Alterations in protein kinase C isozymes alpha and beta 2 in activated Ha-ras containing papillomas in the absence of an increase in diacylglycerol

Curcumin decreases 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate-induced protein kinase C translocation to modulate downstream targets in mouse skin

Curcumin has been shown to inhibit 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA)-induced tumour promotion and some of the TPA-responsive markers in mouse skin. However, its mechanism of action is not fully elucidated. The present study focuses on understanding the role of protein kinase C (PKC), the major cellular receptor of TPA, in mediating TPA-induced biological responses in mouse skin and subsequently, elucidating the effects of curcumin on PKC and its downstream target molecules. As compared with controls, single topical application of TPA (5 nmol) to skin increased the translocation of PKC from cytosolic to particulate fraction, determined in terms of activity and protein levels. Ro-31- 8220 (PKC inhibitor, 1 nmol) when applied topically, alone or prior to TPA, inhibited PKC activity in both the compartments but did not affect the TPA-induced protein translocation. In contrast, though curcumin (10 mumol) alone did not alter the basal activity/levels, its pre-treatment decreased the TPA-induced translocation of PKC isozymes (alpha, beta, gamma, epsilon, eta), resulting in appropriate alterations in activity. Despite differences in modes of action of Ro-31-8220 (activity inhibition) and curcumin (decreasing translocation) in modulating PKC, their pre-treatment blunted the TPA-induced levels of mitogen-activated protein kinases and transcription factors (c-jun, c-fos and nuclear factor-kappa B) and downstream target proteins associated with cell proliferation (cyclin D1 and ornithine decarboxylase), cell death (Bax and Bcl2), inflammation (cyclooxygenase-2 and prostaglandin E2) and oxidative stress (8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine) in skin. These results demonstrate the crucial role of PKC in TPA-mediated cellular responses in skin and that curcumin modulates transmembrane signal transduction via PKC to affect TPA-induced biochemical and molecular alterations in mouse skin.

Possible enhancing activity of diacylglycerol on 4-nitroquinoline 1-oxide induced carcinogenesis of the tongue in human c-Ha-ras proto-oncogene transgenic rats

1,2-diacylglycerol (1,2-DAG) is involved in cell proliferation as an activator of protein kinase C (PKC) and has been shown to stimulate growth of cancer cells, raising the possibility of a role in tumor promotion. Ingested DAG oil, containing 70% 1,3-DAG and 30% 1,2-DAG, is digested and considered to be safe as edible oil. However, DAG may directly contact with oral cavity mucosa in undigested form. The present study was conducted to examine the effects of DAG oil on carcinogenesis in c-Ha-ras proto-oncogene transgenic (Tg) rats administered 4-nitroquinoline 1-oxide (4NQO, 10 ppm) in their drinking water for 10 weeks for initiation of mainly upper digestive organs. DAG oil added in basal diet at 5.5%, 2.75%, 1.38% and 0% with total fat made up to 5.5% with triacylglycerol (TAG) was administered during the initiation and post-initiation period. The study was terminated at week 12 (Tg females) and 20 (Tg males, wild females and males). The fatty acid composition of DAG oil was similar to TAG (linoleic acid 46.6% and oleic acid 38.9%). In Tg male rats, DAG oil administration was associated with significant increase (P<0.05) in the incidence of squamous cell carcinomas (SCC) of the tongue (5.5% DAG, 43.8%; 2.75% DAG, 20%; 1.38% DAG, 14.3%; 0%, 12.3%) with the Cochran-Armitage trend test and also number of tumors in coefficients for linear contrast trend tests. Tongue SCC induction of wild males and all females was not significant. The present results suggest that DAG oil may have enhancing and/or promotion potential for tongue carcinogenesis in male Tg featuring elevated ras expression.

The effect of plant phenols on the expression and activity of phorbol ester-induced PKC in mouse epidermis

Protein kinase C (PKC) is thought to be a major intracellular receptor for the mouse skin tumor promoter 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA). The diversity of PKC isoforms, and their central role in many signaling pathways, makes them important targets for potential chemopreventive agents. Our earlier studies showed that the plant phenols protocatechuic acid, chlorogenic acid and tannic acid alter the activity of enzymes involved in carcinogen activation, inhibit the formation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH)-DNA adducts in mouse epidermis and decrease the level of lipid peroxidation in the epidermal microsomes. In the present study the effects of protocatechuic acid, chlorogenic acid and tannic acid on TPA-stimulated PKC isozymes alpha, beta(1), beta(2), gamma and zeta activity, and their distribution in mouse epidermis, was examined. The application of these phenolics 15 min before a single dose (3.4 nmol) of TPA resulted in significant inhibition of PKC translocation and a subsequent decrease in classical and novel/atypical PKC isoforms in comparison to a group of mice treated with TPA alone. The most potent inhibitor of PKC translocation and activity was tannic acid. This compound increased the levels of PKCalpha, beta(1), beta(2) in the cytosolic fraction by between 127% and 492% in comparison with TPA treated group of mice. Tannic acid decreased the activities of all three PKC classes by approximately 94% in the membrane fraction in comparison with the TPA treated group of animals. The effect of protocatechuic and chlorogenic acids on the distribution and activity of PKC isozymes was moderate. These compounds mostly affected translocation of PKCalpha and subsequently the activity of classical PKC. The enzyme activity in the particulate fraction was reduced by 59% and 43% in comparison with the TPA group, respectively. Thus, the results of these studies suggest that the subcellular distribution of PKC isoforms, and the activity of PKCs, can be modulated by plant phenolic acids, particularly tannic acid, and that such actions represent a part of the anti-promotional activity of these substances in mouse epidermis.

