efforts focused on detecting and identifying a total of 9 bacterial genera (Rickettsia sp.; Bartonella sp.; Yersinia sp.; Wolbachia sp., Mycobacterium sp., Leishmania sp., Borrelia sp., Francisella sp. and Coxiella sp.) within fleas isolated from domestic and peridomestic animals in the southwestern region of Spain (Andalusia). Over a 19-months period, we obtained flea samples from dogs, cats and hedgehogs. A total of 812 fleas was collected for this study. Five different species were morphologically identified, including C. felis, C. canis, S. cuniculi, P. irritans, and A. erinacei. Wolbachia sp. was detected in all five species identified in our study which a total prevalence of 86%. Within Rickettsia genus, two different species, R. felis and R. asembonensis were mainly identified in C. felis and A. erinacei, respectively. On the other hand, our results revealed a total of 131 fleas testing positive for the presence of Bartonella sp., representing a prevalence rate of 16% for this genus identifying two species B. henselae and B. clarridgeiae. Lastly, both Y. pestis and L. infantum were detected in DNA of P. irritans and C. felis, respectively isolated from dogs. With these data we update the list of bacterial zoonotic agents found in fleas in Spain, emphasizing the need to continue conducting future experimental studies to assess and confirm the potential vectorial role of certain synanthropic fleas.

Coxiella burnetii Infection in Cats

Q fever is a zoonotic disease caused by Coxiella burnetii, with farm ruminants being considered the main sources of infection for humans. However, there have been several cases of the disease in people that have been related to domestic cats as well. Cats can become infected through various routes, including ingestion of raw milk, hunting and consuming infected rodents and birds, consumption of contaminated pet food, inhalation of contaminated aerosols and dust, and bites from hematophagous arthropods. Infected cats typically do not show symptoms, but pregnant queens may experience abortion or give birth to weak kittens. Accurate diagnosis using serological and molecular methods is crucial in detecting infected cats, allowing for prompt action with appropriate treatments and preventive measures. Breeders, cattery personnel, veterinarians, and owners should be informed about the risks of C. burnetii infections associated with cats experiencing reproductive disorders.

The Alien to Cyprus Entomofauna (ACE) database: a review of the current status of alien insects (Arthropoda, Insecta) including an updated species checklist, discussion on impacts and recommendations for informing management

Alien insects represent one of the most species rich groups of organisms introduced to Europe, with some responsible for adverse social-economic, human-health, biodiversity and ecosystem impacts. The impacts of invasive alien species, especially on island ecosystems, have been a hot topic of research worldwide. Cyprus is a Mediterranean island at the biogeographic crossroads of Asia, Africa and Europe. This study presents the database of the alien insects of the island of Cyprus as a whole, created through an extensive review including grey literature and online sources. The Alien to Cyprus Entomofauna (ACE) triples the known number of alien insects and adds supplemental information to existing species. Data concerning a total of 349 alien insects are presented alongside an updated checklist and recommendations for informing management. The status of alien insects on the island, their origin, trophic guilds, establishment, pathways of introduction and impacts are discussed. Developing an alien species inventory for the island is challenging due to its geographic position and the increasing movement of people and goods leading to new species introductions. This publication constitutes an important first step towards providing information for effective actions to tackle invasive alien insects on Cyprus. The checklist and accompanying information can underpin understanding of the status and trends of alien species including providing information for risk assessments. ACE will continue to be maintained and updated as new records for Cyprus are made.

USING SURFACE WASHING TO REMOVE THE ENVIRONMENTAL COMPONENT FROM FLEA MICROBIOME ANALYSIS

Microbial metabarcoding is a common method to study the biology of blood-feeding arthropods and identify patterns of potential pathogen transmission. Before DNA extraction, specimens are often surface washed to remove environmental contaminants. While surface washing is common, its effects on microbial diversity remain unclear. We characterized the microbiome of the flea species Ceratophyllus idius, an avian ectoparasite, and a potential vector of pathogens, using high-throughput 16S rRNA sequencing. Half of the nests from which fleas were collected were subjected to an environmental manipulation in which nesting materials were periodically replaced. In a crossed study design we surface washed half of the flea samples from each environmental condition to produce 4 experimental conditions. Environmental manipulations resulted in significant differences in the diversity and structure of the flea microbiome, but these differences were unapparent when specimens were surface washed. Furthermore, differential abundance testing of the experimental groups revealed that surface washing predominantly affected the abundance of bacterial groups that are characterized as environmental contaminants. These findings suggest that environmental changes primarily affect the surface microbiome of arthropods and that surface washing is a useful tool to reduce the footprint of the external microbiome on analysis.

