Inflammation and neurodegenerative diseases

Oligodendrocytes in central nervous system diseases: the effect of cytokine regulation

Cytokines including tumor necrosis factor, interleukins, interferons, and chemokines are abundantly produced in various diseases. As pleiotropic factors, cytokines are involved in nearly every aspect of cellular functions such as migration, survival, proliferation, and differentiation. Oligodendrocytes are the myelin-forming cells in the central nervous system and play critical roles in the conduction of action potentials, supply of metabolic components for axons, and other functions. Emerging evidence suggests that both oligodendrocytes and oligodendrocyte precursor cells are vulnerable to cytokines released under pathological conditions. This review mainly summarizes the effects of cytokines on oligodendrocyte lineage cells in central nervous system diseases. A comprehensive understanding of the effects of cytokines on oligodendrocyte lineage cells contributes to our understanding of central nervous system diseases and offers insights into treatment strategies.

A near-infrared fluorescent probe based FRET for ratiometric sensing of H2O2 and viscosity in live cells

Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and viscosity play vital roles in the cellular environment as signaling molecule and microenvironment parameter, respectively, and are associated with many physiological and pathological processes in biological systems. We developed a near-infrared fluorescent probe, CQ, which performed colorimetric and ratiometric detection of H2O2 and viscosity based on the FRET mechanism, and was capable of monitoring changes in viscosity and H2O2 levels simultaneously through two different channels. Based on the specific reaction of H2O2 with borate ester, CQ exhibited a significant ratiometric response to H2O2 with a large Stokes shift of 221 nm, a detection limit of 0.87 μM, a near-infrared emission wavelength of 671 nm, a response time of 1 h, a wide detection ranges of 0.87-800 μM and a high energy transfer efficiency of 99.9 %. CQ could also recognize viscosity by the TICT mechanism, and efficiently detect viscosity changes caused by food thickeners. More importantly, CQ could successfully detect endogenous/exogenous H2O2 and viscosity in live HeLa cells, which was expected to be a practical tool for detecting H2O2 and viscosity in live cells.

The Role of Gut-derived Short-Chain Fatty Acids in Multiple Sclerosis

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic condition affecting the central nervous system (CNS), where the interplay of genetic and environmental factors influences its pathophysiology, triggering immune responses and instigating inflammation. Contemporary research has been notably dedicated to investigating the contributions of gut microbiota and their metabolites in modulating inflammatory reactions within the CNS. Recent recognition of the gut microbiome and dietary patterns as environmental elements impacting MS development emphasizes the potential influence of small, ubiquitous molecules from microbiota, such as short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs). These molecules may serve as vital molecular signals or metabolic substances regulating host cellular metabolism in the intricate interplay between microbiota and the host. A current emphasis lies on optimizing the health-promoting attributes of colonic bacteria to mitigate urinary tract issues through dietary management. This review aims to spotlight recent investigations on the impact of SCFAs on immune cells pivotal in MS, the involvement of gut microbiota and SCFAs in MS development, and the considerable influence of probiotics on gastrointestinal disruptions in MS. Comprehending the gut-CNS connection holds promise for the development of innovative therapeutic approaches, particularly probiotic-based supplements, for managing MS.

Anti-Neuroinflammatory Effects of Arecae pericarpium on LPS-Stimulated BV2 Cells

Arecae pericarpium (AP), the fruit peel of the betel palm, is a traditional Oriental herbal medicine. AP is used to treat various diseases and conditions, such as ascites, edema, and urinary retention, in traditional Korean medicine. Recent studies have demonstrated its anti-obesity and antibacterial effects; however, its anti-neuroinflammatory effects have not yet been reported. Therefore, we investigated the anti-neuroinflammatory effects of AP on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated mouse microglia in this study. To determine the anti-neuroinflammatory effects of AP on BV2 microglial cells, we examined the production of nitric oxide (NO) using Griess assay and assessed the mRNA expression levels of inflammatory mediators, such as inducible NO synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase (COX)-2, and pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, using a real-time reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction. Furthermore, we determined the levels of mitogen-activated protein kinases and IκBα via Western blotting to understand the regulating mechanisms of AP. AP treatment decreased NO production in LPS-stimulated BV2 cells. Additionally, AP suppressed the expression of iNOS and COX-2 and the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines. AP also inhibited the activation of p38 and nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) in LPS-stimulated BV2 cells. Therefore, AP exerts anti-neuroinflammatory effects via inactivation of the p38 and NF-κB pathways.

One advantageous reflection of iron metabolism in context of normal physiology and pathological phases

PURPOSE (BACKGROUND)

The presented review is an updating of Iron metabolism in context of normal physiology and pathological phases. Iron is one of the vital elements in humans and associated into proteins as a component of heme (e.g. hemoglobin, myoglobin, cytochromes proteins, myeloperoxidase, nitric oxide synthetases), iron sulfur clusters (e.g. respiratory complexes I-III, coenzyme Q10, mitochondrial aconitase, DNA primase), or other functional groups (e.g. hypoxia inducible factor prolyl hydroxylases). All these entire iron-containing proteins ar e needed for vital cellular and organismal functions together with oxygen transport, mitochondrial respiration, intermediary and xenobiotic metabolism, nucleic acid replication and repair, host defense, and cell signaling.

METHODS (METABOLIC STRATEGIES)

Cells have developed metabolic strategies to import and employ iron safely. Regulatory process of iron uptake, storage, intracellular trafficking and utilization is vital for the maintenance of cellular iron homeostasis. Cellular iron utilization and intracellular iron trafficking pathways are not well established and very little knowledge about this. The predominant organs, which are associated in the metabolism of iron, are intestine, liver, bone marrow and spleen. Iron is conserved, recycled and stored. The reduced bioavailability of iron in humans has developed extremely efficient mechanisms for iron conservation. Prominently, the losses of iron cannot considerably enhance through physiologic mechanisms, even if iron intake and stores become excessive. Loss of iron is balanced or maintained from dietary sources.

RESULTS (OUTCOMES)

Numerous physiological abnormalities are associated with impaired iron metabolism. These abnormalities are appeared in the form of several diseases. There are duodenal ulcer, inflammatory bowel disease, sideroblastic anaemia, congenital dyserythropoietic anemias and low-grade myelodysplastic syndromes. Hereditary hemochromatosis and anaemia are two chronic diseases, which are responsible for disturbing the iron metabolism in various tissues, including the spleen and the intestine. Impairment in hepatic hepcidin synthesis is responsible for chronic liver disease, which is grounding from alcoholism or viral hepatitis. This condition directs to iron overload that can cause further hepatic damage. Iron has important role in several infectious diseases are tuberculosis, malaria trypanosomatid diseases and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). Iron is also associated with Systemic lupus erythematosus [SLE], cancer, Alzheimer's disease (AD) and post-traumatic epilepsy.

CONCLUSION

Recently, numerous research studies are gradually more dedicated in the field of iron metabolism, but a number of burning questions are still waiting for answer. Cellular iron utilization and intracellular iron trafficking pathways are not well established and very little knowledge about this. Increased information of the physiology of iron homeostasis will support considerate of the pathology of iron disorders and also make available the support to advance treatment.

An Emerging Strategy for Neuroinflammation Treatment: Combined Cannabidiol and Angiotensin Receptor Blockers Treatments Effectively Inhibit Glial Nitric Oxide Release

Cannabidiol (CBD), the major non-psychoactive phytocannabinoid found in cannabis, has anti-neuroinflammatory properties. Despite the increasing use of CBD, little is known about its effect in combination with other substances. Combination therapy has been gaining attention recently, aiming to produce more efficient effects. Angiotensin II activates the angiotensin 1 receptor and regulates neuroinflammation and cognition. Angiotensin receptor 1 blockers (ARBs) were shown to be neuroprotective and prevent cognitive decline. The present study aimed to elucidate the combined role of CBD and ARBs in the modulation of lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced glial inflammation. While LPS significantly enhanced nitric oxide synthesis vs. the control, telmisartan and CBD, when administered alone, attenuated this effect by 60% and 36%, respectively. Exposure of LPS-stimulated cells to both compounds resulted in the 95% inhibition of glial nitric oxide release (additive effect). A synergistic inhibitory effect on nitric oxide release was observed when cells were co-treated with losartan (5 μM) and CBD (5 μM) (by 80%) compared to exposure to each compound alone (by 22% and 26%, respectively). Telmisartan and CBD given alone increased TNFα levels by 60% and 40%, respectively. CBD and telmisartan, when given together, attenuated the LPS-induced increase in TNFα levels without statistical significance. LPS-induced IL-17 release was attenuated by CBD with or without telmisartan (by 75%) or telmisartan alone (by 60%). LPS-induced Interferon-γ release was attenuated by 80% when telmisartan was administered in the absence or presence of CBD. Anti-inflammatory effects were recorded when CBD was combined with the known anti-inflammatory agent dimethyl fumarate (DMF)/monomethyl fumarate (MMF). A synergistic inhibitory effect of CBD and MMF on glial release of nitric oxide (by 77%) was observed compared to cells exposed to MMF (by 35%) or CBD (by 12%) alone. Overall, this study highlights the potential of new combinations of CBD (5 μM) with losartan (5 μM) or MMF (1 μM) to synergistically attenuate glial NO synthesis. Additive effects on NO production were observed when telmisartan (5 μM) and CBD (5 μM) were administered together to glial cells.

