The Role of Human Papilloma Virus (HPV) in Primary Lung Cancer Development: State of the Art and Future Perspectives

Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) is the leading cause of cancer-related mortality worldwide. Notably, the incidence of lung cancer among never-smokers, predominantly women, has been rising in recent years. Among the various implicated risk factors, human papilloma virus (HPV) may play a role in the development of NSCLC in a certain subset of patients. The prevalence of high-risk HPV-DNA within human neoplastic lung cells varies across the world; however, the carcinogenetic role of HPV in NSCLC has not been completely understood. Bloodstream could be one of the routes of transmission from infected sites to the lungs, along with oral (through unprotected oral sex) and airborne transmission. Previous studies reported an elevated risk of NSCLC in patients with prior HPV-related tumors, such as cervical, laryngeal, or oropharyngeal cancer, with better prognosis for HPV-positive lung cancers compared to negative forms. On the other hand, 16% of NSCLC patients present circulating HPV-DNA in peripheral blood along with miRNAs expression. Typically, these patients have a poorly differentiated NSCLC, often diagnosed at an advanced stage. However, HPV-positive lung cancers seem to have a better response to target therapies (EGFR) and immune checkpoint inhibitors and show an increased sensitivity to platinum-based treatments. This review summarizes the current evidence regarding the role of HPV in NSCLC development, especially among patients with a history of HPV-related cancers. It also examines the diagnostic and prognostic significance of HPV, investigating new future perspectives to enhance cancer screening, diagnostic protocols, and the development of more targeted therapies tailored to specific cohorts of NSCLC patients with confirmed HPV infection.

Oxidative damage and antioxidants in cervical cancer

The pathogenesis of cervical cancer is related to oxidative damage caused by persistent infection by one of the oncogenic types of human papillomavirus (HPV). This damage comes from oxidative stress, which is the imbalance caused by the increase in reactive oxygen and nitrogen species and impaired antioxidant mechanisms, promoting tumor progression through metabolic processes. The incorporation of HPV into the cellular genome leads to the expression of oncoproteins, which are associated with chronic inflammation and increased production of reactive oxygen species, oxidizing proteins, lipids and DNA. The increase in these parameters is related, in general, to the reduction of circulating levels of enzymatic antioxidants-superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione peroxidase and glutathione-S-transferase; and non-enzymatic antioxidants-reduced glutathione, coenzyme Q10 and vitamins A, C and E, according to tumor staging. In contrast, some enzymatic antioxidants suffer upregulation in the tumor tissue as a way of adapting to the oxidative environment generated by themselves, such as glutathione-S-transferase, reduced glutathione, glutathione peroxidase, superoxide dismutase 2, induced nitric oxide synthase, peroxiredoxins 1, 3 and 6, and thioredoxin reductase 2. The decrease in the expression and activity of certain circulatory antioxidants and increasing the redox status of the tumor cells are thus key to cervical carcinoma prognosis. In addition, vitamin deficit is considered a possible modifiable risk factor by supplementation, since the cellular functions can have a protective effect on the development of cervical cancer. In this review, we will discuss the impact of oxidative damage on cervical cancer progression, as well as the main oxidative markers and therapeutic potentialities of antioxidants.

TOP2A/MCM2, p16INK4a, and cyclin E1 expression in liquid-based cytology: a biomarkers panel for progression risk of cervical premalignant lesions

BACKGROUND

To improve the efficiency of early diagnosis systems for cervical cancer, the use of cellular and viral markers for identifying precancerous lesions with a greater probability to progress to cancer has been proposed. Several cellular proteins and markers of oxidative DNA damage have been suggested as possible biomarkers of cervical carcinogenesis; however, they have not been evaluated together. In this study, we analyzed the expression of the cellular markers p16^INK4a, Ki-67, CyclinE1, TOP2A/MCM2, and telomerase, as well as the DNA oxidative damage markers ROS and 8-OHdG. The analyses were performed in liquid-based cervical cytology samples or biopsies with premalignant lesions or cervical cancer diagnosis, with the purpose of selecting a panel of biomarkers that allow the identification of precursor lesions with greater risk of progression to cervical cancer.

METHODS

We analyzed 1485 liquid-based cytology samples, including 239 non-squamous intraepithelial lesions (NSIL), 901 low-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions (LSIL), 54 high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions (HSIL), and 291 cervical cancers (CC). The biomarkers were analyzed by immunocytochemistry and Human Papilloma Virus (HPV) genotyping with the INNO-LiPA genotyping Extra kit.