Cat fleas (Ctenocephalides felis clade 'Sydney') are dominant fleas on dogs and cats in New South Wales, Australia: Presence of flea-borne Rickettsia felis, Bartonella spp. but absence of Coxiella burnetii DNA

The cat flea (Ctenocephalides felis) is the most common flea species parasitising both domestic cats and dogs globally. Fleas are known vectors of zoonotic pathogens such as vector-borne Rickettsia spp. and Bartonella spp. and could theoretically transmit Coxiella burnetii, the causative agent of Q fever. A total of 107 fleas were collected from 21 cats and 14 dogs in veterinary clinics, a feline rescue organisation and a grooming salon in New South Wales, Australia, to undergo PCR detection of Bartonella spp., Rickettsia spp. and C. burnetii DNA. Morphological identification confirmed that the cat flea (C. felis) is the most common flea in New South Wales, Australia, with only a single stick fast flea, Echidnophaga gallinacea recorded. The examined fleas (n = 35) at the cox1 locus revealed five closely related C. felis haplotypes (inter-haplotype distance < 0.5%). Multiplex TaqMan qPCR targeting the gltA (Rickettsia spp.) and ssrA (Bartonella spp.) genes was positive in 22.9% (95% CI: 11.8–39.3%) and 11.4% (95% CI: 3.9–26.6%) of samples, respectively. None of the DNA isolated from fleas was positive on TaqMan qPCRs targeting the C. burnetii IS1111, Com1 and htpAB genes. Co-infection of C. felis with Bartonella henselae and Bartonella clarridgeiae was demonstrated using gltA and ssrA Illumina next-generation amplicon sequencing. These findings reinforce the importance of flea control on domestic dogs and cats to effectively control the transmission of Rickettsia felis and Bartonella spp. The flea, however, is unlikely to be a vector of C. burnetii between companion animals and humans.

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The cat flea (Ctenocephalides felis) is the flea species on cats and dogs in New South Wales Australia.

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Absence of Coxiella burnetii DNA in flea extract, but presence of Rickettsia felis.

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Detection of Bartonella DNA using gltA and ssrA Illumina next-generation amplicon sequencing.

Atelerix algirus, the North African Hedgehog: Suitable Wild Host for Infected Ticks and Fleas and Reservoir of Vector-Borne Pathogens in Tunisia

Small wild mammals are an important element in the emergence and transmission of vector-borne pathogens (VBPs). Among these species, hedgehogs have been found to be a reservoir of VBPs and host of arthropod vectors. Surveillance of VBPs in wildlife and their arthropods are crucial in a one health context. We conducted an exploratory study to screen Atelerix algirus hedgehogs and their infesting ticks and fleas for VBPs using a high throughput microfluidic real-time PCR system. Tested biopsies from hedgehogs were found to be naturally infected by Theileria youngi, Hepatozoon sp., Ehrlichia ewingii, Coxiella burnetii, and Candidatus Ehrlichia shimanensis. Similarly, Haemaphysalis erinacei and Rhipicephalus sanguineus tick species were infected by Ehrlichia ewingii, Rickettsia spp., Rickettsia massiliae, Borrelia sp., Coxiella burnetii, Rickettsia lusitaniae and Anaplasma sp. Archaeopsylla erinacei fleas were infected by Rickettsia asembonensis, Coxiella burnetii, and Rickettsia massiliae. Co-infections by two and three pathogens were detected in hedgehogs and infesting ticks and fleas. The microfluidic real-time PCR system enabled us not only to detect new and unexpected pathogens, but also to identify co-infections in hedgehogs, ticks, and fleas. We suggest that hedgehogs may play a reservoir role for VBPs in Tunisia and contribute to maintaining enzootic pathogen cycles via arthropod vectors.