Characteristics of Age Classification into Five-Year Intervals to Explain Sarcopenia and Immune Cells in Older Adults

Background and Objectives: This study focused on investigating sarcopenic factors and immune cells in older adulthood. To achieve this, the variables related to sarcopenia and immune cells in people living in the same community were analyzed. Materials and Methods: A total of 433 elderly individuals aged 61 to 85 years were randomly categorized as follows in 5-year intervals: 68 in the youngest-old group (aged 61-65), 168 in the young-old group (aged 66-70), 127 in the middle-old group (aged 71-75), 46 in the old-old group (aged 76-80), and 19 in the oldest-old group (aged 81-85). Results: With the progression of age, calf circumference (-8.4 to -11.05%; p = 0.001) and grip strength (-9.32 to -21.01%; p = 0.001) exhibited a noticeable reduction with each successive 5-year age bracket. Conversely, the capability to complete the five-time chair stand demonstrated a clear incline (32.49 to 56.81%; p = 0.001), starting from the middle-aged group. As for appendicular skeletal muscle mass, there was an evident tendency for it to decrease (-7.08 to -26.62%; p = 0.001) with increasing age. A gradual decline in natural killer cells became apparent within the old-old and oldest-old groups (-9.28 to -26.27%; p = 0.001). The results of the post hoc test revealed that CD3 T cells showcased their peak levels in both the youngest-old and young-old groups. This was followed by the middle-old and old-old groups, with slightly lower levels. This pattern was similarly observed in CD4 T cells, CD8 T cells, and CD19 B cells. Conclusions: This study reaffirmed that sarcopenia and immune cell function decline with each successive 5-year increase in age. Considering these findings, the importance of implementing programs aimed at ensuring a high-quality extension of life for the elderly is strongly underscored.

The impact of microbiota-derived short-chain fatty acids on macrophage activities in disease: Mechanisms and therapeutic potentials

Short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) derived from the fermentation of carbohydrates by gut microbiota play a crucial role in regulating host physiology. Among them, acetate, propionate, and butyrate are key players in various biological processes. Recent research has revealed their significant functions in immune and inflammatory responses. For instance, butyrate reduces the development of interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) generating cells while promoting the development of regulatory T (Treg) cells. Propionate inhibits the initiation of a Th2 immune response by dendritic cells (DCs). Notably, SCFAs have an inhibitory impact on the polarization of M2 macrophages, emphasizing their immunomodulatory properties and potential for therapeutics. In animal models of asthma, both butyrate and propionate suppress the M2 polarization pathway, thus reducing allergic airway inflammation. Moreover, dysbiosis of gut microbiota leading to altered SCFA production has been implicated in prostate cancer progression. SCFAs trigger autophagy in cancer cells and promote M2 polarization in macrophages, accelerating tumor advancement. Manipulating microbiota- producing SCFAs holds promise for cancer treatment. Additionally, SCFAs enhance the expression of hypoxia-inducible factor 1 (HIF-1) by blocking histone deacetylase, resulting in increased production of antibacterial effectors and improved macrophage-mediated elimination of microorganisms. This highlights the antimicrobial potential of SCFAs and their role in host defense mechanisms. This comprehensive review provides an in-depth analysis of the latest research on the functional aspects and underlying mechanisms of SCFAs in relation to macrophage activities in a wide range of diseases, including infectious diseases and cancers. By elucidating the intricate interplay between SCFAs and macrophage functions, this review aims to contribute to the understanding of their therapeutic potential and pave the way for future interventions targeting SCFAs in disease management.

Is lithium neuroprotective? An updated mechanistic illustrated review

Neurodegeneration is a pathological process characterized by progressive neuronal impairment, dysfunction, and loss due to mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress, inflammation, and apoptosis. Many studies have shown that lithium protects against neurodegeneration. Herein, we summarize recent clinical and laboratory studies on the neuroprotective effects of lithium against neurodegeneration and its potential to modulate mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress, inflammation, and apoptosis. Recent findings indicate that lithium regulates critical intracellular pathways such as phosphatidylinositol-3 (PI3)/protein kinase B (Akt)/glycogen synthase kinase-3 (GSK3β) and PI3/Akt/response element-binding protein (CREB)/brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). We queried PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, Elsevier, and other related databases using search terms related to lithium and its neuroprotective effect in various neurodegenerative diseases and events from January 2000 to May 2022. We reviewed the major findings and mechanisms proposed for the effects of lithium. Lithium's neuroprotective potential against neural cell degeneration is mediated by inducing anti-inflammatory factors, antioxidant enzymes, and free radical scavengers to prevent mitochondrial dysfunction. Lithium effects are regulated by two essential pathways: PI3/Akt/GSK3β and PI3/Akt/CREB/BDNF. Lithium acts as a neuroprotective agent against neurodegeneration by preventing inflammation, oxidative stress, apoptosis, and mitochondrial dysfunction using PI3/Akt/GSK3β and PI3/Akt/CREB/BDNF signaling pathways.

Association of Anemia with Cognitive Function and Dementia Among Older Adults: The Role of Inflammation

BACKGROUND

The association of anemia with cognitive function and dementia remains unclear.

OBJECTIVE

We aimed to investigate the association of anemia with cognitive function and dementia risk and to explore the role of inflammation in these associations.

METHODS

Within the UK Biobank, 207,203 dementia-free participants aged 60+ were followed for up to 16 years. Hemoglobin (HGB) and C-creative protein (CRP) were measured from blood samples taken at baseline. Anemia was defined as HGB <13 g/dL for males and <12 g/dL for females. Inflammation was categorized as low or high according to the median CRP level (1.50 mg/L). A subset of 18,211 participants underwent cognitive assessments (including global and domain-specific cognitive). Data were analyzed using linear mixed-effects model, Cox regression, and Laplace regression.

RESULTS

Anemia was associated with faster declines in global cognition (β= -0.08, 95% confidence interval [CI]: -0.14, -0.01) and processing speed (β= -0.10, 95% CI: -0.19, -0.01). During the follow-up of 9.76 years (interquartile range 7.55 to 11.39), 6,272 developed dementia. The hazard ratio of dementia was 1.57 (95% CI: 1.38, 1.78) for people with anemia, and anemia accelerated dementia onset by 1.53 (95% CI: 1.08, 1.97) years. The risk of dementia tended to be higher in people with both anemia and high CRP (1.89, 95% CI: 1.60, 2.22). There was a statistically significant interaction between anemia and CRP on dementia risk (p-interaction = 0.032).

CONCLUSIONS

Anemia is associated with cognitive decline (specifically for processing speed) and increased risk of dementia, especially in people with high inflammation.

Astrocytic and microglial cells as the modulators of neuroinflammation in Alzheimer's disease

Neuroinflammation is instigated by the misfiring of immune cells in the central nervous system (CNS) involving microglia and astrocytes as key cell-types. Neuroinflammation is a consequence of CNS injury, infection, toxicity, or autoimmunity. It is favorable as well as a detrimental process for neurodevelopment and associated processes. Transient activation of inflammatory response involving release of cytokines and growth factors positively affects the development and post-injury tissue. However, chronic or uncontrolled inflammatory responses may lead to various neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and multiple sclerosis. These diseases have variable clinical and pathological features, but are underlaid by the aggregation of misfolded proteins with a cytotoxic effect. Notably, abnormal activation of glial cells could mediate neuroinflammation, leading to the neurodegenerative condition. Microglia, a type of glial cell, a resident immune cell, form the forefront defense of the CNS immune system. Dysfunctional microglia and astrocyte, a different kind of glial cell with homeostatic function, impairs the protein aggregate (amyloid-beta plaque) clearance in AD. Studies have shown that microglia and astrocytes undergo alterations in their genetic profile, cellular and molecular responses, and thus promote dysfunctional immune cross-talk in AD. Hence, targeting microglia and astrocytes-driven molecular pathways could resolve the particular layers of neuroinflammation and set a reliable therapeutic intervention in AD progression.