RESULTS

We found that all tested cellular biomarkers were overexpressed in samples with high risk-HPV infection, and the expression levels increased with the severity of the lesion. TOP2A/MCM2 was the best biomarker for discriminating between LSIL and HSIL, followed by p16^INK4a and cyclinE1. Statistical analysis showed that TOP2A/MCM2 provided the largest explanation of HSIL and CC cases (93.8%), followed by p16^INK4a (91%), cyclin E1 (91%), Ki-67 (89.3%), and telomerase (88.9%).

CONCLUSIONS

We propose that the detection of TOP2A/MCM2, p16^INK4a and cyclin E1 expression levels is useful as a panel of biomarkers that allow identification of cervical lesions with a higher risk for progression to CC with high sensitivity and precision; this can be done inexpensively, in a single and non-invasive liquid-based cytology sample.

Approaches and Methods to Measure Oxidative Stress in Clinical Samples: Research Applications in the Cancer Field

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are common by-products of normal aerobic cellular metabolism and play important physiological roles in intracellular cell signaling and homeostasis. The human body is equipped with antioxidant systems to regulate the levels of these free radicals and maintain proper physiological function. However, a condition known as oxidative stress (OS) occurs, when ROS overwhelm the body's ability to readily detoxify them. Excessive amounts of free radicals generated under OS conditions cause oxidative damage to proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids, severely compromising cell health and contributing to disease development, including cancer. Biomarkers of OS can therefore be exploited as important tools in the assessment of disease status in humans. In the present review, we discuss different approaches used for the evaluation of OS in clinical samples. The described methods are limited in their ability to reflect on OS only partially, revealing the need of more integrative approaches examining both pro- and antioxidant reactions with higher sensitivity to physiological/pathological alternations. We also provide an overview of recent findings of OS in patients with different types of cancer. Identification of OS biomarkers in clinical samples of cancer patients and defining their roles in carcinogenesis hold great promise in promoting the development of targeted therapeutic approaches and diagnostic strategies assessing disease status. However, considerable data variability across laboratories makes it difficult to draw general conclusions on the significance of these OS biomarkers. To our knowledge, no adequate comparison has yet been performed between different biomarkers and the methodologies used to measure them, making it difficult to conduct a meta-analysis of findings from different groups. A critical evaluation and adaptation of proposed methodologies available in the literature should therefore be undertaken, to enable the investigators to choose the most suitable procedure for each chosen biomarker.

New Insights in the Pathogenesis of HPV Infection and the Associated Carcinogenic Processes: The Role of Chronic Inflammation and Oxidative Stress

Human papillomavirus (HPV) is a small double-stranded DNA virus with tropism for epithelial cells. To this date, over 150 genotypes are known and are classified into two major groups, low-risk and high-risk strains, depending on the ability of the virus to induce malignant transformation. The host's immunity plays a central role in the course of the infection; therefore, it may not be clinically manifest or may produce various benign or malignant lesions. The pathogenic mechanisms are complex and incompletely elucidated. Recent research suggests the role of chronic inflammation and oxidative stress (OS) in the pathogenesis of HPV infection and the associated carcinogenic processes. Chronic inflammation induces OS, which in turn promotes the perpetuation of the inflammatory process resulting in the release of numerous molecules which cause cell damage. Reactive oxygen species exert a harmful effect on proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. Viral oncogenes E5, E6, and E7 are involved in the development of chronic inflammation through various mechanisms. In addition, HPV may interfere with redox homeostasis of host cells, inducing OS which may be involved in the persistence of the infection and play a certain role in viral integration and promotion of carcinogenesis. Knowledge regarding the interplay between chronic inflammation and OS in the pathogenesis of HPV infection and HPV-induced carcinogenesis has important consequences on the development of new therapeutic strategies.

DNA damage in obesity: Initiator, promoter and predictor of cancer

Epidemiological evidence linking obesity with increased risk of cancer is steadily growing, although the causative aspects underpinning this association are only partially understood. Obesity leads to a physiological imbalance in the regulation of adipose tissue and its normal functioning, resulting in hyperglycaemia, dyslipidaemia and inflammation. These states promote the generation of oxidative stress, which is exacerbated in obesity by a decline in anti-oxidant defence systems. Oxidative stress can have a marked impact on DNA, producing mutagenic lesions that could prove carcinogenic. Here we review the current evidence for genomic instability, sustained DNA damage and accelerated genome ageing in obesity. We explore the notion of genotoxicity, ensuing from systemic oxidative stress, as a key oncogenic factor in obesity. Finally, we advocate for early, pre-malignant assessment of genome integrity and stability to inform surveillance strategies and interventions.