Deficiency of Protein Kinase Cα in Mice Results in Impairment of Epidermal Hyperplasia and Enhancement of Tumor Formation in Two-Stage Skin Carcinogenesis

We generated a mouse strain lacking protein kinase Calpha (PKCalpha) and evaluated the significance of the enzyme in epithelial hyperplasia and tumor formation. PKCalpha-deficient mice exhibited increased susceptibility to tumor formation in two-stage skin carcinogenesis by single application of 7,12-dimethylbenz(a)anthracene (DMBA) for tumor initiation and repeated applications of 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA) for tumor promotion. Tumor formation was not enhanced by DMBA or TPA treatment alone, suggesting that PKCalpha suppresses tumor promotion. However, the severity of epidermal hyperplasia induced by topical TPA treatment was markedly reduced. In mutant mice, the number of 5-bromo-2'-deoxyuridine-labeled epidermal basal keratinocytes increased 16 to 24 hours after topical TPA treatment as in the case of wild-type mice, but significantly decreased at 36 and 48 hours. Furthermore, the regenerating epithelium induced by skin wound significantly decreased in thickness but was not structurally impaired. The enhanced tumor formation may not be associated with epidermal hyperplasia. The induction levels of epidermal growth factor (EGF) receptor ligands, tumor growth factor alpha (TGF-alpha), and heparin-binding EGF-like growth factor, in the skin of mutant mice by TPA treatment were significantly lower than those in the skin of wild-type mice. PKCalpha may regulate the supply of these EGF receptor ligands in basal keratinocytes, resulting in a reduced epidermal hyperplasia severity in the mutant mice. We propose that PKCalpha positively regulates epidermal hyperplasia but negatively regulates tumor formation in two-stage skin carcinogenesis.

Early epidermal destruction with subsequent epidermal hyperplasia is a unique feature of the papilloma-independent squamous cell carcinoma phenotype in PKCepsilon overexpressing transgenic mice

Protein kinase C epsilon (PKCepsilon) overexpressing transgenic (PKCepsilon Tg) mice develop papilloma-independent squamous cell carcinomas (SCC) elicited by 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene (DMBA) tumor initiation and 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA) tumor promotion. We examined whether epidermal cell turnover kinetics was altered during the development of SCC in PKCepsilon Tg mice. Dorsal skin samples were fixed for histological examination. A single application of TPA resulted in extensive infiltration of polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMNs) into the epidermis at 24 h after TPA treatment in PKCepsilon Tg mice while wild-type (WT) mouse skin showed focal infiltration by PMNs. Complete epidermal necrosis was observed at 48 h in PKCepsilon Tg mice only; at 72 h, epidermal cell regeneration beginning from hair follicles was observed in PKCepsilon Tg mice. Since the first TPA treatment to DMBA-initiated PKCepsilon Tg mouse skin led to epidermal destruction analogous to skin abrasion, we propose the papilloma-independent phenotype may be explained by death of initiated interfollicular cells originally destined to become papillomas. Epidermal destruction did not occur after multiple doses of TPA, presumably reflecting adaptation of epidermis to chronic TPA treatment. Prolonged hyperplasia in the hair follicle may result in the early neoplastic lesions originally described by Jansen et al. (2001) by expanding initiated cells in the hair follicles resulting in the subsequent development of SCC.

Tumour necrosis factor-alpha mediates tumour promotion via a PKC alpha- and AP-1-dependent pathway

Tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) deficient mice (TNF-alpha(-/-) mice) are resistant to skin carcinogenesis. Cellular signalling via the transcription factor complex AP-1 is thought to play a key role in tumour promotion. The induction of a specific subset of AP-1 responsive genes thought to be important for tumour development, namely GM-CSF, MMP-9 and MMP-3, was suppressed in TNF-alpha(-/-) compared to wild-type mouse skin in response to the tumour promotor TPA. The differential induction of these genes correlated with a temporal shift in AP-1 activation and c-Jun expression in TNF-alpha(-/-) compared to wild-type epidermis. The major receptor for TPA-induced signalling in basal keratinocytes, PKC alpha, was also differentially regulated in wild-type compared with TNF-alpha(-/-) epidermis. A marked delay in TPA-induced intracellular translocation and downregulation of PKC alpha was observed in TNF-alpha(-/-) epidermis, which correlated with the deregulated TPA-induced AP-1 activation and c-Jun expression. The frequency of DNA adduct formation and c-Ha-ras mutations was the same in wild-type and TNF-alpha(-/-) epidermis after DMBA treatment, suggesting that TNF-alpha was not involved in tumour initiation. These data suggest that the pro-inflammatory cytokine TNF-alpha is a critical mediator of tumour promotion, acting via a PKC alpha- and AP-1-dependent pathway. This may be one mechanism by which chronic inflammation increases susceptibility to cancer.

