Travelling waves reveal a dynamic seizure source in human focal epilepsy

Epileptic seizures recorded with microelectrodes: A persistent multiscale gap between neuronal activity, micro-, and macro-LFP?

The cascade of events that occur in the human brain, from neurons to local circuits and global network dynamics during epileptic seizures, is barely understood. Ictogenesis in humans has been described in relation to electrophysiological concepts based on local field potentials (LFP) recorded by standard macroelectrodes (macro-LFP). Microelectrodes, however, record at the cellular scale. Despite over four decades of such recordings in patients with epilepsy, there remains a significant gap between these scales. This narrative review explores the contribution of microelectrode recordings of seizures in humans. By focusing closely on neuronal activity, researchers often overlook that microelectrodes also allow recording LFP at the micro-electrode level (micro-LFP). Above all, there is a gap between local circuits recorded at the micro-LFP level and large-scale network dynamics at the macro-LFP level, with little theoretical work to reconcile these two scales. Consequently, to date, analyses of seizures have been coarse, incomplete, and based on small numbers of patients. In particular, most multiscale seizure analyses have not included all three levels of scales (single units, micro-LFP, and macro-LFP) simultaneously, but doing so is key to providing a synthesis of ictal genesis. This review highlights the various challenges that face researchers using microelectrodes: (1) carrying out a systematic descriptive and quantitative analysis of the micro-LFP seizure signal, (2) improving the spatial correspondence between micro- and macroelectrodes in order to achieve better comparability between the two scales, (3) improving brain sampling thanks to specific devices, in particular deep electrodes with microwires, (4) reporting the reference electrode used in each study and how it may impact the results, (5) long duration of recordings over hours and days, and (6) shared simultaneous micro-LFP/macro-LFP databases.

An Expandable Brain-Machine Interface Enabled by Origami Materials and Structures for Tracking Epileptic Traveling Waves

Tracking neural activities across multiple brain regions remains a daunting challenge due to the non-negligible skull injuries during implantations of large-area electrocorticography (ECoG) grids and the limited spatial accessibility of conventional rectilinear depth probes. Here, a multiregion Brain-machine Interface (BMI) is proposed comprising an expandable bio-inspired origami ECoG electrode covering cortical areas larger than the cranial window, and an expandable origami depth probe capable of reaching multiple deep brain regions beyond a single implantation axis. Using the proposed BMI, it is observed that, in rat models of focal seizures, cortical multiband epileptiform activities mainly manifest as expanding traveling waves outward from a cortical source.

Protocol for detecting and analyzing non-oscillatory traveling waves from high-spatiotemporal-resolution human electrophysiological recordings

Innovations in electrophysiological recordings and computational analytic techniques enable high-resolution analysis of neural traveling waves. Here, we present a protocol for the detection and analysis of traveling waves from multi-day microelectrode array human electrophysiological recordings through a multi-linear regression statistical approach using point estimator data. We describe steps for traveling wave detection, feature characterization, and propagation pattern analysis. This protocol may improve our understanding of the coordination of neurons during non-oscillatory neural dynamics. For complete details on the use and execution of this protocol, please refer to Smith et al.1.

Stereo-EEG propagating source reconstruction identifies new surgical targets for epilepsy patients