Phenolic profile and antioxidant activity from peels and seeds of melon (Cucumis melo L. var. reticulatus) and their antiproliferative effect in cancer cells

Melon (Cucumis melo L.) has high economic value and in recent years, its production has increased; however, part of the fruit is wasted. Usually, inedible parts such as peel and seeds are discarded during processing and consumption. Extracts of melon residues were prepared and their phenolic compounds, antioxidants and antiproliferative activities were evaluated. Total phenolic compounds were found in hydroethanolic, hydromethanolic, and aqueous extracts, especially for melon peel (1.016 mg gallic acid equivalent/100 g). Flavonoids total content found for melon peel aqueous extract was 262 µg of catechin equivalent (CA)/100 g. In all extracts of melon peel significant amounts of gallic acid, catechin, and eugenol were found. For total antioxidant capacity, reported as ascorbic acid equivalent, the hydroethanolic and hydromethanolic extracts in peels and hydromethanolic in seeds were 89, 74, and 83 mg/g, respectively. Different extracts of melon showed iron and copper ions chelating activity at different concentrations, especially melon peel aqueous extract, reaching values of 61% for iron and 84% for copper. The hydroethanolic extract of melon peel presented a significant ability for hydroxyl radicals scavenging (68%). To assess the antiproliferative potential in human cancer cell lines, such as kidney carcinoma, colorectal carcinoma, cervical adenocarcinoma and cervical carcinoma, MTT assay was performed. The proliferation was inhibited by 20–85% at extracts concentrations of 0.1–1.0 mg/mL in all cancer cell lines. The results suggest that melon residues extracts display a high antioxidant activity in in vitro assays and have effective biological activity against the growth of human tumor cells.

Does the vaginal microbiota play a role in the development of cervical cancer?

Persistent infection with oncogenic human papillomavirus (HPV) is necessary but not sufficient for the development of cervical cancer. The factors promoting persistence as well those triggering carcinogenetic pathways are incompletely understood. Rapidly evolving evidence indicates that the vaginal microbiome (VM) may play a functional role (both protective and harmful) in the acquisition and persistence of HPV, and subsequent development of cervical cancer. The first studies examining the VM and the presence of an HPV infection using next-generation sequencing techniques identified higher microbial diversity in HPV-positive as opposed to HPV-negative women. Furthermore, there appears to be a temporal relationship between the VM and HPV infection in that specific community state types may be correlated with a higher chance of progression or regression of the infection. Studies describing the VM in women with preinvasive disease (squamous intraepithelial neoplasia [SIL]) consistently demonstrate a dysbiosis in women with the more severe disease. Although it is plausible that the composition of the VM may influence the host's innate immune response, susceptibility to infection, and the development of cervical disease, the studies to date do not prove causality. Future studies should explore the causal link between the VM and the clinical outcome in longitudinal samples from existing biobanks.

The vaginal microbiota, human papillomavirus infection and cervical intraepithelial neoplasia: what do we know and where are we going next?

The vaginal microbiota plays a significant role in health and disease of the female reproductive tract. Next-generation sequencing techniques based upon the analysis of bacterial 16S rRNA genes permit in-depth study of vaginal microbial community structure to a level of detail not possible with standard culture-based microbiological techniques. The human papillomavirus (HPV) causes both cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) and cervical cancer. Although the virus is highly prevalent, only a small number of women have a persistent HPV infection and subsequently develop clinically significant disease. There is emerging evidence which leads us to conclude that increased diversity of vaginal microbiota combined with reduced relative abundance of Lactobacillus spp. is involved in HPV acquisition and persistence and the development of cervical precancer and cancer. In this review, we summarise the current literature and discuss potential mechanisms for the involvement of vaginal microbiota in the evolution of CIN and cervical cancer. The concept of manipulation of vaginal bacterial communities using pre- and probiotics is also discussed as an exciting prospect for the field of cervical pathology.

Cervical Microbiota Associated with Higher Grade Cervical Intraepithelial Neoplasia in Women Infected with High-Risk Human Papillomaviruses

It is increasingly recognized that microbes that reside in and on human body sites play major roles in modifying the pathogenesis of several diseases, including cancer. However, specific microbes or microbial communities that can be mechanistically linked to cervical carcinogenesis remain largely unexplored. The purpose of the study was to examine the association between cervical microbiota and high-grade cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN 2+) in women infected with high-risk (HR) human papillomaviruses (HPV) and to assess whether the cervical microbiota are associated with oxidative DNA damage as indicated by the presence of cervical cells positive for 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine. The study included 340 women diagnosed with CIN 2+ (cases) and 90 diagnosed with CIN 1 (non-cases). Microbiota composition was determined by Illumina sequencing of the 16S rRNA gene amplified from DNA extracted from cervical mucus samples. Measures of alpha/beta-diversity were not associated with either CIN severity or oxidative DNA damage. However, a cervical mucosal community type (CT) dominated by L. iners and unclassified Lactobacillus spp was associated with CIN 2+ (OR = 3.48; 95% CI, 1.27-9.55). Sequence reads mapping to Lactobacillaceae, Lactobacillus, L. reuteri, and several sub-genus level Lactobacillus operational taxonomic units were also associated with CIN 2+ when examined independently (effect size >2.0; P < 0.05). Our 16S rRNA sequencing results need confirmation in independent studies using whole-genome shotgun sequencing and that would allow sharpening the suggested associations at finer taxonomic levels. Our results provide little evidence that DNA oxidative damage mediates the effect of the microbiome on the natural history of HPV infection and CIN severity. Cancer Prev Res; 9(5); 357-66. ©2016 AACR.