Procyanidin B-2, extracted from apples, promotes hair growth: a laboratory study

BACKGROUND

We have previously reported that several selective protein kinase C (PKC) inhibitors, including procyanidin B-2, promote hair epithelial cell growth and stimulate anagen induction.

OBJECTIVES

We discuss the hypothesis that the hair-growing activity of procyanidin B-2 is related to its downregulation or inhibition of translocation of PKC isozymes in hair epithelial cells.

METHODS

We examined the effect of procyanidin B-2 on the expression of PKC isozymes in cultured murine hair epithelial cells as well as PKC isozyme localization in murine dorsal skin at different stages in the hair cycle.

RESULTS

We observed that procyanidin B-2 reduces the expression of PKC-alpha, -betaI, -betaII and -eta in cultured murine hair epithelial cells and also inhibits the translocation of these isozymes to the particulate fraction of hair epithelial cells. Our immunohistochemical analyses demonstrated that PKC-alpha, -betaI, -betaII and -eta are specifically expressed in the outer root sheaths of both anagen and telogen hair follicles. The hair matrix at the anagen stage showed no positive staining for these PKC isozymes. Moderate to intense staining for PKC-betaI and -betaII in the epidermis and hair follicles was observed in a telogen-specific manner; however, expression of PKC-alpha and -eta during the telogen stage was not conspicuous. Gö 6976, an inhibitor of calcium-dependent (conventional) PKC, proved to promote hair epithelial cell growth.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that PKC isozymes, especially PKC-betaI and -betaII, play an important role in hair cycle progression and that the hair-growing mechanisms of procyanidin B-2 are at least partially related to its downregulation of PKC isozymes or its inhibition of translocation of PKC isozymes to the particulate fraction of hair epithelial cells.

Mechanisms of action of flavopiridol

Flavopiridol inhibits phosphokinases. Its activity is strongest on cyclin dependent kinases (cdk-1, -2, -4, -6, -7) and less on receptor tyrosine kinases (EGFR), receptor associates tyrosine kinases (pp60 Src) and on signal transducing kinases (PKC and Erk-1). Although the inhibiting activity of flavopiridol is strongest for cdk, the cytotoxic activity of flavopiridol is not limited to cycling cells. Resting cells are also killed. This fact suggests that inhibition of cdks involved in the control of cell cycle is not the only mechanism of action. Inhibition of cdk's with additional functions (i.e. involved in the control of transcription or function of proteins that do not control cell cycle) may contribute to the antitumoral effect. Moreover, direct and indirect inhibition of receptor activation (EGFR) and/or a direct inhibition of kinases (pp60 Src, PKC, Erk-1) involved in the signal transduction pathway could play a role in the antiproliferative activity of flavopiridol. From pharmacokinetic data in patients it can be concluded that the inhibitory activity (IC50) of flavopiridol on these kinases is in the range of concentrations that might be achieved intracellularly after systemic application of non-toxic doses of flavopiridol. However, no in situ data from flavopiridol treated cells have been published yet that prove that by inhibition of EGFR, pp60 Src, PKC and/or Erk-1 (in addition to inhibition of cdk's) flavopiridol is able to induce apoptosis. Thus many questions regarding the detailed mechanism of antitumoral action of flavopiridol are still open. For the design of protocols for future clinical studies this review covers the essential information available on the mechanism of antitumoral activity of flavopiridol. The characteristics of this antitumoral activity include: High rate of apoptosis, especially in leukemic cells; synergy with the antitumoral activity of many cytostatics; independence of its efficacy on pRb, p53 and Bcl-2 expression; lack of interference with the most frequent multidrug resistance proteins (P-glycoprotein and MRP-190); and a strong antiangiogenic activity. Based on these pharmacological data it can be concluded that flavopiridol could be therapeutically active in tumor patients: independent on the genetic status of their tumors or leukemias (i.e. mutations of the pRb and/or p53, amplification of bcl-2); in spite of drug resistance of their tumors induced by first line treatment (and caused by enhanced expression of multidrug resistance proteins); in combination with conventional chemotherapeutics preferentially given prior to flavopiridol; and due to a complex mechanism involving cytotoxicity on cycling and on resting tumor cells, apoptosis and antiangiogenic activity. In consequence, flavopiridol is a highly attractive, new antitumoral compound and deserves further elucidation of its clinical potency.