Epilepsy surgery can eliminate seizures in patients with drug-resistant focal epilepsy. Surgical intervention requires proper identification of the epileptic network and often involves implanting stereo-EEG electrodes in patients where non-invasive methods are insufficient. However, only ∼60% of patients achieve seizure-freedom following surgery. Quantitative methods have been developed to help improve surgical outcomes. However, previous quantitative methods that localized interictal spike and seizure activity using stereo-EEG recordings did not account for the propagation path encoded by the temporal dynamics of stereo-EEG recordings. Reconstructing the seizure propagation path can aid in determining whether a signal originated from the seizure onset or propagation zone, which directly informs treatment decisions. We developed a novel source reconstruction algorithm, Temporally Dependent Iterative Expansion (TEDIE), that accurately reconstructs propagating and expanding neural sources over time. TEDIE iteratively optimizes the number, location and size of neural sources to minimize the differences between the reconstructed and recorded stereo-EEG signals using temporal information to refine the reconstructions. The TEDIE output comprises a movie of seizure activity projected onto patient-specific brain anatomy. We analysed data from 46 epilepsy patients implanted with stereo-EEG electrodes at Duke Hospital (12 patients) and the Hospital of the University of Pennsylvania (34 patients). We reconstructed seizure recordings and found that TEDIE's seizure onset zone reconstructions were closer to the resected brain region for Engel 1 compared to Engel 2-4 patients, retrospectively validating the clinical utility of TEDIE. We also demonstrated that TEDIE has prospective clinical value, whereby metrics that can be determined presurgically accurately predict whether a patient would achieve seizure-freedom following surgery. Furthermore, we used TEDIE to delineate new potential surgical targets in 12/23 patients who are currently Engel 2-4. We validated TEDIE by accurately reconstructing various dynamic synthetic neural sources with known locations and sizes. TEDIE generated more accurate, focal and interpretable dynamic reconstructions of seizures compared to other algorithms (sLORETA and IRES). Our findings demonstrate that TEDIE is a promising clinical tool that can greatly improve epileptogenic zone localization and epilepsy surgery outcomes.

Ephaptic conduction in tonic-clonic seizures

Objectives

Electroencephalograms (EEGs) or multi-unit activities (MUAs) of tonic-clonic seizures typically exhibit a distinct structure. After a preliminary phase (DC shift, spikes), the tonic phase is characterized by synchronized activity of numerous neurons, followed by the clonic phase, marked by a periodic sequence of spikes. However, the mechanisms underlying the transition from tonic to clonic phases remain poorly understood.

Methods

We employ a simple two-dimensional cellular automaton model to simulate seizure activity, specifically focusing on replicating the tonic-clonic transition. This model effectively illustrates the physical processes during the ictal phase and, more importantly, differentiates the roles of neurons' activity, identifying their origin as either synaptic or ephaptic.

Results

Our model reveals an intriguing interaction between the synaptic and ephaptic modes of action potential wave conduction. By replicating the EEG and multi-unit activity (MUA) structure of a tonic-clonic seizure and comparing it with real MUA data, we validate the model's underlying assumption: the transition from tonic to clonic phases is driven by a shift in dominance from synaptic to ephaptic conduction. During synaptic-mode control, neural conduction occurs through synaptic transmission involving chemical substances, while in the ephaptic mode, information transfer occurs through direct Ohmic conduction.

Significance

Gaining a deeper understanding of the neuronal electrical conduction transitions during tonic-clonic seizures is crucial for improving the treatment of this debilitating condition.

Focal seizures induce spatiotemporally organized spiking activity in the human cortex

Epileptic seizures are debilitating because of the clinical symptoms they produce. These symptoms, in turn, may stem directly from disruptions in neural coding. Recent evidence has suggested that the specific temporal order, or sequence, of spiking across a population of cortical neurons may encode information. Here, we investigate how seizures disrupt neuronal spiking sequences in the human brain by recording multi-unit activity from the cerebral cortex in five male participants undergoing monitoring for seizures. We find that pathological discharges during seizures are associated with bursts of spiking activity across a population of cortical neurons. These bursts are organized into highly consistent and stereotyped temporal sequences. As the seizure evolves, spiking sequences diverge from the sequences observed at baseline and become more spatially organized. The direction of this spatial organization matches the direction of the ictal discharges, which spread over the cortex as traveling waves. Our data therefore suggest that seizures can entrain cortical spiking sequences by changing the spatial organization of neuronal firing, providing a possible mechanism by which seizures create symptoms.