Oxidized extracellular DNA as a stress signal that may modify response to anticancer therapy

An increase in the levels of oxidation is a universal feature of genomic DNA of irradiated or aged or even malignant cells. In case of apoptotic death of stressed cells, oxidized DNA can be released in circulation (cfDNA). According to the results of the studies performed in vitro by our group and other researchers, the oxidized cfDNA serves as a biomarker for a stress and a stress signal that is transmitted from the "stressed" area i.e. irradiated cells or cells with deficient anti-oxidant defenses to distant (bystander) cells. In recipient cells, oxidized DNA stimulates biosynthesis of ROS that is followed up by an increase in the number of single strand and double strand breaks (SSBs and DSBs), and activation of DNA Damage Response (DDR) pathway. Effects of oxidized DNA are considered similar to that of irradiation. It seems that downstream effects of irradiation, in part, depend on the release of oxidized DNA fragments that mediate the effects in distant cells. The responses of normal and tumor cell to oxidized DNA may differ. It seems that tumor cells are more sensitive to oxidized DNA-dependent DNA damage, while developing pronounced adaptive response. This may suggest that in chemotherapy or irradiation-treated human body, the release of oxidized DNA from dying cancer cells may give a boost to remaining malignant cells by augmenting their survival and stress resistance. Further studies of the effects of oxidized DNA in both in vitro and in vivo systems are warranted.

Association of epidermal growth factor receptor mutations with human papillomavirus 16/18 E6 oncoprotein expression in non-small cell lung cancer

BACKGROUND

Lung cancers in women, in nonsmokers, and in patients with adenocarcinoma from Asia have more prevalent mutations in the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) gene than their counterparts. However, the etiology of EGFR mutations in this population remains unclear. The authors hypothesized that the human papillomavirus (HPV) type 16/18 (HPV16/18) E6 oncoprotein may contribute to EGFR mutations in Taiwanese patients with lung cancer.

METHODS

One hundred fifty-one tumors from patients with lung cancer were enrolled to determine HPV16/18 E6 and EGFR mutations using immunohistochemistry and direct sequencing, respectively. Levels of 8-oxo-7,8-dihydro-2'-deoxyguanosine (8-oxo-dG) in lung tumors and cells were evaluated using immunohistochemistry and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry/mass spectrometry. An supF mutagenesis assay was used to determine H2 O2 -induced mutation rates of lung cancer cells with or without E6 expression.

RESULTS

Patients with E6-positive tumors had a greater frequency of EGFR mutations than those with E6-negative tumors (41% vs 20%; P = .006). Levels of 8-oxo-dG were correlated with EGFR mutations (36% vs 16%; P = .012). Two stable clones of E6-overexpressing H157 and CL-3 cells were established for the supF mutagenesis assay. The data indicated that the cells with high E6 overexpression had higher H2 O2 -induced SupF gene mutation rates compared with the cells that expressed lower levels of E6 and compared with vector control cells.

CONCLUSIONS

HPV16/18 E6 may contribute in part to EGFR mutations in lung cancer, at least in the Taiwanese population.

Ambient particulate matter on DNA damage in HepG2 cells

Ambient particulate matter (PM) has been reported to be associated with increased respiratory, cardiovascular, and malignant lung diseases. The aim of the present study was to investigate the variability of the DNA-damage induced by thoracic particles (PM( 10)) sampled in different locations and seasons (2006) in Dalian, China, in human hepatoma G2 (HepG2) cells. Significant differences in percentage of tail DNA induced by the extractable organic matter of PM(10) were revealed between summer and winter seasons and among monitoring sites in single cell gel electrophoresis (SCGE) assay. The percentage of tail DNA in HepG2 cells significantly increased in a dose-dependent manner after exposure to 7.5 and 30 μg/mL extractable organic matter of PM(10) for 1 hour. In order to clarify the underlying mechanisms, we evaluated the level of reactive oxygen species (ROS) production with the 2, 7-dichloro-fluorescein diacetate (DCFH-DA) assay. Significantly increased level of ROS was observed in HepG2 cells at higher concentrations (15 and 30 μg/mL). Significantly increased levels of 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine (8-OHdG) were also shown in HepG2 cells. In this study, the accumulation of nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) p65 protein induced by the extractable organic matter of PM(10) was detected by western blotting in HepG2 cells, and the protein expression of NF-κB p65 significantly increased after the treatment with 30 μg/mL extractable organic matter of PM(10) for 24 hours. These results indicate that the extractable organic matter of PM(10) causes DNA strand breaks in HepG2 cells, and significant differences in percentage of tail DNA in dependence on locality and season are revealed. The extractable organic matter of PM(10) exerts DNA damage effects in HepG2 cells, probably through oxidative DNA damage induced by intracellular ROS, increase of 8-OHdG formation, and protein expression of NF-κB p65.