Evidence against a role of general protein kinase C downregulation in skin tumor promotion

Using isoenzyme-specific antibodies, we have performed an immunoblot analysis of the PKC isoenzyme pattern during the course of TPA-induced tumor promotion in the epidermis of NMRI mice. The TPA-sensitive PKC isoforms alpha, delta, straightepsilon, eta, nu (and TPA-insensitive PKCzeta), but not PKCbeta and gamma, were found to be expressed in both normal and neoplastic epidermis. The immune signals of all TPA-sensitive PKC isoforms were moderately and reversibly attenuated upon a single TPA treatment. Using different antibodies against PKCeta and PKCmu, this apparent downregulation could mainly be attributed to epitope changes of these enzymes, whereas for the other PKC species no such conclusion could be drawn. Except for PKCstraightepsilon, no substantial long-term attenuation of the immune signals of the other PKC isoforms occurred upon chronic phorbol ester treatment (i.e., 14 applications of 5 nmol TPA each over 7 weeks), which led to tumor development in initiated mouse skin. Specific PKC activity (related to tissue weight) was 40-50% lower in TPA-treated as compared with control epidermis whereby no clearcut difference was found between single and chronic TPA treatment. Benign and malignant skin tumors generated according to the initiation-promotion protocol did not exhibit consistent alterations in the immune pattern of the PKC isoenzymes with the exception of a decrease of PKCstraightepsilon and an increase of PKCmicro signal in carcinomas. Our data indicate that, in contrast with earlier assumptions, no general long-lasting PKC downregulation plays a critical role in skin tumor promotion.

Overexpression of protein kinase C-alpha in the epidermis of transgenic mice results in striking alterations in phorbol ester-induced inflammation and COX-2, MIP-2 and TNF-alpha expression but not tumor promotion

Protein kinase Calpha (PKCalpha) is one of six PKC isoforms expressed in keratinocytes of mouse epidermis. To gain an understanding of the role of epidermal PKCalpha, we have localized its expression to specific cells of normal mouse skin and examined the effect of keratin 5 (K5) promoter directed expression of PKCalpha in transgenic mice. In normal mouse skin, PKCalpha was extensively expressed in the outer root sheath (ORS) keratinocytes of the anagen hair follicle and weakly expressed in keratinocytes of interfollicular epidermis. K5-targeted expression of PKCalpha to epidermal basal keratinocytes and follicular ORS keratinocytes resulted in a tenfold increase in epidermal PKCalpha. K5-PKCalpha mice exhibited no abnormalities in keratinocyte growth and differentiation in the epidermis. However, a single topical treatment with the PKC activator, 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA) resulted in a striking inflammatory response characterized by edema and extensive epidermal infiltration of neutrophils that formed intraepidermal microabscesses in the epidermis. Compared to TPA-treated wild-type mice, the epidermis of TPA-treated K5-PKCalpha mice displayed increased expression of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), the neutrophil chemotactic factor macrophage inflammatory protein-2 (MIP-2) mRNA and the proinflammatory cytokine TNFalpha mRNA but not IL-6 or IL-1alpha mRNA. To determine if K5-PKCalpha mice display an altered response to TPA-promotion, 7, 12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene-initiated K5-PKCalpha mice and wild-type mice were promoted with TPA. No differences in papilloma incidence or multiplicity were observed between K5-PKCalpha mice and wild-type littermates. These results demonstrate that the overexpression of PKCalpha in epidermis increases the expression of specific proinflammatory mediators and induces cutaneous inflammation but has little to no effect on epidermal differentiation, proliferation or TPA tumor promotion.

Alterations in the expression and localization of protein kinase C isoforms during mammary gland differentiation

Protein kinase C (PKC) is involved in signaling that modulates the proliferation and differentiation of many cell types, including mammary epithelial cells. In addition, changes in PKC expression or activity have been observed during mammary carcinogenesis. In order to examine the involvement of specific PKC isoforms during normal mammary gland development, the expression and localization of PKCs alpha, delta, epsilon and zeta were examined during puberty, pregnancy, lactation, and involution. By immunoblot analysis, expression of PKC alpha, delta, epsilon and zeta proteins was increased in mammary epithelial organoids during the transition from puberty to pregnancy. In mammary gland frozen sections, PKCs alpha, delta, epsilon and zeta were stained in the luminal epithelium and myoepithelium, in varying isoform-and developmental stage-specific locations. PKC alpha was found in a punctate apical localization in the luminal epithelium during pregnancy. During lactation, PKC epsilon was present in the nucleus, and PKC zeta was concentrated in the subapical region of the luminal epithelium. Additionally, marked staining for PKCs alpha, delta, epsilon, and zeta was observed in the myoepithelial cells at the base of ducts and alveoli. This basal ductal and alveolar staining differed in intensity in a developmentally-specific fashion. During most time points (virgin, pregnant, lactating, and early involution), myoepithelial cells of the duct were more intensely stained than those lining the alveoli for PKCs alpha, delta, epsilon and zeta. During late involution (days 9-12), the preferential staining of ducts was lost or reversed, and the myoepithelial cells lining the regressing alveolar structures stained equally (PKCs epsilon and zeta) or more intensely (PKCs alpha and delta), coincident with the thickening of the myoepithelial cells surrounding the regressing alveoli. The increased PKC isoform staining at the base of alveoli during involution suggests that alveolar regression may be influenced by alterations in signaling in the alveolar myoepithelium.