A tale of two systems: Lessons learned from female mid-life aging with implications for Alzheimer's prevention & treatment

Neurological aging is frequently viewed as a linear process of decline, whereas in reality, it is a dynamic non-linear process. The dynamic nature of neurological aging is exemplified during midlife in the female brain. To investigate fundamental mechanisms of midlife aging that underlie risk for development of Alzheimer's disease (AD) in late life, we investigated the brain at greatest risk for the disease, the aging female brain. Outcomes of our research indicate that mid-life aging in the female is characterized by the emergence of three phases: early chronological (pre-menopause), endocrinological (peri-menopause) and late chronological (post-menopause) aging. The endocrinological aging program is sandwiched between early and late chronological aging. Throughout the three stages of midlife aging, two systems of biology, metabolic and immune, are tightly integrated through a network of signaling cascades. The network of signaling between these two systems of biology underlie an orchestrated sequence of adaptative starvation responses that shift the brain from near exclusive dependence on a single fuel, glucose, to utilization of an auxiliary fuel derived from lipids, ketone bodies. The dismantling of the estrogen control of glucose metabolism during mid-life aging is a critical contributor to the shift in fuel systems and emergence of dynamic neuroimmune phenotype. The shift in fuel reliance, puts the largest reservoir of local fatty acids, white matter, at risk for catabolism as a source of lipids to generate ketone bodies through astrocytic beta oxidation. APOE4 genotype accelerates the tipping point for emergence of the bioenergetic crisis. While outcomes derived from research conducted in the female brain are not directly translatable to the male brain, the questions addressed in a female centric program of research are directly applicable to investigation of the male brain. Like females, males with AD exhibit deficits in the bioenergetic system of the brain, activation of the immune system and hallmark Alzheimer's pathologies. The drivers and trajectory of mechanisms underlying neurodegeneration in the male brain will undoubtedly share common aspects with the female in addition to factors unique to the male. Preclinical and clinical evidence indicate that midlife endocrine aging can also be a transitional bridge to autoimmune disorders. Collectively, the data indicate that endocrinological aging is a critical period "tipping point" in midlife which can initiate emergence of the prodromal stage of late-onset-Alzheimer's disease. Interventions that target both immune and metabolic shifts that occur during midlife aging have the potential to alter the trajectory of Alzheimer's risk in late life. Further, to achieve precision medicine for AD, chromosomal sex is a critical variable to consider along with APOE genotype, other genetic risk factors and stage of disease.

Role and therapeutic implications of protein glycosylation in neuroinflammation

The importance of glycosylation (post-translational attachment of glycan residues to proteins) in the context of neuroinflammation is only now beginning to be understood. Although the glycome is challenging to investigate due to its complexity, this field is gaining interest because of the emergence of novel analytical methods. These investigations offer the possibility of further understanding the molecular signature of disorders with underlying neuroinflammatory cascades. In this review, we portray the clinically relevant trends in glyconeurobiology and suggest glyco-related paths that could be targeted therapeutically to decrease neuroinflammation. A combinatorial insight from glycobiology and neurology can be harnessed to better understand neuroinflammatory-related conditions to identify relevant molecular targets.

Is There Any Evidence of Monocytes Involvement in Alzheimer's Disease? A Pilot Study on Human Postmortem Brain

Background

The role of neuroinflammation has become more evident in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases. Increased expression of microglial markers is widely reported in Alzheimer's disease (AD), but much less is known about the role of monocytes in AD pathogenesis. In AD animal models, bone marrow-derived monocytes appear to infiltrate the parenchyma and contribute to the phagocytosis of amyloid-β depositions, but this infiltration has not been established in systematic studies of the human brain postmortem.

Objective

In addition to assessing the distribution of different subtypes of microglia by immunostaining for CD68, HLA-DR, CD163, and CD206, we focused on the involvement of C-chemokine receptor type2 (CCR2) positive monocytes during the AD course.

Methods

We used formalin-fixed and paraffin-embedded tissue from four vulnerable brain regions (hippocampus, occipital lobe, brainstem, and cerebellum) from neuropathologically characterized AD cases at different Braak stages and age-matched controls.

Results

Only singular migrated CCR2-positive cells were found in all brain regions and stages. The brainstem showed the highest number of positive cells overall, followed by the hippocampus. This mechanism of recruitment seems to work less efficiently in the human brain at an advanced age, and the ingress of monocytes obviously takes place in much reduced numbers or not at all.

Conclusion

In contrast to studies on animal models, we observed only a quite low level of myeloid monocytes associated with AD pathology. Furthermore, we provide evidence associating early microglial reactions carried out in particular by pro-inflammatory cells with early effects on tangle- and plaque-positive vulnerable brain regions.

Digoxin Exhibits Neuroprotective Properties in a Rat Model of Dementia

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is by far the most common cause of cognitive impairment in older adults. Current treatments are entirely focused on the symptoms of AD. A complex etiology for AD has been proposed recently, in which AD leads in elevated levels of inflammation. We previously studied digoxin's involvement in the sporadic-AD intracerebroventricular (ICV)-streptozotocin (STZ) animal model due to its anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective characteristics. 18 adult sprague-dawley rats were split into three groups: control (n = 6), STZ + Saline (n = 6), and STZ + Digoxin (n = 6). Twelve AD-induced rats were split into two groups using stereotaxy five days after STZ injection (3 mg/kg) into both lateral ventricles: one group got digoxin (0.1 mg/kg/day, i.p.) for three weeks, while the other group received saline. Following treatment, each subject was subjected to a passive avoidance learning (PAL) test, followed by brain tissue harvesting. The levels of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) and choline acetyl transferase (ChAT) were measured in the brain, and neurons were counted using Cresyl violet staining in cornu ammonis-1 (CA1) and cornu ammonis-3 (CA3) cornu ammonis (CA3). ICV-STZ significantly shortened PAL latency, increased brain TNF-α levels, decreased brain ChAT activity, and decreased hippocampus neuron number. On the other hand, digoxin significantly reduced all of these STZ-induced deleterious effects. Digoxin significantly rescued rats from memory loss caused by ICV-STZ by decreasing hippocampal cell death, neuroinflammation, and cholinergic deficiency. These findings suggest that digoxin may be beneficial in treating cognitive impairment and Alzheimer's disease.

The Clinical and Neuropathological Features of Sporadic (Late-Onset) and Genetic Forms of Alzheimer's Disease

The purpose of this review is to compare and highlight the clinical and pathological aspects of genetic versus acquired Alzheimer's disease: Down syndrome-associated Alzheimer's disease in (DSAD) and Autosomal Dominant Alzheimer's disease (ADAD) are compared with the late-onset form of the disease (LOAD). DSAD and ADAD present in a younger population and are more likely to manifest with non-amnestic (such as dysexecutive function features) in the prodromal phase or neurological features (such as seizures and paralysis) especially in ADAD. The very large variety of mutations associated with ADAD explains the wider range of phenotypes. In the LOAD, age-associated comorbidities explain many of the phenotypic differences.

Specific microglial phagocytic phenotype and decrease of lipid oxidation in white matter areas during aging: Implications of different microenvironments

Physiological aging is characterized by an imbalance of pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory mediators leading to neuroinflammation. Microglial cells, which are highly regulated by the local microenvironment, undergo specific changes depending upon the brain area during aging. The aim of this study was to evaluate the influence of age over microglial cells along different brain areas and microenvironments. For this purpose, transgenic mice with overproduction of either the anti-inflammatory IL-10 cytokine or the pro-inflammatory IL-6 cytokine were used. Our results show that, during aging, microglial cells located in white matter (WM) areas maintain their phagocytic capacity but present a specific phagocytic phenotype with receptors involved in myelin recognition, arguing for aging-derived myelin damage. Whereas IL-10 overproduction anticipates the age-related microglial phagocytic phenotype, maintaining it over time, IL-6 overproduction exacerbates this phenotype in aging. These modifications were linked with a higher efficiency of myelin engulfment by microglia in aged transgenic animals. Moreover, we show, in a novel way, lower lipid oxidation during aging in WM areas, regardless of the genotype. The novelty of the insights presented in this study open a window to deeply investigate myelin lipid oxidation and the role of microglial cells in its regulation during physiological aging.