8-Hydroxydeoxyguanosine: a new potential independent prognostic factor in breast cancer

BACKGROUND

8-Hydroxydeoxyguanosine (8-oxodG) is the commonly used marker of oxidative stress-derived DNA damage. 8-OxodG formation is regulated by local antioxidant capacity and DNA repair enzyme activity. Earlier studies have reported contradictory data on the function of 8-oxodG as a prognostic factor in different cancer types.

METHODS

We assessed pre-operative serum 8-oxodG levels with an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay in a well-defined series of 173 breast cancer patients. 8-OxodG expression in the nuclei of cancer cells from 150 of these patients was examined by immunohistochemistry.

RESULTS

The serum 8-oxodG levels and immunohistochemical 8-oxodG expression were in concordance with each other (P<0.05). Negative 8-oxodG immunostaining was an independent prognostic factor for poor breast cancer-specific survival according to the multivariate analysis (P<0.01). This observation was even more remarkable when ductal carcinomas only (n=140) were considered (P<0.001). A low serum 8-oxodG level was associated statistically significantly with lymphatic vessel invasion and a positive lymph node status.

CONCLUSIONS

Low serum 8-oxodG levels and a low immunohistochemical 8-oxodG expression were associated with an aggressive breast cancer phenotype. In addition, negative 8-oxodG immunostaining was a powerful prognostic factor for breast cancer-specific death in breast carcinoma patients.

Role of dietary antioxidants in the prevention of in vivo oxidative DNA damage

Epidemiological evidence consistently shows that diets high in fresh fruit and vegetables significantly lower cancer risk. Given the postulated role of oxidative DNA damage in carcinogenesis, the assumption has been made that it is the antioxidant properties of food constituents, such as vitamin C, E and carotenoids, which confer protection. However, epidemiological studies with specific antioxidants, either singly or in combination, have not, on the whole, supported this hypothesis. In contrast, studies examining the in vitro effect of antioxidants upon oxidative DNA damage have generally been supportive, in terms of preventing damage induction. The same, however, cannot be said for the in vivo intervention studies where overall the results have been equivocal. Nevertheless, recent work has suggested that some dietary antioxidants may confer protective properties through a novel mechanism, unrelated to their conventional free-radical scavenging abilities. Upregulation of antioxidant defence, xenobiotic metabolism, or DNA-repair genes may all limit cellular damage and hence promote maintenance of cell integrity. However, until further work has clarified whether dietary supplementation with antioxidants confers a reduced risk of cancer and the mechanism by which this effect is exerted, the recommendation for a diet rich in fruit and vegetables remains valid empirically.

Nitrative and oxidative DNA damage in cervical intraepithelial neoplasia associated with human papilloma virus infection

Recently, it was proposed that inflammation plays an integral role in the development of human papilloma virus (HPV)-induced cervical cancer. The present study sought to examine if 8-nitroguanine, a mutagenic nitrative DNA lesion formed during inflammation, contributes to cervical carcinogenesis. We obtained biopsy specimens from 30 patients with cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN)1 (n = 9), CIN2 (n = 10), CIN3 (n = 6) and condyloma acuminatum (n = 5). We used immunohistochemistry to detect the formation of 8-nitroguanine and 8-oxo-7,8-dihydro-2'-deoxyguanosine (8-oxodG), an oxidative DNA lesion, and compared it with the expression of the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor p16, which is considered to be a biomarker for cervical neoplasia. Double immunofluorescence labeling revealed that 8-nitroguanine and 8-oxodG were colocalized in cervical epithelial cells. Samples from CIN2-3 patients, most of whom were infected with high-risk HPV subtypes, exhibited significantly more intense staining for 8-nitroguanine than those with condyloma acuminatum. 8-Nitroguanine and 8-oxodG immunoreactivities correlated significantly with the CIN grade. We observed the expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase in epithelial and inflammatory cells from CIN lesions. Proliferating cell nuclear antigen was expressed specifically in dysplastic epithelial cells, but not in those of condyloma acuminatum. There were no statistically significant differences in p16 expression between CIN and condyloma acuminatum samples. These results suggest that high-risk HPV types promote inducible nitric oxide synthase-dependent DNA damage, which leads to dysplastic changes and carcinogenesis; in contrast, p16 appears to be merely a marker of HPV infection. Thus, 8-nitroguanine is a more suitable and promising biomarker for evaluating the risk of inflammation-mediated cervical carcinogenesis than p16.