MOLECULAR INVESTIGATION OF VECTOR-BORNE PATHOGENS IN RED FOXES (VULPES VULPES) FROM SOUTHERN FRANCE

Because of their free-ranging nature, the probability of wild animals being exposed to vector-borne pathogens is likely higher than that of humans and pets. Recently, the red fox (Vulpes vulpes) has been suspected as being a reservoir or host of several pathogens of veterinary and public health importance. We conducted a molecular survey on 93 red foxes hunted in 2008-18, in the departments of Bouches-du-Rhône and Var, in southeastern France, for pathogens including Leishmania infantum, Piroplasmida, Hepatozoon spp., nematodes, Coxiella burnetii, Borrelia spp., Rickettsia spp., and Anaplasmataceae. Spleen samples were screened for the presence of vector-borne pathogens by PCR followed by sequencing. Pathogens were detected in 94% (87/93) of red foxes, and coinfections were identified in 24% (22/93) of foxes. We identified DNA from Hepatozoon canis, L. infantum, and Babesia vogeli in 92% (86/93), 15% (14/93), and 3% (3/93) of red foxes, respectively. We also found DNA of nematodes in 3% (3/93) of foxes; Spirocerca vulpis was identified in one fox and Dirofilaria immitis in the two others. Interestingly, C. burnetii genotype 3, previously described in humans from the same region, was identified in 3% (3/93) of foxes and Anaplasma platys in 2% (2/93) of foxes. We did not detect DNA of Borrelia spp., Bartonella spp., or Rickettsia spp. In our study, the prevalence of pathogens did not vary by fox origin, sex, or tick carriage. Molecular evidence of B. vogeli, H. canis, S. vulpis, D. immitis, C. burnetii, and A. platys in red foxes has not previously, to our knowledge, been reported from southern France. We propose that red foxes are potential reservoirs for several pathogens, including major zoonotic agents such as L. infantum. They could be incidental hosts for pathogens, such C. burnetii. The high prevalence for H. canis suggests an important role of foxes in domestic dog (Canis lupus familiaris) infection. These animals may pose a threat to human and animal health.

New records of bacteria in different species of fleas from France and Spain

In this study, we assessed the presence of vector-borne microorganisms in different species of fleas collected from different hosts in diverse areas of South-Western Europe by molecular methods. A total of 319 fleas belonging to eight different species was tested for the presence of eight microorganisms. Wolbachia spp. endosymbionts were detected in Ctenocephalides felis, Pulex irritans, Archaeopsylla erinacei and Ctenophthalmus baeticus boisseauorum specimens. Rickettsia felis, an emerging pathogen, was detected in C. felis, A. erinacei and Ct. b. boisseauorum. Rickettsia typhi, the agent of murine typhus was detected for the first time in A. erinacei and Mycobacterium spp. were detected for the first time in fleas (C. felis, P. irritans and A. erinacei). Lastly, five different species of Bartonella were detected in fleas' DNA in this study, including a possible new bacterium belonging to this genus. With this study, we updated the knowledge of the flea-borne bacteria present in the South-West of Europe reinforcing the idea about the necessity to expand and increase the current knowledge on flea-borne pathogens.

Current perspectives on the occurrence of Q fever: highlighting the need for systematic surveillance for a neglected zoonotic disease in Indian subcontinent

Coxiellosis or Q fever is an important global occupational zoonotic disease caused by one of the most contagious bacterial pathogens - Coxiella burnetii, which ranks one among the 13 global priority zoonoses. The detection of C. burnetii infection is exhibiting an increasing trend in high-risk personnel around the globe. It has increasingly been detected from foods of animal origin (including bulk milk, eggs, and meat) as well as tick vectors in many parts of the world. Coxiellosis is reported to be an important public health threat causing spontaneous abortions in humans and potential reproductive failure, which would result in production losses among livestock. Further, comprehensive coverage of the reports and trends of Q fever in developing countries, where this infection is supposed to be widely prevalent appears scarce. Also, the pathogen remains grossly neglected and underreported. Moreover, policymakers and funding agencies do not view it as a priority problem, especially in the Indian subcontinent, including Sri Lanka, Bhutan, Pakistan, Nepal, Bangladesh and Maldives. Here, we review the occurrence and epidemiology of the disease in a global context with special emphasis on its status in the Indian subcontinent.