Robust EEG Based Biomarkers to Detect Alzheimer's Disease

Biomarkers to detect Alzheimer's disease (AD) would enable patients to gain access to appropriate services and may facilitate the development of new therapies. Given the large numbers of people affected by AD, there is a need for a low-cost, easy to use method to detect AD patients. Potentially, the electroencephalogram (EEG) can play a valuable role in this, but at present no single EEG biomarker is robust enough for use in practice. This study aims to provide a methodological framework for the development of robust EEG biomarkers to detect AD with a clinically acceptable performance by exploiting the combined strengths of key biomarkers. A large number of existing and novel EEG biomarkers associated with slowing of EEG, reduction in EEG complexity and decrease in EEG connectivity were investigated. Support vector machine and linear discriminate analysis methods were used to find the best combination of the EEG biomarkers to detect AD with significant performance. A total of 325,567 EEG biomarkers were investigated, and a panel of six biomarkers was identified and used to create a diagnostic model with high performance (≥85% for sensitivity and 100% for specificity).

P2X7 Receptor as a Potential Target for Major Depressive Disorder

Major depressive disorder (MDD) is a common mental disorder. Although the genetic, biochemical, and psychological factors have been related to the development of MDD, it is generally believed that a series of pathological changes in the brain caused by chronic stress is the main cause of MDD. However, the specific mechanisms underlying chronic stress-induced MDD are largely undermined. Recent investigations have found that increased pro-inflammatory cytokines and changes in the inflammatory pathway in the microglia cells in the brain are the potential pathophysiological mechanism of MDD. P2X7 receptor (P2X7R) and its mediated signaling pathway play a key role in microglia activation. The present review aimed to present and discuss the accumulating data on the role of P2X7R in MDD. Firstly, we summarized the research progress in the correlation between P2X7R and MDD. Subsequently, we presented the P2X7R mediated microglia activation in MDD and the role of P2X7R in increased blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeability caused by chronic stress. Lastly, we also discussed the potential mechanism underlying-P2X7R expression changes after chronic stress. In conclusion, P2X7R is a key molecule regulating the activation of microglia. Chronic stress activates microglia in the hippocampus by secreting interleukin- 1β (IL-1β) and other inflammatory cytokines, and increasing the BBB permeability, thus promoting the occurrence and development of MDD, which indicated that P2X7R might be a promising therapeutic target for MDD.

Natural Glycan Derived Biomaterials for Inflammation Targeted Drug Delivery

Inflammation is closely related to a variety of fatal or chronic diseases. Hence, targeting inflammation provides an alternative approach to improve the therapeutic outcome of diseases such as solid tumors, neurological diseases, and metabolic diseases. Polysaccharides are natural components with immune regulation, anti-virus, anti-cancer, anti-inflammation, and anti-oxidation activities. Herein, this review highlights recent progress in the polysaccharide-based drug delivery systems for achieving inflammation targeting and its related disease treatment. Moreover, the chemical modification and the construction of polysaccharide materials for drug delivery are discussed in detail.

Exploring the Role of Monoamine Oxidase Activity in Aging and Alzheimer's Disease

Monoamine oxidases (MAOs) are a family of flavin adenine dinucleotide-dependent enzymes that exert a crucial role in the metabolism of neurotransmitters of the central nervous system. The impaired function of MAOs is associated with copious brain diseases. The alteration of monoamine metabolism is a characteristics feature of aging. MAO plays a crucial role in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD) - a progressive neurodegenerative disorder associated with an excessive accumulation of amyloid-beta (Aβ) peptide and neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs). Activated MAO has played a critical role in the development of amyloid plaques from Aβ, as well as the formation of the NFTs. In the brain, MAO mediated metabolism of monoamines is the foremost source of reactive oxygen species formation. The elevated level of MAO-B expression in astroglia has been reported in the AD brains adjacent to amyloid plaques. Increased MAO-B activity in the cortical and hippocampal regions is associated with AD. This review describes the pathogenic mechanism of MAOs in aging as well as the development and propagation of Alzheimer's pathology.

Anti-Inflammatory and Immunomodulatory Effects of the Grifola frondosa Natural Compound o-Orsellinaldehyde on LPS-Challenged Murine Primary Glial Cells. Roles of NF-κβ and MAPK

In response to foreign or endogenous stimuli, both microglia and astrocytes adopt an activated phenotype that promotes the release of pro-inflammatory mediators. This inflammatory mechanism, known as neuroinflammation, is essential in the defense against foreign invasion and in normal tissue repair; nevertheless, when constantly activated, this process can become detrimental through the release of neurotoxic factors that amplify underlying disease. In consequence, this study presents the anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory properties of o-orsellinaldehyde, a natural compound found by an in silico approach in the Grifola frondosa mushroom, in astrocytes and microglia cells. For this purpose, primary microglia and astrocytes were isolated from mice brain and cultured in vitro. Subsequently, cells were exposed to LPS in the absence or presence of increasing concentrations of this natural compound. Specifically, the results shown that o-orsellinaldehyde strongly inhibits the LPS-induced inflammatory response in astrocytes and microglia by decreasing nitrite formation and downregulating iNOS and HO-1 expression. Furthermore, in microglia cells o-orsellinaldehyde inhibits NF-κB activation; and potently counteracts LPS-mediated p38 kinase and JNK phosphorylation (MAPK). In this regard, o-orsellinaldehyde treatment also induces a significant cell immunomodulation by repolarizing microglia toward the M2 anti-inflammatory phenotype. Altogether, these results could partially explain the reported beneficial effects of G. frondosa extracts on inflammatory conditions.

Crosstalk between Different DNA Repair Pathways Contributes to Neurodegenerative Diseases

Simple Summary

Constant exposure to endogenous and environmental factors induces oxidative stress and DNA damage. Rare brain disorders caused by defects in DNA repair and DNA damage response (DDR) signaling establish that failure to process DNA damage may lead to neurodegeneration. In this review, we present mechanisms that link DDR with neurodegeneration in these disorders and discuss their relevance for common age-related neurodegenerative diseases (NDDs). Moreover, we highlight recent insight into the crosstalk between the DDR and other cellular processes known to be disturbed during NDDs.

Abstract

Genomic integrity is maintained by DNA repair and the DNA damage response (DDR). Defects in certain DNA repair genes give rise to many rare progressive neurodegenerative diseases (NDDs), such as ocular motor ataxia, Huntington disease (HD), and spinocerebellar ataxias (SCA). Dysregulation or dysfunction of DDR is also proposed to contribute to more common NDDs, such as Parkinson’s disease (PD), Alzheimer’s disease (AD), and Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS). Here, we present mechanisms that link DDR with neurodegeneration in rare NDDs caused by defects in the DDR and discuss the relevance for more common age-related neurodegenerative diseases. Moreover, we highlight recent insight into the crosstalk between the DDR and other cellular processes known to be disturbed during NDDs. We compare the strengths and limitations of established model systems to model human NDDs, ranging from C. elegans and mouse models towards advanced stem cell-based 3D models.

β-lactam antibiotics to tame down molecular pathways of Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease is a multifactorial disorder characterized by extracellular accumulation of amyloid-β (Aβ) and intracellular accumulations of neurofibrillary tangles. Numerous drug targets have been explored for therapeutic efficacy but failed to deliver successful treatments clinically. However, over the years our understanding of the disease pathophysiology increased significantly. Many of the novel targets which can cure or modify disease pathology are being explored preclinically as well as clinically. On contrarily, the drug discovery and development process is lengthy and the cost involved makes it difficult for faster translation of therapeutic outcomes. Therefore, repurposing existing drugs for a new therapeutic indication is considered a better approach and helps in the fast translation of therapeutic information. The existing drugs have well-proven records on their safety, pharmacokinetics, etc. In recent years, beta (β)-lactam antibiotics have been repurposed for the management of neurodegenerative pathologies. Here in the current review, we have explored β-lactam antibiotics, their target sites, molecular mechanisms, and their therapeutic potential in Alzheimer's disease.