Differential expression of protein kinase C isoforms in diethylnitrosamine-initiated rat liver

Although protein kinase C (PKC), a family of 12 related isoforms, plays an important role in carcinogenesis, little is known about the specific role of each isoform in the initiation stage of hepatocarcinogenesis. The subcellular distribution of PKC isoforms in the early stages of diethylnitrosamine (DEN)-initiated hepatocarcinogenesis was therefore examined. Three-week-old female Sprague-Dawley rats were intraperitoneally injected twice in 1 week with DEN; all animals were sacrificed at 1, 2 and 24 h and 3 and 7 days after the second injection. PKCalpha and -beta expression in both cytosolic and particulate fractions decreased as a result of 1 h of DEN treatment and this effect lasted for 7 days. In both fractions, PKCepsilon expression showed a marked increase by DEN treatment, while the expression of PKCdelta and -zeta was almost unchanged. These results suggest that differential expression of PKC isoforms may play an important role in the early stage of DEN-initiated hepatocarcinogenesis in rats.

Differential induction of Cyp1a1, Cyp1b1, Ahd4, and Nmo1 in murine skin tumors and adjacent normal epidermis by ligands of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor

Products of several phase I and II genes transcriptionally activated by ligands of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) were quantitated in cutaneous samples isolated from non-tumor-bearing SENCAR or SSIN mice, and animals bearing skin tumors generated in initiation-promotion protocols. The constitutive 7-ethoxyresorufin O-deethylase (EROD) activities in papillomas and squamous cell carcinomas were less than or equal to 37% of the values measured in the adjacent normal cutaneoustissue. Dermal and epidermal EROD specific activities in microsomal samples prepared from both tumor-bearing and non-tumor-bearing mice were elevated 9- to 14- and 43- to 77-fold, respectively, above constitutive levels 16-20 h after a single topical application of 100 nmol of dibenz[a,c]anthracene (DB[a,c]A). EROD specific activities in tumors were maximally elevated two-fold after topical application of DB[a,c]A. Western blot, northern blot, and reverse transcription (RT)-polymerase chain reaction (PCR) analyses confirmed that the EROD measurements reflected cutaneous cytochrome P450 (CYP) 1A1 protein, mature mRNA, and heterogeneous nuclear RNA contents, respectively. Analyses of CYP1A1, CYP1B1, cytosolic aldehyde dehydrogenase class 3, and NAD(P)H:menadione oxidoreductase (NMO1) mRNA content by RT-PCR revealed significant increases in all four mRNAs in the normal tissue adjacent to papillomas after exposure to 4 nmol of 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) but no increases in the tumors. NMO1 mRNA content in acetone-treated papillomas approached the levels detected in TCDD-treated normal skin. RT-PCR analyses also demonstrated elevated constitutive aryl hydrocarbon receptor nuclear translocator mRNA content (an approximately two-fold increase) in skin tumors. In contrast, AHR mRNA content in the tumors was about 20% of that measured in adjacent normal tissue. Collectively, these studies demonstrated that ligand-induced, AHR-mediated processes are absent in murine skin tumors that develop in initiation-promotion protocols.

Transplantation analyses of the immunogenicity of epidermal tumors generated in murine skin two-stage carcinogenesis protocols

SSIN mice are very sensitive to tumor promoters in two-stage skin carcinogenesis protocols. It was recently reported that SSIN mice have fewer CD8+ T-cells than other strains of mice and develop a weaker cytotoxic T-cell response upon challenge with an allogeneic tumor transplant. The significance of this muted immune response to processes involved in two-stage carcinogenesis depends on the immunogenicity of the tumors generated in such protocols. Although they have low CD8+ T-cell contents, SSIN rejected a variety of subcutaneously transplanted allogeneic murine tumors. Analyses of the growth of primary papillomas derived from 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene-initiated/12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-ac etate-promoted SSIN mice and then subcutaneously transplanted into triple-deficient (bg-nu-xid), athymic nude and immune-competent and immunosuppressed SSIN mice revealed that few tumors took and tumor takes were not markedly influenced by the immumological status of the transplant recipient. Two tumor cell lines (RS1 and RS2) were derived from the transplantation studies and could be passaged in normal SSIN mice (H-2q haplotype). Both tumors were squamous cell carcinomas (SCCs) by the second in vivo passage and were rejected in allogeneic mice (BALB/c) but grew in FVB/N mice, a strain having the H-2q haplotype. Transplantation studies revealed that prior exposure to RS1 and RS2 did not prime SSIN mice to reject a subsequent tumor challenge. Three primary SCC tumors derived from SSIN mice in a two-stage carcinogenesis protocol also grew when subcutaneously transplanted in SSIN mice and could be serially passaged. Consequently, the epidermal SCCs that develop in two-stage carcinogenesis protocols appear to be nonimmunogenic.