An Improved Neurosurgical Planning Method for Focal Epileptic Seizure Surgery using Stereo-EEG-Based Source Localization and Multimodal Imaging

Refractory Focal Epilepsy can be treated by the surgical resection of the Seizure Onset Zone (SOZ), the region in the brain from which seizures originate. To remove the SOZ, precise localization must be performed to identify this region, and to minimize the risk of removing eloquent cortex. StereoEEG is a valuable method to localize the SOZ, by recording the propagation of epileptic signals using a series of implanted depth electrodes. This allows the origin of the seizure signals to be determined based on the time at which they are detected at known electrode contact coordinates along the implanted electrodes. The automation of the localization of the SOZ using stereo-EEG, CT and MRI data is becoming increasingly relevant in the neurosurgical literature, as it offers an opportunity for increased accuracy and efficiency. This study proposes a novel method to localize the SOZ by using multimodal image processing. The method allows a statistical representation of the SOZ to be constructed on the cortical surface model, by using a series of spatial transformations. In a clinical case of MRI-positive focal epilepsy, the proposed pipeline was able to correctly identify the SOZ whilst using electrophysiological input from distant electrodes with 80-90% of the pipeline's result being within the resection cavity. In an MRI-negative patient's result, 60-75% of the SOZ determination was also within the resective cavity. In both cases, the pipeline showed greater than 50% reduction in SOZ volume determination. Such precise localization may allow for smaller resection volumes to achieve seizure freedom and reduce neurological complications. This method may therefore offer a more accurate solution to SOZ localization with a reduced clinical workload.

A spatial perturbation framework to validate implantation of the epileptogenic zone

Stereo-electroencephalography (SEEG) is the gold standard to delineate surgical targets in focal drug-resistant epilepsy. SEEG uses electrodes placed directly into the brain to identify the seizure-onset zone (SOZ). However, its major constraint is limited brain coverage, potentially leading to misidentification of the 'true' SOZ. Here, we propose a framework to assess adequate SEEG sampling by coupling epileptic biomarkers with their spatial distribution and measuring the system's response to a perturbation of this coupling. We demonstrate that the system's response is strongest in well-sampled patients when virtually removing the measured SOZ. We then introduce the spatial perturbation map, a tool that enables qualitative assessment of the implantation coverage. Probability modelling reveals a higher likelihood of well-implanted SOZs in seizure-free patients or non-seizure free patients with incomplete SOZ resections, compared to non-seizure-free patients with complete resections. This highlights the framework's value in sparing patients from unsuccessful surgeries resulting from poor SEEG coverage.

Spontaneous HFO Sequences Reveal Propagation Pathways for Precise Delineation of Epileptogenic Networks

Epilepsy, a neurological disorder affecting millions worldwide, poses great challenges in precisely delineating the epileptogenic zone - the brain region generating seizures - for effective treatment. High-frequency oscillations (HFOs) are emerging as promising biomarkers; however, the clinical utility is hindered by the difficulties in distinguishing pathological HFOs from non- epileptiform activities at single electrode and single patient resolution and understanding their dynamic role in epileptic networks. Here, we introduce an HFO-sequencing approach to analyze spontaneous HFOs traversing cortical regions in 40 drug-resistant epilepsy patients. This data- driven method automatically detected over 8.9 million HFOs, pinpointing pathological HFO- networks, and unveiled intricate millisecond-scale spatiotemporal dynamics, stability, and functional connectivity of HFOs in prolonged intracranial EEG recordings. These HFO sequences demonstrated a significant improvement in localization of epileptic tissue, with an 818.47% increase in concordance with seizure-onset zone (mean error: 2.92 mm), compared to conventional benchmarks. They also accurately predicted seizure outcomes for 90% AUC based on pre-surgical information using generalized linear models. Importantly, this mapping remained reliable even with short recordings (mean standard deviation: 3.23 mm for 30-minute segments). Furthermore, HFO sequences exhibited distinct yet highly repetitive spatiotemporal patterns, characterized by pronounced synchrony and predominant inward information flow from periphery towards areas involved in propagation, suggesting a crucial role for excitation-inhibition balance in HFO initiation and progression. Together, these findings shed light on the intricate organization of epileptic network and highlight the potential of HFO-sequencing as a translational tool for improved diagnosis, surgical targeting, and ultimately, better outcomes for vulnerable patients with drug-resistant epilepsy.