Dynamic Neuroimmune Profile during Mid-life Aging in the Female Brain and Implications for Alzheimer Risk

Aging and endocrine transition states can significantly impact inflammation across organ systems. Neuroinflammation is well documented in Alzheimer disease (AD). Herein, we investigated neuroinflammation that emerges during mid-life aging, chronological and endocrinological, in the female brain as an early initiating mechanism driving AD risk later in life. Analyses were conducted in a translational rodent model of mid-life chronological and endocrinological aging followed by validation in transcriptomic profiles from women versus age-matched men. In the translational model, the neuroinflammatory profile of mid-life aging in females was endocrine and chronological state specific, dynamic, anatomically distributed, and persistent. Microarray dataset analyses of aging human hippocampus indicated a sex difference in neuroinflammatory profile in which women exhibited a profile comparable to the pattern discovered in our translational rodent model, whereas age-matched men exhibited a profile consistent with low neuroimmune activation. Translationally, these findings have implications for therapeutic interventions during mid-life to decrease late-onset AD risk.

Novel Neuroprotective Potential of Crocin in Neurodegenerative Disorders: An Illustrated Mechanistic Review

Neurodegenerative disorders are characterized by mitochondrial dysfunction and subsequently oxidative stress, inflammation, and apoptosis that contribute to neuronal cytotoxicity and degeneration. Recent studies reported that crocin, a carotenoid chemical compound common in crocus and gardenia flowers, has protective effects in neurodegenerative disorders due to its anti-oxidative, anti-inflammatory, and anti-apoptotic properties in the nervous system. This article reviews the new experimental, clinical, and pharmacological studies on the neuroprotective properties of crocin and its potential mechanisms to modulate metabolic oxidative stress and inflammation in neurodegenerative disorders.

Dietary monosodium glutamate altered redox status and dopamine metabolism in lobster cockroach (Nauphoeta cinerea)

Monosodium Glutamate (MSG) is the most commonly utilized food additive in the world. However, data on possible biochemical reasons underlying the neurotoxic effects of dietary MSG is limited. Therefore, this study investigated the effects of dietary supplementation of MSG on redox status and neurochemical indices in lobster cockroach nymph. These were evaluated via assessment of enzymatic and nonenzymatic antioxidants, acetylcholinesterase and monoamine oxidase activities, and dopamine content in the cockroach nymph head homogenate. MSG supplemented diet caused dose-dependent significant (p < .05) reduction in % survival, thiol, GSH, dopamine contents, and GST activity, increased ROS, NO, Fe²⁺ , MDA contents, and MAO activity but no significant (p < .05) difference was obtained in GSH and TBARS contents, and AChE activity. Increased oxidative, cholinergic, and monoaminergic activities coupled with decreased dopamine level might be the plausible biochemical explanation for the neurotoxic effects observed during sub-chronic consumption of large amounts of MSG in diet. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: This study suggests that consumption of monosodium glutamate should be reduced to the barest minimum due to its capability to induce oxidative stress and nervous toxicological effects at high dosage.

Alarmins in Osteoporosis, RAGE, IL-1, and IL-33 Pathways: A Literature Review

Alarmins are endogenous mediators released by cells following insults or cell death to alert the host’s innate immune system of a situation of danger or harm. Many of these, such as high-mobility group box-1 and 2 (HMGB1, HMGB2) and S100 (calgranulin proteins), act through RAGE (receptor for advanced glycation end products), whereas the IL-1 and IL-33 cytokines bind the IL-1 receptors type I and II, and the cellular receptor ST2, respectively. The alarmin family and their signal pathways share many similarities of cellular and tissue localization, functions, and involvement in various physiological processes and inflammatory diseases including osteoporosis. The aim of the review was to evaluate the role of alarmins in osteoporosis. A bibliographic search of the published scientific literature regarding the role of alarmins in osteoporosis was organized independently by two researchers in the following scientific databases: Pubmed, Scopus, and Web of Science. The keywords used were combined as follows: “alarmins and osteoporosis”, “RAGE and osteoporosis”, “HMGB1 and osteoporosis”, “IL-1 and osteoporosis”, “IL 33 and osteopororsis”, “S100s protein and osteoporosis”. The information was summarized and organized in the present review. We highlight the emerging roles of alarmins in various bone remodeling processes involved in the onset and development of osteoporosis, as well as their potential role as biomarkers of osteoporosis severity and progression. Findings of the research suggest a potential use of alarmins as pharmacological targets in future therapeutic strategies aimed at preventing bone loss and fragility fractures induced by aging and inflammatory diseases.

Cellular Senescence in Neurodegenerative Diseases

Cellular senescence is a homeostatic biological process characterized by a permanent state of cell cycle arrest that can contribute to the decline of the regenerative potential and function of tissues. The increased presence of senescent cells in different neurodegenerative diseases suggests the contribution of senescence in the pathophysiology of these disorders. Although several factors can induce senescence, DNA damage, oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, and altered proteostasis have been shown to play a role in its onset. Oxidative stress contributes to accelerated aging and cognitive dysfunction stages affecting neurogenesis, neuronal differentiation, connectivity, and survival. During later life stages, it is implicated in the progression of cognitive decline, synapse loss, and neuronal degeneration. Also, neuroinflammation exacerbates oxidative stress, synaptic dysfunction, and neuronal death through the harmful effects of pro-inflammatory cytokines on cell proliferation and maturation. Both oxidative stress and neuroinflammation can induce DNA damage and alterations in DNA repair that, in turn, can exacerbate them. Another important feature associated with senescence is altered proteostasis. Because of the disruption in the function and balance of the proteome, senescence can modify the proper synthesis, folding, quality control, and degradation rate of proteins producing, in some diseases, misfolded proteins or aggregation of abnormal proteins. There is an extensive body of literature that associates cellular senescence with several neurodegenerative disorders including Alzheimer’s disease (AD), Down syndrome (DS), and Parkinson’s disease (PD). This review summarizes the evidence of the shared neuropathological events in these neurodegenerative diseases and the implication of cellular senescence in their onset or aggravation. Understanding the role that cellular senescence plays in them could help to develop new therapeutic strategies.

Metabolic Syndrome and Cognitive Functions in Schizophrenia-Implementation of Dietary Intervention

INTRODUCTION

The co-existence of schizophrenia and metabolic syndrome is a widely described phenomenon that contributes to the worse functioning of patients in everyday life. A relatively new area of research is the relationship between metabolic syndrome (MS) and cognitive function in patients with schizophrenia. The aim of the study was to verify the relationship between the presence of metabolic syndrome and cognitive function of patients with schizophrenia and to assess the possibility of changing cognitive function by introducing appropriate dietary intervention.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The study involved 87 individuals diagnosed with schizophrenia according to ICD-10 criteria, aged 19 to 67 years (M = 41.67; SD = 11.87). Patients were in the remission phase of schizophrenia, all using antipsychotics for pharmacological treatment. From a group of 83 patients with schizophrenia and diagnosed metabolic syndrome (according to IDF criteria) 30 patients were randomly assigned to an experimental group-with dietary intervention, 29 patients-to group without dietary intervention, 24 patients with schizophrenia without metabolic syndrome was a comparison group. All groups were evaluated for cognitive function using Stroop Test, Trail Making Test (TMT), Verbal Fluency Test, Digit Span Backwards Test. In the experimental group a dietary intervention was applied, which was to provide the examined person with a 7-day dietary plan with reduced calorie content, in compliance with the Mediterranean diet.

RESULTS

After the dietary intervention there was a significant improvement in the number of errors made in the third Stroop Test (p <0.001), the time taken to complete the Point Linking Test was shortened (Test B; p = 0.005), there was an improvement in Verbal Fluency Test in "animals" category (p = 0.006) "sharp objects" category (p = 0.009), the number of repeated digits has increased in Digit Span Test in "forward" category (p = 0.001) and overall completion of the test (p = 0.021). In the group of patients with MS without dietary intervention, the results of cognitive tests remained mostly unchanged.

CONCLUSIONS

Change of eating habits may be a significant element of a holistic approach to the problems of treatment of schizophrenia.

Sleep fragmentation, microglial aging, and cognitive impairment in adults with and without Alzheimer's dementia

Sleep disruption is associated with cognitive decline and dementia in older adults; however, the underlying mechanisms are unclear. In rodents, sleep disruption causes microglial activation, inhibition of which improves cognition. However, data from humans are lacking. We studied participants in two cohort studies of older persons-the Rush Memory and Aging Project and the Religious Orders Study. We assessed sleep fragmentation by actigraphy and related this to cognitive function, to neocortical microglial marker gene expression measured by RNA sequencing, and to the neocortical density of microglia assessed by immunohistochemistry. Greater sleep fragmentation was associated with higher neocortical expression of genes characteristic of aged microglia, and a higher proportion of morphologically activated microglia, independent of chronological age- and dementia-related neuropathologies. Furthermore, these were, in turn, associated with worse cognition. This suggests that sleep fragmentation is accompanied by accelerated microglial aging and activation, which may partially underlie its association with cognitive impairment.