Rodent Ectoparasites in the Middle East: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Rodents carry many ectoparasites, such as ticks, lice, fleas, and mites, which have potential public health importance. Middle Eastern countries are hotspots for many emerging and re-emerging infectious diseases, such as plague, leishmaniasis, Crimean Congo hemorrhagic fever, and Q fever, due to their ecological, socioeconomic, and political diversity. Rodent ectoparasites can act as vectors for many of these pathogens. Knowledge of rodent ectoparasites is of prime importance in controlling rodent ectoparasite-borne zoonotic diseases in this region. The current systematic review and meta-analysis performs a comprehensive synthesis of the available knowledge, providing an evidence-based overview of the ectoparasites detected on rodents in Middle Eastern countries. Following a systematic search in Pubmed, Scopus, and Web of Science, a total of 113 published articles on rodent ectoparasites were studied and analyzed. A total of 87 rodent species were documented, from which Mus musculus, Rattus norvegicus, and Rattus rattus were found to be the most common. Fleas were the most reported ectoparasites (87 articles), followed by mites (53), ticks (44), and lice (25). Xenopsylla cheopis, Polyplax spinulosa, Ornithonyssus bacoti, and Hyalomma rhipicephaloides were the most commonly described fleas, lice, mites, and ticks, respectively. Based on the reviewed articles, the median flea, louse, mite, and tick indices were highest in Israel (4.15), Egypt (1.39), Egypt (1.27), and Saudi Arabia (1.17), respectively. Quantitative meta-analysis, using a random-effects model, determined the overall pooled flea prevalence in the Middle East as 40% (95% CI: 25-55, I2 = 100%, p < 0.00001), ranging between 13% (95% CI: 0-30, I2 = 95%, p < 0.00001) in Iran and 59% (95% CI: 42-77, I2 = 75%, p < 0.00001) in Israel. The overall pooled louse prevalence was found to be 30% (95% CI: 13-47, I2 = 100%, p < 0.00001), ranging between 25% in Iran (95% CI: 1-50, I2 = 99%) and 38% in Egypt (95% CI: 7-68, I2 = 100%). In the case of mites, the pooled prevalence in this region was 33% (95% CI: 11-55, I2 = 100%, p < 0.00001), where the country-specific prevalence estimates were 30% in Iran (95% CI: 4-56, I2 = 99%) and 32% in Egypt (95% CI: 0-76, I2 = 100%). For ticks, the overall prevalence was found to be 25% (95% CI: 2-47, I2 = 100%, p < 0.00001), ranging from 16% in Iran (95% CI: 7-25, I2 = 74%) to 42% in Egypt (95% CI: 1-85, I2 = 100%). The control of rodent ectoparasites should be considered to reduce their adverse effects. Using the One Health strategy, rodent control, and precisely control of the most common rodent species, i.e., Mus musculus, Rattus norvegicus, and Rattus rattus, should be considered to control the rodent-borne ectoparasites in this region.

Molecular Detection of Microorganisms Associated with Small Mammals and Their Ectoparasites in Mali