One Sentence Summary

Pathological fast brain oscillations travel like traffic along varied routes, outlining recurrently visited neural sites emerging as critical hotspots in epilepsy network.

Identifying sources of human interictal discharges with travelling wave and white matter propagation

Interictal epileptiform discharges have been shown to propagate from focal epileptogenic sources as travelling waves or through more rapid white matter conduction. We hypothesize that both modes of propagation are necessary to explain interictal discharge timing delays. We propose a method that, for the first time, incorporates both propagation modes to identify unique potential sources of interictal activity. We retrospectively analysed 38 focal epilepsy patients who underwent intracranial EEG recordings and diffusion-weighted imaging for epilepsy surgery evaluation. Interictal discharges were detected and localized to the most likely source based on relative delays in time of arrival across electrodes, incorporating travelling waves and white matter propagation. We assessed the influence of white matter propagation on distance of spread, timing and clinical interpretation of interictal activity. To evaluate accuracy, we compared our source localization results to earliest spiking regions to predict seizure outcomes. White matter propagation helps to explain the timing delays observed in interictal discharge sequences, underlying rapid and distant propagation. Sources identified based on differences in time of receipt of interictal discharges are often distinct from the leading electrode location. Receipt of activity propagating rapidly via white matter can occur earlier than more local activity propagating via slower cortical travelling waves. In our cohort, our source localization approach was more accurate in predicting seizure outcomes than the leading electrode location. Inclusion of white matter in addition to travelling wave propagation in our model of discharge spread did not improve overall accuracy but allowed for identification of unique and at times distant potential sources of activity, particularly in patients with persistent postoperative seizures. Since distant white matter propagation can occur more rapidly than local travelling wave propagation, combined modes of propagation within an interictal discharge sequence can decouple the commonly assumed relationship between spike timing and distance from the source. Our findings thus highlight the clinical importance of recognizing the presence of dual modes of propagation during interictal discharges, as this may be a cause of clinical mislocalization.

Interictal discharges in the human brain are travelling waves arising from an epileptogenic source

While seizure activity may be electrographically widespread, increasing evidence has suggested that ictal discharges may in fact represent travelling waves propagated from a focal seizure source. Interictal epileptiform discharges (IEDs) are an electrographic manifestation of excessive hypersynchronization of cortical activity that occur between seizures and are considered a marker of potentially epileptogenic tissue. The precise relationship between brain regions demonstrating IEDs and those involved in seizure onset, however, remains poorly understood. Here, we hypothesize that IEDs likewise reflect the receipt of travelling waves propagated from the same regions which give rise to seizures. Forty patients from our institution who underwent invasive monitoring for epilepsy, proceeded to surgery and had at least one year of follow-up were included in our study. Interictal epileptiform discharges were detected using custom software, validated by a clinical epileptologist. We show that IEDs reach electrodes in sequences with a consistent temporal ordering, and this ordering matches the timing of receipt of ictal discharges, suggesting that both types of discharges spread as travelling waves. We use a novel approach for localization of ictal discharges, in which time differences of discharge receipt at nearby electrodes are used to compute source location; similar algorithms have been used in acoustics and geophysics. We find that interictal discharges co-localize with ictal discharges. Moreover, interictal discharges tend to localize to the resection territory in patients with good surgical outcome and outside of the resection territory in patients with poor outcome. The seizure source may originate at, and also travel to, spatially distinct IED foci. Our data provide evidence that interictal discharges may represent travelling waves of pathological activity that are similar to their ictal counterparts, and that both ictal and interictal discharges emerge from common epileptogenic brain regions. Our findings have important clinical implications, as they suggest that seizure source localizations may be derived from interictal discharges, which are much more frequent than seizures.