Downregulation of aryl hydrocarbon receptor function and cytochrome P450 1A1 induction by expression of Ha-ras oncogenes

The immortalized human epithelial cell line MCF10A has the phenotypic characteristics of normal breast cells. Exposure of MCF10A cultures to 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) stimulated the transcriptional activation of cytochrome P450 1A1 (CYP1A1), and CYP1B1, and NAD(P)H:quinone oxidoreductase. Northern blot hybridization and nuclear run-on assays demonstrated that transcriptional activation of these genes was suppressed in stably transfected cultures expressing an Ha-ras oncogene (the MCF10A-NeoT line). Similar suppression did not occur in stably transfected lines carrying the expression vector or a normal c-Ha-ras protooncogene. Western blot analyses and immunofluorescence microscopy demonstrated that the lack of inducibility in MDF10A-NeoT cells reflected neither reductions in aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) and aryl hydrocarbon nuclear translocator protein nor prevention of TCDD-induced AHR translocation to the nucleus. Suppression did correlate with reductions in DNA-AHR complex formation, as analyzed by gel retardation assays of soluble cell extracts treated in vitro with TCDD. The induction of Cyp1a-1 by TCDD was also analyzed in transgenic mice that expressed a v-Ha-ras oncogene exclusively in their keratinocytes. Relative to littermates lacking the transgene, the induction of Cyp1a-1 by TCDD was partially suppressed (about 50%) in the epidermises of v-Ha-ras-positive transgenic mice. However, normal levels of Cyp1a-1 induction occurred in the livers of the same mice. induction of Cyp1a-1 by TCDD was also suppressed (more than 98%) in chemically induced skin papillomas having Ha-ras mutations, relative to uninvolved surrounding skin. These studies suggest that the p21-ras protein controls signal transduction pathways capable of modulating AHR function.

ras downregulation of protein kinase C mRNA in C3H 10T1/2 fibroblasts

C3H 10T1/2 fibroblasts transformed by oncogenic ras have lower levels of protein kinase C (PKC) activity and protein. It was previously suggested that elevated levels of diacylglycerol in ras-transformed fibroblasts lead to activation-induced proteolysis of cellular PKC. We found that stable expression of T24ras in C3H 10T1/2 fibroblasts resulted in a significant decrease in levels of PKC alpha and PKC epsilon mRNA. Using C3H 10T1/2 cell lines in which the levels of activated ras can be exogenously regulated (by addition of zinc to induce the expression of a metallothionein-promoted human Ha-ras oncogene), we examined the temporal dependence of oncogenic ras expression on PKC downregulation. In these cells, downregulation of PKC protein and activity was induced but was not preceded by activation of PKC. The downregulation of PKC levels correlated with the appearance of a highly transformed morphology and was seen only at high levels of ras expression. In the inducible cells, the decrease in levels of PKC alpha mRNA had the same dependence on the levels of ras expression as did protein downregulation. These experiments provide evidence that downregulation of PKC protein levels by expression of oncogenic Ha-ras in C3H 10T1/2 fibroblasts is primarily due to altered transcriptional regulation. Because the downregulation of PKC was coupled with the onset of morphological transformation, the data suggest that this downregulation is involved in or facilitates the maintenance of a ras-transformed phenotype in C3H 10T1/2 fibroblasts.

Epidermal protein kinase C-beta 2 is highly sensitive to downregulation and is exclusively expressed in Langerhans cells: downregulation is associated with attenuated contact hypersensitivity

Treatment of mice with multiple topical applications of 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA) or diacylglycerol resulted in a preferential decrease in epidermal protein kinase C-beta 2 (PKC-beta 2) compared with PKC-alpha as determined by western analysis. When PKC-alpha was decreased by 40%, PKC-beta 2 could no longer be detected, suggesting that PKC-beta 2 is more sensitive to downregulation, and/or specific epidermal cell types that contain PKC-beta 2 are more sensitive to TPA/diacylglycerol. To address this issue, we isolated Langerhans cells (LCs) from epidermal cell suspensions with immunomagnetic beads and an antibody to the class II major histocompatibility complex. Northern blot analysis revealed a PKC-beta 2 signal in isolated LCs that was 40-fold greater than that observed in unfractionated epidermal cells, and no PKC-beta 2 signal was detected in epidermal cells depleted of LCs, indicating that PKC-beta 2 is expressed exclusively in LCs within the epidermis. Western blot analysis confirmed the presence of PKC-beta 2 in LCs. PKC-beta 2 was highly sensitive to downregulation, because a single application of TPA resulted in a 90% loss of PKC-beta 2 within 6 h without a decrease in the number of LCs. To determine whether the decreased level of PKC-beta 2 within LCs was associated with an alteration in contact hypersensitivity, we treated mice with only a single application of TPA, and 6 hours later mice were sensitized with 2,4-dinitrofluorobenzene on the same dorsal area. Subsequent challenge revealed a 60% decrease in contact hypersensitivity in TPA-treated mice. These data indicate that (i) within the epidermis, PKC-beta 2 is highly sensitive to downregulation and is exclusively expressed in LCs, and (ii) the downregulation of PKC-beta 2 is associated with impaired LC function with respect to contact hypersensitivity.