Small mammals are the natural reservoirs for many zoonotic pathogens. Using molecular tools, we assessed the prevalence of bacteria and protozoans in small mammals and their ectoparasites in Faladjè, Bougouni, and Bamoko, Mali. A total of 130 small mammals belonging to 10 different species were captured, of which 74 (56.9%) were infested by ectoparasites, including Laelaps echidnina, Xenopsylla cheopis, Amblyomma variegatum, Rhipicephalus sanguineus sensu lato, and Haemaphysalis spp. nymphs. DNA of Bartonella was found in 14/75 (18.7%), 6/48 (12.5%), and 3/7 (42.8%) small mammals from Faladjè, Bougouni, and Bamako, respectively. In Faladjè, Bartonella DNA was detected in 31/68 (45.6%) of L. echidnina and 14/22 (63.6%) of X. cheopis. In Bougouni, it was found in 2/26 (7.7%) of L. echidnina and 10/42 (23.8%) of X. cheopis. The sequences of Bartonella obtained from small mammals were close to those of Bartonella mastomydis, Bartonella elizabethae, and uncultured Bartonella spp. In Faladjè, Coxiella burnetii DNA was detected in 64.4% (29/45) of Haemaphysalis spp. ticks, 4.5% (2/44) of Mastomys erythroleucus, 12.5% (1/8) of Praomys daltoni, and 1.5% (1/68) of L. echidnina. We found DNA of Wolbachia in X. cheopis from Faladjè and DNA of Rickettsia africae and Ehrlichia ruminantium in Am. variegatum from Bougouni. The results of our study show that several small mammal species harbor and may serve as potential reservoirs of Bartonella spp., likely to play a major role in the maintenance, circulation, and potential transmission of bacteria in Mali. The pathogenicity of these bacteria for humans or animals remains to be demonstrated.

Activity of Syzygium aromaticum essential oil and its main constituent eugenol in the inhibition of the development of Ctenocephalides felis felis and the control of adults

The aim of this study was to evaluate the in vitro activity of Syzygium aromaticum essential oil (SAEO) and its main constituent eugenol (EG) against adult fleas and their action in the maturation of eggs into adults of Ctenocephalides felis felis. In order to evaluate the pulicidal activity, 10 adult fleas were exposed to a filter paper impregnated with SAEO and EG at increasing concentrations of 0.047; 0.094; 0.188; 0.375; 0.750; 1.50; 3.00; 6.00; 12.00 and 24.00 μg cm^-2. Flea mortality was evaluated 24 and 48 h after exposure. In order to evaluate the inhibition of the maturation of eggs into adults, 10 eggs were exposed to filter paper impregnated with SAEO and EG at the same concentrations used in the pulicidal test, and the evaluation was performed 30 days after incubation. Untreated repetitions were maintained in both studies (control group). The lethal concentration 50 (LC₅₀) of pulicidal activity to SAEO was 5.70 μg cm^-2 in 24 h and 3.91 μg cm^-2 in 48 h. The LC₉₀ was 16.10 μg cm^-2 and 15.80 μg cm^-2 in 24 and 48 h, respectively. The LC₅₀ of inhibition of the maturation of eggs into adults was 0.30 μg cm^-2 and the LC₉₀ 3.44 μg cm^-2. The LC₅₀ of pulicidal activity to EG was 2.40 μg cm^-2 in 24 h and 1.40 μg cm^-2 in 48 h; the LC₉₀ was 8.10 μg cm^-2 and 3.70 μg cm^-2 in 24 h and 48 h, respectively. The LC₅₀ of inhibition of the maturation of eggs into adults was 0.10 μg cm^-2 and the LC₉₀ 0.68 μg cm^-2. Based on the results obtained, it is possible to conclude that the both SAEO and EG have in vitro pulicidal activity as well as acting as inhibitors of the maturation of eggs into adults of the flea C. felis felis.

Role of vector-borne pathogens in the development of fever in cats: 1. Flea-associated diseases

PRACTICAL RELEVANCE

There has been increasing identification of vector-borne pathogens in cats presented to veterinary clinics around the world for evaluation of fever and the associated secondary effects, such as signs of depression and loss of appetite.

AIM

The aim of this article is to summarize the clinically relevant information concerning fever in cats that is associated with pathogens known or suspected to be vectored by fleas, with an emphasis on presenting clinical abnormalities and optimal diagnostic, treatment and prevention strategies. Fever in cats that is associated with pathogens vectored by ticks or sandflies is discussed in Part 2 of this article series.