Personalised virtual brain models in epilepsy

Individuals with drug-resistant focal epilepsy are candidates for surgical treatment as a curative option. Before surgery can take place, the patient must have a presurgical evaluation to establish whether and how surgical treatment might stop their seizures without causing neurological deficits. Virtual brains are a new digital modelling technology that map the brain network of a person with epilepsy, using data derived from MRI. This technique produces a computer simulation of seizures and brain imaging signals, such as those that would be recorded with intracranial EEG. When combined with machine learning, virtual brains can be used to estimate the extent and organisation of the epileptogenic zone (ie, the brain regions related to seizure generation and the spatiotemporal dynamics during seizure onset). Virtual brains could, in the future, be used for clinical decision making, to improve precision in localisation of seizure activity, and for surgical planning, but at the moment these models have some limitations, such as low spatial resolution. As evidence accumulates in support of the predictive power of personalised virtual brain models, and as methods are tested in clinical trials, virtual brains might inform clinical practice in the near future.

Chloride ion dysregulation in epileptogenic neuronal networks

GABA is the major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the mature CNS. When GABA_A receptors are activated the membrane potential is driven towards hyperpolarization due to chloride entry into the neuron. However, chloride ion dysregulation that alters the ionic gradient can result in depolarizing GABAergic post-synaptic potentials instead. In this review, we highlight that GABAergic inhibition prevents and restrains focal seizures but then reexamine this notion in the context of evidence that a static and/or a dynamic chloride ion dysregulation, that increases intracellular chloride ion concentrations, promotes epileptiform activity and seizures. To reconcile these findings, we hypothesize that epileptogenic pathologically interconnected neuron (PIN) microcircuits, representing a small minority of neurons, exhibit static chloride dysregulation and should exhibit depolarizing inhibitory post-synaptic potentials (IPSPs). We speculate that chloride ion dysregulation and PIN cluster activation may generate fast ripples and epileptiform spikes as well as initiate the hypersynchronous seizure onset pattern and microseizures. Also, we discuss the genetic, molecular, and cellular players important in chloride dysregulation which regulate epileptogenesis and initiate the low-voltage fast seizure onset pattern. We conclude that chloride dysregulation in neuronal networks appears to be critical for epileptogenesis and seizure genesis, but feed-back and feed-forward inhibitory GABAergic neurotransmission plays an important role in preventing and restraining seizures as well.

Temporal-lobe Epilepsy: Harmonic and Anharmonic Periodicity in Microeletrode Voltage

Temporal-lobe epilepsy in humans is often associated with widespread, synchronized neuron firing that co-occurs with traveling waves in local field potential. These traveling waves generate stochastic oscillations in a time series of microelectrode voltage, and previous work has deemed it informative for traveling-wave analysis to study the mean periodicity. This manuscript reveals that: a) mean voltage (i.e., traveling-wave periodicity) adequately explains the observed voltage periodicity only for a select few time intervals during seizure; and b) mean voltage has a 7 Hz cosine-series representation indicative of a nonlinear system response given alpha-rhythm input. The a) result implies that residual noise should be modelled explicitly, while b) motivates a departure from the conventional plane-wave modeling regime in source-localization efforts. The 7 Hz fundamental frequency is unsurprising given the relative transparency of the brain to 14 Hz alpha rhythms in neurophysiological diseases (14 Hz being a subharmonic frequency of the 7 Hz signal).