Translational validity and implications of pharmacotherapies in preclinical models of Down syndrome

Neurodevelopmental disorders are challenging to study in the laboratory, and despite a large investment, few novel treatments have been developed in the last decade. While animal models have been valuable in elucidating disease mechanisms and in providing insights into the function of specific genes, the predictive validity of preclinical models to test potential therapies has been questioned. In the last two decades, diverse new murine models of Down syndrome (DS) have been developed and numerous studies have demonstrated neurobiological alterations that could be responsible for the cognitive and behavioral phenotypes found in this syndrome. In many cases, similar alterations were found in murine models and in individuals with DS, although several phenotypes shown in animals have yet not been confirmed in the human condition. Some of the neurobiological alterations observed in mice have been proposed to account for their changes in cognition and behavior, and have received special attention because of being putative therapeutic targets. Those include increased oxidative stress, altered neurogenesis, overexpression of the Dyrk1A gene, GABA-mediated overinhibition and Alzheimer's disease-related neurodegeneration. Subsequently, different laboratories have tested the efficacy of pharmacotherapies targeting these alterations. Unfortunately, animal models are limited in their ability to mimic the extremely complex process of human neurodevelopment and neuropathology. Therefore, the safety and efficacy identified in animal studies are not always translated to humans, and most of the drugs tested have not demonstrated any positive effect or very limited efficacy in clinical trials. Despite their limitations, though, animal trials give us extremely valuable information for developing and testing drugs for human use that cannot be obtained from molecular or cellular experiments alone. This chapter reviews some of these therapeutic approaches and discusses some reasons that could account for the discrepancy between the findings in mouse models of DS and in humans, including: (i) the incomplete resemble of the genetic alterations of available mouse models of DS and human trisomy 21, (ii) the lack of evidence that some of the phenotypic alterations found in mice (e.g., GABA-mediated overinhibition, and alterations in adult neurogenesis) are also present in DS individuals, and (iii) the inaccuracy and/or inadequacy of the methods used in clinical trials to detect changes in the cognitive and behavioral functions of people with DS. Despite the shortcomings of animal models, animal experimentation remains an invaluable tool in developing drugs. Thus, we will also discuss how to increase predictive validity of mouse models.

Accelerated decline in cognition in a mouse model of increased oxidative stress

Mice deficient in the antioxidant enzyme Cu/Zn-superoxide dismutase (Sod1KO mice) have a significant reduction in lifespan, exhibit many phenotypes of accelerated aging, and have high levels of oxidative stress in various tissues. Age-associated cognitive decline is a hallmark of aging and the increase in oxidative stress/damage with age is one of the mechanisms proposed for cognitive decline with age. Therefore, the goal of this study was to determine if Sod1KO mice exhibit an accelerated loss in cognitive function similar to that observed in aged animals. Cognition was assessed in Sod1KO and wild type (WT) mice using an automated home-cage testing apparatus (Noldus PhenoTyper) that included an initial discrimination and reversal task. Comparison of the total distance moved by the mice during light and dark phases of the study demonstrated that the Sod1KO mice do not show a deficit in movement. Assessment of cognitive function showed no significant difference between Sod1KO and WT mice during the initial discrimination phase of learning. However, during the reversal task, Sod1KO mice showed a significantly greater number of incorrect entries compared to WT mice indicating a decline in cognition similar to that observed in aged animals. Markers of oxidative stress (4-Hydroxynonenal, 4-HNE) and neuroinflammation [proinflammatory cytokines (IL6 and IL-1β) and neuroinflammatory markers (CD68, TLR4, and MCP1)] were significantly elevated in the hippocampus of male and female Sod1KO compared to WT mice. This study provides important evidence that increases in oxidative stress alone are sufficient to induce neuroinflammation and cognitive dysfunction that parallels the memory deficits seen in advanced aging and neurodegenerative diseases.

Viral Induced Oxidative and Inflammatory Response in Alzheimer's Disease Pathogenesis with Identification of Potential Drug Candidates: A Systematic Review using Systems Biology Approach

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is genetically complex with multifactorial etiology. Here, we aim to identify the potential viral pathogens leading to aberrant inflammatory and oxidative stress response in AD along with potential drug candidates using systems biology approach. We retrieved protein interactions of amyloid precursor protein (APP) and tau protein (MAPT) from NCBI and genes for oxidative stress from NetAge, for inflammation from NetAge and InnateDB databases. Genes implicated in aging were retrieved from GenAge database and two GEO expression datasets. These genes were individually used to create protein-protein interaction network using STRING database (score≥0.7). The interactions of candidate genes with known viruses were mapped using virhostnet v2.0 database. Drug molecules targeting candidate genes were retrieved using the Drug- Gene Interaction Database (DGIdb). Data mining resulted in 2095 APP, 116 MAPT, 214 oxidative stress, 1269 inflammatory genes. After STRING PPIN analysis, 404 APP, 109 MAPT, 204 oxidative stress and 1014 inflammation related high confidence proteins were identified. The overlap among all datasets yielded eight common markers (AKT1, GSK3B, APP, APOE, EGFR, PIN1, CASP8 and SNCA). These genes showed association with hepatitis C virus (HCV), Epstein- Barr virus (EBV), human herpes virus 8 and Human papillomavirus (HPV). Further, screening of drugs targeting candidate genes, and possessing anti-inflammatory property, antiviral activity along with a suggested role in AD pathophysiology yielded 12 potential drug candidates. Our study demonstrated the role of viral etiology in AD pathogenesis by elucidating interaction of oxidative stress and inflammation causing candidate genes with common viruses along with the identification of potential AD drug candidates.

Neuroprotective effect of diclofenac on chlorpromazine induced catalepsy in rats

Neuroinflammation plays a key role in progressive degeneration of dopaminergic cells. Upregulation of prostaglandins and free radicals formation are involved in the mechanisms of cell death in Parkinson's disease (PD). The present study aimed to investigate the neuroprotective effect of diclofenac against chlorpromazine (CPZ) induced catalepsy and motor impairment in mice. Adult Wistar rats treated with CPZ (3 mg/kg/day, IP) were orally dosed with diclofenac and L-dopa/carbidopa for 21 days. Catalepsy was measured after 21 days of dosing by using standard bar test at 30, 60, 90, 120 and 180 min then motor performances were assessed via open field test and wire hanging test. Histopathological investigation and determination of dopamine (DA) and 3,4-Dihydroxyphenylacetic acid (DOPAC) levels of rat's brain was also carried out. We found that CPZ treated group exhibited reduced motor impairment after 21 days of treatment in open field and wire hanging test (P < 0.01) as compared to control group. The cataleptic scores of CPZ treated rats were also significantly increased (P < 0.01) after 21 days of chronic dosing, however diclofenac treated groups showed significant reduction in cataleptic scores with improved motor performances. Histopathology of CPZ treated rats showed marked degeneration with architecture distortion in the mid brain region. Dopaminergic degeneration is confirmed by neurochemical results that showed reduced amount of dopamine and DOPAC levels in mid brain. Moreover, histopathological slides of diclofenac treated rats showed improved architecture with reduced gliosis of mid brain region as well as improved dopamine and DOPAC levels were achieved after 21 days dosing of diclofenac. Taken together, the present work provide an evidence that diclofenac ameliorated behavioral performances by mediating neuroprotection against CPZ induced PD via preventing dopaminergic neuronal cell death.

The Independent Associations of Physical Activity and Sleep with Cognitive Function in Older Adults

BACKGROUND

Current evidence suggests physical activity (PA) and sleep are important for cognitive health; however, few studies examining the role of PA and sleep for cognitive health have measured these behaviors objectively.

OBJECTIVE

We cross-sectionally examined whether 1) higher PA is associated with better cognitive performance independently of sleep quality; 2) higher sleep quality is associated with better cognitive performance independently of PA; and 3) whether higher PA is associated with better sleep quality.