Coxiella burnetii in wild mammals: A systematic review

Coxiella burnetii is a multi-host bacterium that causes Q fever in humans, a zoonosis that is emerging worldwide. The ecology of C. burnetii in wildlife is still poorly understood and the influence of host, environmental and pathogen factors is almost unknown. This study gathers current published information on different aspects of C. burnetii infection in wildlife, even in species with high reservoir potential and a high rate of interaction with livestock and humans, in order to partially fill the existing gap and highlight future needs. Exposure and/or infection by C. burnetii has, to date, been reported in 109 wild mammal species. The limited sample size of most of the existing studies could suggest an undervalued prevalence of C. burnetii infection. Knowledge on the clinical outcome of C. burnetii infection in wildlife is also very limited, but currently includes reproductive failure in waterbuck (Kobus ellipsiprymnus), roan antelope (Hippotragus niger), dama gazelle (Nanger dama) and water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) and placentitis in the Pacific harbor seal (Phoca vitulina richardsi), Steller sea lion (Eumetopias jubatus) and red deer (Cervus elaphus). The currently available serological tests need to be optimised and validated for each wildlife species. Finally, there is a huge gap in the research on C. burnetii control in wildlife, despite of the increasing evidence that wildlife is a source of C. burnetii for both livestock and humans.

The bacterial biota of laboratory-reared edible mealworms (Tenebrio molitor L.): From feed to frass

Tenebrio molitor represents one of the most popular species used for the large-scale conversion of plant biomass into protein and is characterized by high nutritional value. In the present laboratory study, the bacterial biota characterizing a pilot production chain of fresh T. molitor larvae was investigated. To this end, different batches of fresh mealworm larvae, their feeding substrate (wheatmeal) and frass were analyzed by viable microbial counts, PCR-DGGE and Illumina sequencing. Moreover, the occurrence of Coxiella burnetii, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Shiga toxin-producing E. coli (STEC) was assessed through qualitative real-time PCR assays. Microbial viable counts highlighted low microbial contamination of the wheatmeal, whereas larvae and frass were characterized by high loads of Enterobacteriaceae, lactic acid bacteria, and several species of mesophilic aerobes. Spore-forming bacteria were detected to a lesser extent in all the samples. The combined molecular approach used to profile the microbiota confirmed the low microbial contamination of wheatmeal and allowed the detection of Enterobacter spp., Erwinia spp., Enterococcus spp. and Lactococcus spp. as dominant genera in both larvae and frass. Moreover, Klebsiella spp., Pantoea spp., and Xenorhabdus spp. were found to be in the minority. Entomoplasmatales (including Spiroplasma spp.) constituted a major fraction of the microbiota of one batch of larvae. From the real-time PCR assays, no sample was positive for either C. burnetii or STEC, whereas P. aeruginosa was detected in one sample of frass. Based on the overall results, two sources of microbial contamination were hypothesized, namely feeding with wheatmeal and vertical transmission of microorganisms from mother to offspring. Since mealworms are expected to be eaten as a whole, the overall outcomes collected in this laboratory study discourage the consumption of fresh mealworm larvae. Moreover, microbial loads and the absence of potential pathogens known to be associated with this insect species should be carefully assessed in order to reduce the minimum risk for consumers, by identifying the most opportune processing methods (e.g., boiling, frying, drying, etc.).

Molecular survey on the occurrence of arthropod-borne pathogens in wild brown hares (Lepus europaeus) from Central Italy

Data about the spreading of arthropod-borne pathogens among hare populations are very scant, so the aim of the present preliminary study was to investigate, through molecular analysis, the occurrence of Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Bartonella sp., Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato, Coxiella burnetii, Francisella tularensis, Leishmania spp. and piroplasms DNA in blood of 51 wild hares (Lepus europaeus) living in protected areas in Tuscany. All hares resulted negative for A. phagocytophilum, Bartonella sp., B. burgdorferi s.l., C. burnetii and F. tularensis. Five animals (9.8%) were positive for Leishmania and one hare (1.9%) tested positive for piroplasms. Sequencing of this sample showed a piroplasm similar to one Babesia isolate from the same animal species in Turkey. Therefore, to the best of our knowledge, this is the first molecular report of piroplasms occurring in wild hares from Italy, and the second worldwide. The examined hares appeared to be in good health status, corroborating the hypothesis of a chronic carrier state of some vector borne agents for this animal species.