Possible involvement of oxidative stress in salivary gland of patients with Sjogren's syndrome

OBJECTIVE

To determine the involvement of oxidative stress in the salivary gland of patients with Sjogren's syndrome (SS).

METHODS

Oxidative damage to the gland was measured by 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG) and hexanoyl-lysine (HEL) using the SS saliva. In addition, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) and mitochondrial glutamic-oxaloacetic transaminase (m-GOT), both general markers for cell damage, were also analyzed.

RESULTS

Increased levels of 8-OHdG and HEL were found in the saliva of SS patients, but not in that of patients with other salivary gland dysfunction or of healthy individuals. Levels of LDH and m-GOT were significantly correlated with 8-OHdG and HEL levels, respectively. Furthermore, the increased levels of 8-OHdG and HEL were also correlated in the SS saliva.

CONCLUSION

These findings suggested the involvement of oxidative stress in glandular tissue destruction in SS. It was indicated that the detection of 8-OHdG and HEL in the saliva may become a useful tool for the diagnosis of SS.

Expression of the CDK inhibitor p27kip1 and oxidative DNA damage in non-neoplastic and neoplastic vulvar epithelial lesions

Vulvar cancer represents an important medical problem worldwide whose incidence is increasing at an alarming rate in young females. Several factors have been linked to vulvar cancer development, but its exact pathogenesis remains to be determined. Vulvar tumorigenesis proceeds through intermediate dysplastic lesions, known as vulvar intraepithelial neoplasias, frequently associated with non-neoplastic epithelial disorders of the vulva, such as lichen sclerosus and squamous cell hyperplasia. In this study, the expression of the CDK inhibitor p27Kip1 and the extent of endogenous oxidative DNA damage were evaluated in vulvar specimens, including normal tissues, lichen sclerosus, squamous cell hyperplasia, vulvar intraepithelial neoplasias and invasive squamous cell carcinomas. We found that p27Kip1 was constantly expressed in normal vulvar epithelium cells while a progressive significant reduction in the percentage of p27Kip1-positive cells was observed in vulvar intraepithelial neoplasias (77%) and in invasive carcinomas (64%). Mean percentage of positive cells in invasive carcinomas, but not in vulvar intraepithelial neoplasias, was also significantly lower than squamous cell hyperplasia lesions (78%) while lichen sclerosus displayed a percentage of positive cells (45%) significantly lower than both vulvar intraepithelial neoplasias and invasive carcinomas. 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine (8-OHdG) is considered a sensitive biomarker for oxidative stress. We observed a progressive significant increase in the levels of 8-OHdG and in the percentage of positive cells from normal vulvar epithelium to vulvar intraepithelial neoplasias (25%) and to invasive carcinomas (64%). Squamous cell hyperplasia displayed an intermediate percentage of positive cells comparable to vulvar intraepithelial neoplasias 2 but significantly higher than vulvar intraepithelial neoplasias 1 and lower than invasive carcinomas. Lichen sclerosus staining was significantly lower than carcinomas but higher than vulvar intraepithelial neoplasias and squamous cell hyperplasia. These results demonstrate that expression of p27Kip1 is downregulated while oxidative DNA damage increases from early non-neoplastic epithelial alterations through vulvar intraepithelial neoplasias to invasive vulvar carcinomas. Thus, both parameters might play an important role in the development of this cancer and their study might contribute to our understanding of human vulvar carcinogenesis.

E6* oncoprotein expression of human papillomavirus type-16 determines different ultraviolet sensitivity related to glutathione and glutathione peroxidase antioxidant defence

Clinical observations of non-melanoma skin cancer in immunocompromised patients, such as organ transplant recipients, suggest co-operative effects of human papillomavirus (HPV) and ultraviolet (UV) radiation. The aim of the present study is to evaluate UV sensitivity and DNA damage formation according to antioxidant status in HPV16-infected keratinocytes. We used SKv cell lines, infected with HPV16 and well characterized for their proliferative and tumorigenic capacities. We showed that SKv cell lines presented various E6* (a truncated form of E6) RNA levels. We demonstrated that the higher oncoprotein RNA expression level was associated with a higher resistance to solar-simulated radiation, more specifically to UVB radiation and to hydrogen peroxide. Moreover, this high resistance was associated with a low oxidative DNA damage formation after UV radiation and was related to high glutathione content and glutathione peroxidase activities. Therefore, the results of our study suggest that E6* levels could modulate the glutathione/glutathione peroxidase pathway providing a mechanism to protect HPV-infected keratinocytes against an environmental oxidative stress, such as UV radiation.