METHODS

We measured PA, subjective sleep quality using the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI), and objective sleep quality (i.e., fragmentation, efficiency, duration, and latency) using the MotionWatch8© in community-dwelling adults (N = 137; aged 55+). Cognitive function was indexed using the Alzheimer's Disease Assessment Scale-Plus. Correlation analyses were performed to determine relationships between PA, sleep quality, and cognitive function. We then used latent variable modelling to examine the relationships of PA with cognitive function independently of sleep quality, sleep quality with cognitive function independently of PA, and PA with sleep quality.

RESULTS

We found greater PA was associated with better cognitive performance independently of 1) PSQI (β= -0.03; p < 0.01); 2) sleep fragmentation (β= -0.02; p < 0.01); 3) sleep duration (β= -0.02; p < 0.01); and 4) sleep latency (β= -0.02; p < 0.01). In addition, better sleep efficiency was associated with better cognitive performance independently of PA (β= -0.01; p = 0.04). We did not find any associations between PA and sleep quality.

CONCLUSIONS

PA is associated with better cognitive performance independently of sleep quality, and sleep efficiency is associated with better cognitive performance independently of PA. However, PA is not associated with sleep quality and thus PA and sleep quality may be related to cognitive performance through independent mechanisms.

Aging, Cancer and Immunity

Cancers are being frequently diagnosed in the elderly. Immunosenescence which refers to the gradual deterioration of the immune system brought on by natural age advancement, has been the key cross center in the increasing frequency and severity of cancer, aging and immunity. Monoclonal antibodies targeting immune checkpoint molecules CTLA-4, PD-1 or PD-L1 are the promising anticancer therapeutics in multiple cancer subtypes generating remarkable and long-lasting clinical responses. These immune checkpoint blockers (ICBs)have already obtained approval for the treatment of patients with metastatic melanoma, advanced/refractory non-small cell lung cancer and renal cell cancer. ICBs can not only enhance immune responses against cancer cells but can also lead to inflammatory side effects called immune-related adverse events (irAEs). As none or only a small number of older patients were enrolled in most ICBs studies, it remains difficult to confirm the impacts of ICBs on the elderly. We could expect that clinical specificity of older patients (co-medications, comorbidities and reduced functional reserve) and immunosenescence may affect the efficacy of ICBs and tolerance in this population. However, the results from meta-analysis on the efficacy of ICBs are very encouraging and suggesting that the older patients will benefit from the ICBs revolution in oncology without increased toxicity.

Dual Functions of Microglia in Ischemic Stroke

Ischemic stroke is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Resident microglia are the principal immune cells of the brain, and the first to respond to the pathophysiological changes induced by ischemic stroke. Traditionally, it has been thought that microglial activation is deleterious in ischemic stroke, and therapies to suppress it have been intensively explored. However, increasing evidence suggests that microglial activation is also critical for neurogenesis, angiogenesis, and synaptic remodeling, thereby promoting functional recovery after cerebral ischemia. Here, we comprehensively review the dual role of microglia during the different phases of ischemic stroke, and the possible mechanisms controlling the post-ischemic activity of microglia. In addition, we discuss the dynamic interactions between microglia and other cells, such as neurons, astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, and endothelial cells within the brain parenchyma and the neurovascular unit.

BMI-related cortical morphometry changes are associated with altered white matter structure

BACKGROUND

While gross measures of brain structure have shown alterations with increasing body mass index (BMI), the extent and nature of such changes has varied substantially across studies. Here, we sought to determine whether small-scale morphometric measures might prove more sensitive and reliable than larger scale measures and whether they might offer a valuable opportunity to link cortical changes to underlying white matter changes. To examine this, we explored the association of BMI with millimetre-scale Gaussian curvature, in addition to standard measures of morphometry such as cortical thickness, surface area and mean curvature. We also assessed the volume and integrity of the white matter, using white matter signal intensity and fractional anisotropy (FA). We hypothesised that BMI would be linked to small-scale changes in Gaussian curvature and that this phenomenon would be mediated by changes in the integrity of the underlying white matter.

METHODS

The association of global measures of T1-weighted cortical morphometry with BMI was examined using linear regression and mediation analyses in two independent groups of healthy young to middle aged human subjects (n1 = 52, n2 = 202). In a third dataset of (n3 = 897), which included diffusion tensor images, we sought to replicate the significant associations established in the first two datasets, and examine the potential mechanistic link between BMI-associated cortical changes and global FA.

RESULTS

Gaussian curvature of the white matter surface showed a significant, positive association with BMI across all three independent datasets. This effect was mediated by a negative association between the integrity of the white matter and BMI.

CONCLUSIONS

Increasing BMI is associated with changes in white matter microstructure in young to middle-aged healthy adults. Our results are consistent with a model whereby BMI-linked cortical changes are mediated by the effects of BMI on white matter microstructure.

Lipoxin A4 Regulates Lipopolysaccharide-Induced BV2 Microglial Activation and Differentiation via the Notch Signaling Pathway

Inflammatory responses contribute to the pathogenesis of various neurological diseases, and microglia plays an important role in the process. Activated microglia can differentiate into the pro-inflammatory, tissue-damaging M1 phenotype or the anti-inflammatory, tissue-repairing M2 phenotype. Regulating microglia differentiation, hence limiting a harmful response, might help improve the prognosis of inflammation-related nervous system diseases. The present study aimed 1. to observe the anti-inflammatory effect of lipoxin A4 (LXA4) on the inflammatory response associated to lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced microglia activation, 2. to clarify that LXA4 modulates the activation and differentiation of microglia induced by LPS stimulation, 3. to determine whether LXA4 regulates the activation and differentiation of microglia through the Notch signaling pathway, 4. to provide a foundation for the use of LXA4 for the treatment of inflammatory related neurological diseases. To construct a model of cellular inflammation, immortalized murine BV2 microglia cells were provided 200 ng/ml LPS. To measure the mRNA and protein levels of inflammatory factors (interleukin [IL]-1β, IL-10, and tumor necrosis factor [TNF]-α) and M1 and M2 microglia markers (inducible nitric oxide synthase [iNOS], cluster of differentiation [CD]32, arginase [Arg]1, and CD206), we performed quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), immunofluorescence, or flow cytometry. To determine the mRNA and protein levels of Notch signaling components (Notch1, Hes1, and Hes5), we performed qRT-PCR and western blot. LXA4 inhibits the expression of Notch1 and Hes1 associated with M1 type microglial differentiation and decreases the M1 type microglia marker iNOS and related inflammatory factors IL-1β and TNF-α. Moreover, LXA4 upregulates the expression of the M2-associated Hes5, as well as the expression of the M2 microglia marker Arg1 and the associated inflammatory factor IL-10. These effects are blocked by the administration of the γ-secretase inhibitor DAPT, a specific blocker of the Notch signaling pathway. LXA4 inhibits the microglia activation induced by LPS and the differentiation into M1 type with pro-inflammatory effect, while promoting the differentiation to M2 type with anti-inflammatory effect. LXA4 downregulates the inflammatory mediators IL-1β, TNF-α, and iNOS, while upregulating the anti-inflammatory mediator IL-10, which acts through the Notch signaling pathway.

Association of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease with mild cognitive impairment and dementia

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

As age expectancy increases, both dementia and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) have become more prevalent. Dementia and COPD together, however, occur more commonly than would be predicted from the incidence of either alone, suggesting a link between these two common senescent diseases. The purpose of this article is to review the extant literature and report findings in a clinically meaningful manner. We will look at the level of evidence, the risk factors for co-occurrence of the two diseases and the differential effects upon cognitive domains in the population with dementia and COPD.

RECENT FINDINGS

Cognitive impairment in patients with COPD may be 'dose-dependent' with the duration of COPD. Patients with COPD appear to develop nonamnestic mild cognitive impairment (MCI) as opposed to amnestic MCI. Newer studies exploring the impact of oxygen therapy and pulmonary rehabilitation upon cognitive function have reported some positive findings.

SUMMARY

Higher prevalence of MCI/dementia is seen in patients with COPD compared with age-matched controls. Imaging findings and dementia/MCI biomarkers provide preliminary evidence for an indirect association of the two conditions. Although no causality can be drawn with the available data, there is some indication that the severity of hypoxemia correlates with the severity of cognitive dysfunction.