Localization and expression of cornifin-alpha/SPRR1 in mouse epidermis, anagen hair follicles, and skin neoplasms

Recently, cornifin-alpha/SPPR1 has been identified as a putative precursor protein of the cornified cell envelope. In this study, the expression and localization of cornifin-alpha/SPPR1 was examined in untreated and tumor promoter-treated mouse skin, hair follicles, and skin neoplasms. Western analysis with antiserum (SQ37A) to a rabbit cornifin-alpha peptide or antiserum (SQ37C) to a human SPRR1 peptide demonstrated a 31-kDa immunoreactive protein in mouse epidermis and Northern analysis revealed the presence of a 1-kb mRNA. Immunohistochemical staining of mouse skin with SQ37A or SQ37C revealed intense and specific staining of the infundibulum, isthmus, and of Henle's layer of the inner root sheath of the lower anagen hair follicle and weak staining of the telogen follicle and the suprabasal layers of the epidermis. Treatment of mouse skin with 12-0-tetradecanoyl-phorbol-13-acetate (TPA) produced a large increase in cornifin-alpha/SPRR1 protein and mRNA. Immunohistochemical localization of cornifin-alpha/SPRR1 in TPA-treated skin indicated that cornifin-alpha/SPRR1 was increased in the suprabasal epidermis but not in the follicle. sn-1,2,-didecanoylglycerol, a model lipid second messenger, produced an increase in cornifin-alpha/SPRR1 protein similar to that of TPA, while mirex, a non-phorbol ester-type promoter had no effect. Topical doses of retinoic acid did not repress TPA-induced cornifin-alpha/SPRR1 expression. Papillomas demonstrated a 10- and 100-fold increase in cornifin-alpha/SPRR1 protein and mRNA, and expression was restricted to suprabasal cells. Squamous cell carcinomas exhibited an intermediate level of cornifin-alpha protein, and expression was restricted to keratinized areas. These data indicate: i) cornifin-alpha/SPRR1 is expressed in mouse skin; ii) cornifin-alpha/SPRR1 is localized to specific areas of the anagen hair follicle with weak staining in the telogen follicle and epidermis; iii) epidermal cornifin-alpha/SPRR1 expression is induced by phorbol ester and sn-1,2-didecanoylglycerol but not mirex, and iv) papillomas and squamous cell carcinomas demonstrate a constitutive increase in cornifin-alpha/SPRR1 in differentiated areas of the neoplasms.

Inhibition of ras p21 membrane localization and modulation of protein kinase C isozyme expression during regression of chemical carcinogen-induced murine skin tumors by lovastatin

We investigated the ras p21 membrane localization and the expression and activation of protein kinase C (PKC) isozymes in activated ras oncogene-containing tumors and assessed whether these events were related to tumor growth. We used 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene-initiated and 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate-promoted SENCAR mouse skin tumors, which were shown to contain Ha-ras oncogene activated by point mutation at codon 61, as an in vivo model for these studies. Compared with levels in epidermis, highly elevated levels of membrane-bound Ha-ras p21 were observed in growing tumors, which also showed strong expression and membrane translocation of PKC zeta and beta II and weak expression of PCK alpha. However, when ras p21 membrane localization was blocked in vivo in growing tumors by lovastatin, opposite results were evident. Compared with saline-treated animals, in which tumor growth continued, lovastatin-treated animals had significantly inhibited tumor growth, which led to tumor regression with concomitant inhibition of Ha-ras p21 membrane localization. These regressing tumors from lovastatin-treated animals also showed a decrease in the expression and membrane translocation of PKC zeta and beta II but increased expression of PKC alpha. Taken together, our results indicate that ras p21 membrane localization and the expression and activation of PKC zeta, beta II, and alpha may be the critical events in the regulation of the growth of tumors that contain activated ras oncogenes.

Overexpression of protein kinase C beta I in a murine keratinocyte cell line produces effects on cellular growth, morphology and differentiation

The present study demonstrates that the murine keratinocyte cell line 3PC expresses the Ca(2+)-insensitive isoforms of protein kinase C (PKC) delta, epsilon, zeta and (at both the mRNA and protein levels), but does not express the Ca(2+)-sensitive PKC isoforms alpha, beta or gamma. Recombinant retroviral gene transduction was used to develop derivatives of this cell line that stably express high levels of 1 PKC beta I-related transcripts and proteins, and have increased levels of Ca(2+)-stimulated PKC enzyme activity. Functional overexpression of the PKC beta I isoform in 3PC cells enhances both 12-O-tetradecanoyl phorbol-13-acetate-induced growth inhibition, and Ca(2+)-induced morphologic differentiation.