Commentary: DNA base excision repair defects in human pathologies

DNA base excision repair (BER) is the main pathway for repair of endogenous damage in human cells. It was expected that a number of degenerative diseases could derive from BER defects. On the contrary, the link between BER defects and human pathology is elusive and the literature is full of conflicting results. The fact that most studies have investigated DNA variations but not their functional consequences has probably contributed to this confusing picture. From a functional point of view, it is likely that gross BER defects are simply not compatible with life and only limited reductions can be observed. Notwithstanding those limits, the pathological consequences of partial BER defects might be widespread and significant at the population level. This starts to emerge in particular for colorectal and lung cancer.

Effects of lycopene and tomato paste extracts on DNA and lipid oxidation in LNCaP human prostate cancer cells

Animal and epidemiological studies point to a cancer preventive/therapeutic role for tomato products and its antioxidant, lycopene. It is hypothesized that lycopene will behave as an antioxidant at low concentrations and as a prooxidant at high concentrations in LNCaP human prostate cancer cell culture systems. We characterized the antioxidant, and prooxidant effects of a hexane extract of tomato paste (TP) and water solubilized lycopene at different concentrations using a prostate cancer cell line. Placebo (5% triglyceride, Roche Inc.) was used as a control. After 6, 24 hr and 48 hr incubation, LNCaP cells were harvested and used for each measurement. Cellular proliferation was determined using the MTT colorimetric assay. Lycopene and TP hexane extract inhibited cell growth in a dose-dependent (0.1-50 microM lycopene) manner and growth inhibition was 55% and 35% at 1 microM lycopene and TP hexane extract, respectively after 48 hr incubation. The levels of 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine/deoxyguanosine (an oxidative DNA damage product) was significantly increased starting at 5 microM lycopene from both TP hexane extract and pure lycopene after 24 and 48 hr incubation with no protection at the lower concentrations. Malondialdehyde formation (a lipid peroxidation product measured by HPLC separation of the MDA-TBA adduct) was significantly reduced at low concentrations (0.1-1 microM) of lycopene in all treatments. Clinically relevant concentrations of lycopene and the tomato fraction containing lycopene significantly reduced LNCaP cancer cell survival which can only be partially explained by increased DNA damage at high lycopene concentrations (> 5 microM). Low concentrations of lycopene acted as a lipid antioxidant but did not protect DNA.

Oxidative DNA damage and disease: induction, repair and significance

The generation of reactive oxygen species may be both beneficial to cells, performing a function in inter- and intracellular signalling, and detrimental, modifying cellular biomolecules, accumulation of which has been associated with numerous diseases. Of the molecules subject to oxidative modification, DNA has received the greatest attention, with biomarkers of exposure and effect closest to validation. Despite nearly a quarter of a century of study, and a large number of base- and sugar-derived DNA lesions having been identified, the majority of studies have focussed upon the guanine modification, 7,8-dihydro-8-oxo-2'-deoxyguanosine (8-OH-dG). For the most part, the biological significance of other lesions has not, as yet, been investigated. In contrast, the description and characterisation of enzyme systems responsible for repairing oxidative DNA base damage is growing rapidly, being the subject of intense study. However, there remain notable gaps in our knowledge of which repair proteins remove which lesions, plus, as more lesions identified, new processes/substrates need to be determined. There are many reports describing elevated levels of oxidatively modified DNA lesions, in various biological matrices, in a plethora of diseases; however, for the majority of these the association could merely be coincidental, and more detailed studies are required. Nevertheless, even based simply upon reports of studies investigating the potential role of 8-OH-dG in disease, the weight of evidence strongly suggests a link between such damage and the pathogenesis of disease. However, exact roles remain to be elucidated.

Decreased expression of the CDK inhibitor p27Kip1 and increased oxidative DNA damage in the multistep process of cervical carcinogenesis

OBJECTIVE

The expression of the CDK inhibitor p27Kip1 and the extent of endogenous oxidative DNA damage were evaluated in the multistep cervical carcinogenesis.

METHODS

Archival specimens of low-grade (L) squamous intraepithelial lesions (SILs) (n=32), high-grade (H) SILs (n=24) and invasive carcinomas (n=48) of the cervix were included in the analysis compared with normal cervical squamous epithelium (n=15). Expression level of p27Kip1 was evaluated by immunostaining. Immunohistochemical detection of 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine (8-OHdG) was considered as marker of oxidative DNA damage in the same tissues.