Increased brain age in adults with Prader-Willi syndrome

Prader-Willi syndrome (PWS) is the most common genetic obesity syndrome, with associated learning difficulties, neuroendocrine deficits, and behavioural and psychiatric problems. As the life expectancy of individuals with PWS increases, there is concern that alterations in brain structure associated with the syndrome, as a direct result of absent expression of PWS genes, and its metabolic complications and hormonal deficits, might cause early onset of physiological and brain aging. In this study, a machine learning approach was used to predict brain age based on grey matter (GM) and white matter (WM) maps derived from structural neuroimaging data using T1-weighted magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans. Brain-predicted age difference (brain-PAD) scores, calculated as the difference between chronological age and brain-predicted age, are designed to reflect deviations from healthy brain aging, with higher brain-PAD scores indicating premature aging. Two separate adult cohorts underwent brain-predicted age calculation. The main cohort consisted of adults with PWS (n = 20; age mean 23.1 years, range 19.8-27.7; 70.0% male; body mass index (BMI) mean 30.1 kg/m2, 21.5-47.7; n = 19 paternal chromosome 15q11-13 deletion) and age- and sex-matched controls (n = 40; age 22.9 years, 19.6-29.0; 65.0% male; BMI 24.1 kg/m2, 19.2-34.2) adults (BMI PWS vs. control P = .002). Brain-PAD was significantly greater in PWS than controls (effect size mean ± SEM +7.24 ± 2.20 years [95% CI 2.83, 11.63], P = .002). Brain-PAD remained significantly greater in PWS than controls when restricting analysis to a sub-cohort matched for BMI consisting of n = 15 with PWS with BMI range 21.5-33.7 kg/m2, and n = 29 controls with BMI 21.7-34.2 kg/m2 (effect size +5.51 ± 2.56 years [95% CI 3.44, 10.38], P = .037). In the PWS group, brain-PAD scores were not associated with intelligence quotient (IQ), use of hormonal and psychotropic medications, nor severity of repetitive or disruptive behaviours. A 24.5 year old man (BMI 36.9 kg/m2) with PWS from a SNORD116 microdeletion also had increased brain PAD of 12.87 years, compared to 0.84 ± 6.52 years in a second control adult cohort (n = 95; age mean 34.0 years, range 19.9-55.5; 38.9% male; BMI 28.7 kg/m2, 19.1-43.1). This increase in brain-PAD in adults with PWS indicates abnormal brain structure that may reflect premature brain aging or abnormal brain development. The similar finding in a rare patient with a SNORD116 microdeletion implicates a potential causative role for this PWS region gene cluster in the structural brain abnormalities associated primarily with the syndrome and/or its complications. Further longitudinal neuroimaging studies are needed to clarify the natural history of this increase in brain age in PWS, its relationship with obesity, and whether similar findings are seen in those with PWS from maternal uniparental disomy.

The promiscuous estrogen receptor: Evolution of physiological estrogens and response to phytochemicals and endocrine disruptors

Many actions of estradiol (E2), the principal physiological estrogen in vertebrates, are mediated by estrogen receptor-α (ERα) and ERβ. An important physiological feature of vertebrate ERs is their promiscuous response to several physiological steroids, including estradiol (E2), Δ⁵-androstenediol, 5α-androstanediol, and 27-hydroxycholesterol. A novel structural characteristic of Δ⁵-androstenediol, 5α-androstanediol, and 27-hydroxycholesterol is the presence of a C19 methyl group, which precludes the presence of an aromatic A ring with a C3 phenolic group that is a defining property of E2. The structural diversity of these estrogens can explain the response of the ER to synthetic chemicals such as bisphenol A and DDT, which disrupt estrogen physiology in vertebrates, and the estrogenic activity of a variety of plant-derived chemicals such as genistein, coumestrol, and resveratrol. Diversity in the A ring of physiological estrogens also expands potential structures of industrial chemicals that can act as endocrine disruptors. Compared to E2, synthesis of 27-hydroxycholesterol and Δ⁵-androstenediol is simpler, leading us, based on parsimony, to propose that one or both of these steroids or a related metabolite was a physiological estrogen early in the evolution of the ER, with E2 assuming this role later as the canonical estrogen. In addition to the well-studied role of the ER in reproductive physiology, the ER also is an important transcription factor in non-reproductive tissues such as the cardiovascular system, kidney, bone, and brain. Some of these ER actions in non-reproductive tissues appeared early in vertebrate evolution, long before the emergence of mammals.

Role of purinergic receptors in the Alzheimer's disease

Etiology of the Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is not fully understood. Different pathological processes are considered, such as amyloid deposition, tau protein phosphorylation, oxidative stress (OS), metal ion disregulation, or chronic neuroinflammation. Purinergic signaling is involved in all these processes, suggesting the importance of nucleotide receptors (P2X and P2Y) and adenosine receptors (A1, A2A, A2B, A3) present on the CNS cells. Ecto-purines, ecto-pyrimidines, and enzymes participating in their metabolism are present in the inter-cellular spaces. Accumulation of amyloid-β (Aβ) in brain induces the ATP release into the extra-cellular space, which in turn stimulates the P2X7 receptors. Activation of P2X7 results in the increased synthesis and release of many pro-inflammatory mediators such as cytokines and chemokines. Furthermore, activation of P2X7 leads to the decreased activity of α-secretase, while activation of P2Y2 receptor has an opposite effect. Simultaneous inhibition of P2X7 and stimulation of P2Y2 would therefore be the efficient way of the α-secretase activation. Activation of P2Y2 receptors present in neurons, glia cells, and endothelial cells may have a positive neuroprotective effect in AD. The OS may also be counteracted via the purinergic signaling. ADP and its non-hydrolysable analogs activate P2Y13 receptors, leading to the increased activity of heme oxygenase, which has a cytoprotective activity. Adenosine, via A1 and A2A receptors, affects the dopaminergic and glutaminergic signaling, the brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BNDF), and also changes the synaptic plasticity (e.g., causing a prolonged excitation or inhibition) in brain regions responsible for learning and memory. Such activity may be advantageous in the Alzheimer’s disease.

Anti-IL17 treatment ameliorates Down syndrome phenotypes in mice

Down syndrome (DS) is characterized by structural and functional anomalies that are present prenatally and that lead to intellectual disabilities. Later in life, the cognitive abilities of DS individuals progressively deteriorate due to the development of Alzheimer's disease (AD)-associated neuropathology (i.e., β-amyloid (Aβ) plaques, neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs), neurodegeneration, synaptic pathology, neuroinflammation and increased oxidative stress). Increasing evidence has shown that among these pathological processes, neuroinflammation plays a predominant role in AD etiopathology. In AD mouse models, increased neuroinflammation appears earlier than Aβ plaques and NFTs, and in DS and AD models, neuroinflammation exacerbates the levels of soluble and insoluble Aβ species, favoring neurodegeneration. The Ts65Dn (TS) mouse, the most commonly used murine model of DS, recapitulates many alterations present in both DS and AD individuals, including enhanced neuroinflammation. In this study, we observed an altered neuroinflammatory milieu in the hippocampus of the TS mouse model. Pro-inflammatory mediators that were elevated in the hippocampus of this model included pro-inflammatory cytokine IL17A, which has a fundamental role in mediating brain damage in neuroinflammatory processes. Here, we analyzed the ability of an anti-IL17A antibody to reduce the neuropathological alterations that are present in TS mice during early neurodevelopmental stages (i.e., hippocampal neurogenesis and hypocellularity) or that are aggravated in later-life stages (i.e., cognitive abilities, cholinergic neuronal loss and increased cellular senescence, APP expression, Aβ peptide expression and neuroinflammation). Administration of anti-IL17 for 5 months, starting at the age of 7 months, partially improved the cognitive abilities of the TS mice, reduced the expression of several pro-inflammatory cytokines and the density of activated microglia and normalized the APP and Aβ_1-42 levels in the hippocampi of the TS mice. These results suggest that IL17-mediated neuroinflammation is involved in several AD phenotypes in TS mice and provide a new therapeutic target to reduce these pathological characteristics.

NLRP3 inflammasome activation in inflammaging

The process of aging is associated with the appearance of low-grade subclinical inflammation, termed inflammaging, that can accelerate age-related diseases. In Western societies the age-related inflammatory response can additionally be aggravated by an inflammatory response related to modern lifestyles and excess calorie consumption, a pathophysiologic inflammatory response that was coined metaflammation. Here, we summarize the current knowledge of mechanisms that drive both of these processes and focus our discussion the emerging concept that a key innate immune pathway, the NLRP3 inflammasome, is centrally involved in the recognition of triggers that appear during physiological aging and during metabolic stress. We further discuss how these processes are involved in the pathogenesis of common age-related pathologies and highlight potential strategies by which the detrimental inflammatory responses could be pharmacologically addressed.