The Biology and Ecology of Cat Fleas and Advancements in Their Pest Management: A Review

The cat flea Ctenocephalides felis felis (Bouché) is the most important ectoparasite of domestic cats and dogs worldwide. It has been two decades since the last comprehensive review concerning the biology and ecology of C. f. felis and its management. Since then there have been major advances in our understanding of the diseases associated with C. f. felis and their implications for humans and their pets. Two rickettsial diseases, flea-borne spotted fever and murine typhus, have been identified in domestic animal populations and cat fleas. Cat fleas are the primary vector of Bartonella henselae (cat scratch fever) with the spread of the bacteria when flea feces are scratched in to bites or wounds. Flea allergic dermatitis (FAD) common in dogs and cats has been successfully treated and tapeworm infestations prevented with a number of new products being used to control fleas. There has been a continuous development of new products with novel chemistries that have focused on increased convenience and the control of fleas and other arthropod ectoparasites. The possibility of feral animals serving as potential reservoirs for flea infestations has taken on additional importance because of the lack of effective environmental controls in recent years. Physiological insecticide resistance in C. f. felis continues to be of concern, especially because pyrethroid resistance now appears to be more widespread. In spite of their broad use since 1994, there is little evidence that resistance has developed to many of the on-animal or oral treatments such as fipronil, imidacloprid or lufenuron. Reports of the perceived lack of performance of some of the new on-animal therapies have been attributed to compliance issues and their misuse. Consequentially, there is a continuing need for consumer awareness of products registered for cats and dogs and their safety.

Molecular detection of tick-borne pathogens in wild red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) from Central Italy

Spleen samples from 153 red foxes, shot during regular hunting season in the province of Pisa (Central Italy), were examined to detect DNA of Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Ehrlichia canis, Coxiella burnetii, Francisella tularensis, Hepatozoon canis and Babesia sp./Theileria sp. DNA of vector-borne pathogens was detected in 120 (78.43%; 95% CI: 71.06-84.66%) foxes. Specifically, 75 (49%; 95% CI: 40.86-57.22%) animals scored PCR-positive per H. canis, 68 (44.44%; 95% CI: 36.42-52.69%) for E. canis, 35 (22.88%; 95% CI: 16.48-30.35%) for piroplasms (Theileria annae), 3 (1.96%; 95% CI: 0.41-5.62%) for C. burnetii and 1 (0.65%; 95% CI: 0.02-3.59%) for A. phagocytophilum. No positive reaction was observed for F. tularensis. Fifty-six animals (36.6%; 95% CI: 28.97-44.76%) were positive for two or three pathogens. Red foxes result to be involved in the cycle of vector-borne pathogens that are associated to disease in dogs and humans.

Occurrence and Genotyping of Coxiella burnetii in Ixodid Ticks in Oromia, Ethiopia

This study was conducted from September 2011 to March 2014 to address the occurrence and genotypes of Coxiella burnetii using molecular methods in ticks collected from domestic animals in Ethiopia. Ticks were tested for C. burnetii by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) targeting two different genes followed by multispacer sequence typing (MST). An overall prevalence of 6.4% (54/842) of C. burnetii was recorded. C. burnetii was detected in 28.6% (14/49) of Amblyomma gemma, 25% (31/124) of Rhipicephalus pulchellus, 7.1% (1/14) of Hyalomma marginatum rufipes, 3.2% (2/62) of Am. variegatum, 3.1% (4/128) of Am. cohaerens, 1.6% (1/63) of Rh. praetextatus, and 0.6% (1/153) of Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) decoloratus. Significantly higher overall frequencies of C. burnetii DNA were observed in Am. gemma and Rh. pulchellus than in other tick species (Mantel-Haenszel [MH], P < 0.0001). The overall frequency of C. burnetii was significantly higher (MH, P < 0.0001) in ticks from southeastern districts (Arero, Moyale, and Yabelo) than that from other districts. This study demonstrated the presence of C. burnetii genotype MST 18 in ticks in southeastern districts and genotype MST 20 in ticks in central districts. This study highlights the importance of ticks in the epidemiology of C. burnetii in Ethiopia.