Focal transgene expression associated with papilloma development in v-Ha-ras-transgenic TG.AC mice

The homozygous transgenic mouse line TG.AC contains a v-Ha-ras transgene and rapidly develops epidermal papillomas in response to either wounding or treatment with tumor promoters such as 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA). The transgenic v-Ha-ras protein product was detected in all papillomas removed from TPA-treated TG.AC mice but not in vehicle- or TPA-treated TG.AC skin without tumors. In situ hybridization demonstrated that focal expression of the transgene was limited to regions of papilloma development and further localized the expression of the transgene message to the epidermal component of the papillomas, with the strongest signal in the basal epidermoid cells. Cellular proliferation, as indicated by immunohistochemical staining for proliferating-cell nuclear antigen (PCNA), was similarly localized primarily to basal epidermoid cells and, to a lesser extent, stratum spinosum cells in all papillomas analyzed. Cells that stained positively for PCNA were much more common in the papillomas than in the surrounding, normal-appearing skin. The focal nature of papilloma development was also evidenced by protein kinase C activity and hyperplasia after TPA treatment. As early as 18 d after the start of TPA treatment, focal hyperplasias associated with the follicular epidermis were observed in TG.AC but not nontransgenic FVB/N skin; these hyperplasias were assumed to be the precursors of the epidermal papillomas. To explain the development of transgene-expressing tumors from apparently transgene-negative, normal-appearing skin, we hypothesize that the papillomas arise from the clonal expansion of focal areas of epidermal cells that overexpress the transgene. We also propose that the TG.AC line is an excellent model for studying very early events in papillomagenesis.

The potential of protein kinase C as a target for anticancer treatment

Many investigators have embarked upon the search for novel cellular targets for the treatment of cancer. A popular therapeutic strategy is to intervene with the components of cellular signalling systems that are altered during malignancy. The molecular heterogeneity of the protein kinase C (PKC) family and their functional divergence make them attractive targets for anticancer drug development. PKC can also influence the sensitivity of tumor tissue to conventional cytotoxic drugs. As discussed in this review, a complete understanding of the PKC signal transduction pathway is obligatory for the selective destruction of tumor tissue by exploiting PKC as either a target or a modulator of cancer chemotherapeutic agents.

Analysis of calcium-dependent protein kinase C isoforms in the early stages of diethylnitrosamine-induced rat hepatocarcinogenesis

The profiles of the calcium-dependent protein kinase C (PKC) isozymes alpha, beta, and gamma were examined in subcellular fractions from Fischer 344 rat liver during the early stages (48 h, 96 h, 7 d, and 60 d) of diethylnitrosamine (DEN)-induced carcinogenesis, using the Solt-Farber "resistant hepatocyte" model (DEN-2-acetylaminofluorene-partial hepatectomy; DEN-AAF-PH), and then related to the presence of focal or nodular gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase (GGT)-positive morphologic changes in the liver. After DEAE and hydroxyapatite column chromatography, two peaks, immunologically identified as PKC-alpha and -beta isoforms, were detected in the liver of normal (alpha/beta ratio = 4.0) and treated rats. In DEN-AAF-PH hepatocarcinogenesis an increase in PKC-alpha expression was found after PH (+43 +/- 19% at 48 h, alpha/beta ratio = 5.1; +125 +/- 25% at 96 h, alpha/beta ratio = 4.8), whereas the PKC-beta isoform appeared less significantly modified (+11 +/- 3% at 48 h and +89 +/- 17% at 96 h). Seven and 60 days after PH, a marked increase in the PKC-alpha (+96 +/- 20% and +150 +/- 48%, respectively) and PKC-beta isoforms (+158 +/- 41%, alpha/beta ratio = 3.1 and +130 +/- 26%, alpha/beta ratio = 4.4, respectively), occurred along with the appearance of GGT-positive altered hepatic foci and nodules in the liver sections. Sham hepatectomy caused PKC-alpha and -beta isoform activities similar to those of normal controls. In contrast, saline-AAF-PH-treated rats had downregulation of PKC-alpha after PH (alpha/beta ratio = 1.8 at 96 h), possibly due to the mitoinhibitory effect of the carcinogen AAF on normal uninitiated hepatocytes. Immunohistochemical analysis with monoclonal antibodies to PKC-alpha and -beta revealed diffuse positive cytoplasmic signals in GGT-positive foci and nodules in rat liver. Taken together, these preliminary results, using the Solt-Farber model of liver carcinogenesis, suggest a role for PKC in tumor promotion. They also suggest that the PKC-alpha isoform may play a specific role in clonal expansion of DEN-initiated hepatocytes after PH.