Multiple Sources of Fast Traveling Waves during Human Seizures: Resolving a Controversy

During human seizures, organized waves of voltage activity rapidly sweep across the cortex. Two contradictory theories describe the source of these fast traveling waves: either a slowly advancing narrow region of multiunit activity (an ictal wavefront) or a fixed cortical location. Limited observations and different analyses prevent resolution of these incompatible theories. Here we address this disagreement by combining the methods and microelectrode array recordings (N = 11 patients, 2 females, N = 31 seizures) from previous human studies to analyze the traveling wave source. We find, inconsistent with both existing theories, a transient relationship between the ictal wavefront and traveling waves, and multiple stable directions of traveling waves in many seizures. Using a computational model that combines elements of both existing theories, we show that interactions between an ictal wavefront and fixed source reproduce the traveling wave dynamics observed in vivo We conclude that combining both existing theories can generate the diversity of ictal traveling waves.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT The source of voltage discharges that propagate across cortex during human seizures remains unknown. Two candidate theories exist, each proposing a different discharge source. Support for each theory consists of observations from a small number of human subject recordings, analyzed with separately developed methods. How the different, limited data and different analysis methods impact the evidence for each theory is unclear. To resolve these differences, we combine the unique, human microelectrode array recordings collected separately for each theory and analyze these combined data with a unified approach. We show that neither existing theory adequately describes the data. We then propose a new theory that unifies existing proposals and successfully reproduces the voltage discharge dynamics observed in vivo.

Graph theoretical measures of fast ripples support the epileptic network hypothesis

The epileptic network hypothesis and epileptogenic zone hypothesis are two theories of ictogenesis. The network hypothesis posits that coordinated activity among interconnected nodes produces seizures. The epileptogenic zone hypothesis posits that distinct regions are necessary and sufficient for seizure generation. High-frequency oscillations, and particularly fast ripples, are thought to be biomarkers of the epileptogenic zone. We sought to test these theories by comparing high-frequency oscillation rates and networks in surgical responders and non-responders, with no appreciable change in seizure frequency or severity, within a retrospective cohort of 48 patients implanted with stereo-EEG electrodes. We recorded inter-ictal activity during non-rapid eye movement sleep and semi-automatically detected and quantified high-frequency oscillations. Each electrode contact was localized in normalized coordinates. We found that the accuracy of seizure onset zone electrode contact classification using high-frequency oscillation rates was not significantly different in surgical responders and non-responders, suggesting that in non-responders the epileptogenic zone partially encompassed the seizure onset zone(s) (P > 0.05). We also found that in the responders, fast ripple on oscillations exhibited a higher spectral content in the seizure onset zone compared with the non-seizure onset zone (P < 1 × 10⁻⁵). By contrast, in the non-responders, fast ripple had a lower spectral content in the seizure onset zone (P < 1 × 10⁻⁵). We constructed two different networks of fast ripple with a spectral content >350 Hz. The first was a rate–distance network that multiplied the Euclidian distance between fast ripple-generating contacts by the average rate of fast ripple in the two contacts. The radius of the rate–distance network, which excluded seizure onset zone nodes, discriminated non-responders, including patients not offered resection or responsive neurostimulation due to diffuse multifocal onsets, with an accuracy of 0.77 [95% confidence interval (CI) 0.56–0.98]. The second fast ripple network was constructed using the mutual information between the timing of the events to measure functional connectivity. For most non-responders, this network had a longer characteristic path length, lower mean local efficiency in the non-seizure onset zone, and a higher nodal strength among non-seizure onset zone nodes relative to seizure onset zone nodes. The graphical theoretical measures from the rate–distance and mutual information networks of 22 non- responsive neurostimulation treated patients was used to train a support vector machine, which when tested on 13 distinct patients classified non-responders with an accuracy of 0.92 (95% CI 0.75–1). These results indicate patients who do not respond to surgery or those not selected for resection or responsive neurostimulation can be explained by the epileptic network hypothesis that is a decentralized network consisting of widely distributed, hyperexcitable fast ripple-generating nodes.