RESULTS

p27Kip1 was constantly expressed in normal epithelium with a mean percentage of positive cells higher than 50%. A progressive significant reduction in the mean percentage of positive cells was observed in L-SIL (18.1%), H-SIL (7.3%) and in invasive carcinomas (2.5%). A progressive significant increase in the levels of 8-OHdG and in the percentage of mean positive cells was observed from L-SIL (2.2%) to H-SIL (12.5%) to invasive carcinomas (25.2%). p27Kip1 and 8-OHdG expression displayed a significant inverse relationship.

CONCLUSIONS

Expression of p27Kip1 is down-regulated while oxidative DNA damage increases during cervical carcinogenesis. Both parameters are altered at early stages of the process and might help to predict patients at high risk of progression.

Oxidative DNA damage: mechanisms, mutation, and disease

Oxidative DNA damage is an inevitable consequence of cellular metabolism, with a propensity for increased levels following toxic insult. Although more than 20 base lesions have been identified, only a fraction of these have received appreciable study, most notably 8-oxo-2'deoxyguanosine. This lesion has been the focus of intense research interest and been ascribed much importance, largely to the detriment of other lesions. The present work reviews the basis for the biological significance of oxidative DNA damage, drawing attention to the multiplicity of proteins with repair activities along with a number of poorly considered effects of damage. Given the plethora of (often contradictory) reports describing pathological conditions in which levels of oxidative DNA damage have been measured, this review critically addresses the extent to which the in vitro significance of such damage has relevance for the pathogenesis of disease. It is suggested that some shortcomings associated with biomarkers, along with gaps in our knowledge, may be responsible for the failure to produce consistent and definitive results when applied to understanding the role of DNA damage in disease, highlighting the need for further studies.

New biomarker evidence of oxidative DNA damage in whole saliva from clinically healthy and periodontally diseased individuals

BACKGROUND

There is an increasing body of evidence implicating reactive oxygen species in the pathogenesis of periodontal tissue destruction. 8-Hydroxy-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG) is one of the most commonly used markers to evaluate oxidative damage in a number of disorders including chronic inflammatory diseases. The aim of the present study was to evaluate 8-OHdG levels in whole saliva of patients with periodontitis and to assess the changes after initial treatment.

METHODS

Saliva samples were collected from 78 patients with untreated periodontitis and 17 healthy control subjects. Clinical parameters and levels of 8-OHdG were assessed first to establish a baseline and again after initial periodontal treatment from 15 patients. 8-OHdG levels were determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay.

RESULTS

The mean value of 8-OHdG in the saliva of periodontally diseased subjects, 4.28 +/- 0.10 ng/ml, was significantly higher (P<0.01) than that of clinically healthy subjects (1.56 +/- 0.10 ng/ml). A significant decrease in salivary 8-OHdG was observed after therapy (P<0.01).

CONCLUSION

In the present study, we evaluated for the first time 8-OHdG levels in whole saliva of patients with periodontitis and assessed changes after initial periodontal treatment. Our study indicated that 8-OHdG levels in saliva appear to reflect the status of periodontal health.

Oxidative DNA damage as a marker of aging in WI-38 human fibroblasts

Cause-effect relationships between oxidative stress, DNA damage and aging were investigated in WI-38 human diploid fibroblasts at 21, 41 or 58 population doublings (PDs), corresponding to young, middle age or old fibroblasts, respectively. Oxidative DNA damage was evaluated by immunohistochemical detection of 8-hydroxy-2'deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG) adducts or by single cell microgel electrophoresis (COMET assay). Aging was evaluated by growth rate, senescence-associated-beta-galactosidase (SA-beta galactosidase) activity, cell cycle distribution, and expression of p21. Our results demonstrate that (i) oxidative DNA damage is proportional to the age of cells (ii) DNA damage in old/58 PDs cells reflects both an increased susceptibility to oxidative stress, induced by acute exposure to sub-lethal concentrations of hydrogen peroxide (H(2)O(2)), and a reduced efficiency of repair mechanisms. We also show that mild chronic oxidative stress, induced by prolonged exposure to 5 microM H(2)O(2), accelerates aging in fibroblasts. In fact, this treatment increased 8-OHdG levels, SA-beta-galactosidase activity, and G0/G1 cell cycle arrest in middle age/41 PDs, making them similar to H(2)O(2)-untreated old/58 PDs cells. Although other mechanisms may concur in mediating the effects of H(2)O(2), these results lend support to the concept that oxidative stress may be a key determinant of aging. Measurements of oxidative DNA damage might therefore be exploited as reliable marker of cellular aging.