Efficient detection, quantification and enrichment of subtle allelic alterations

tp53 R217H and R242H mutant zebrafish exhibit dysfunctional p53 hallmarks and recapitulate Li-Fraumeni syndrome phenotypes

Li-Fraumeni syndrome (LFS) is a hereditary cancer predisposition syndrome associated with a highly penetrant cancer spectrum characterized by germline TP53 mutations. We characterized the first LFS zebrafish hotspot mutants, tp53 R217H and R242H (human R248H and R273H), and found these mutants exhibit partial-to-no activation of p53 target genes, have defective cell-cycle checkpoints, and display partial-to-full resistance to apoptosis, although the R217H mutation has hypomorphic characteristics. Spontaneous tumor development histologically resembling human sarcomas was observed as early as 6 months. tp53 R242H mutants had a higher lifetime tumor incidence compared to tp53 null and R217H mutants, suggesting it is a more aggressive mutation. We observed mutation-specific tumor phenotypes across tp53 mutants with associated diverse transcriptomic and DNA methylome profiles in tp53 mutant larvae, impacting metabolism, cell signalling, and biomacromolecule synthesis and degradation. These tp53 zebrafish mutants demonstrate fidelity to their human counterparts and provide new insights into underlying tumorigenesis mechanisms and kinetics that suggest metabolic rewiring and cellular signalling changes occur prior to tumor initiation, which will guide targeted therapeutics for LFS.

Deficiency of mastl, a mitotic regulator, results in cell detachment from developing tissues of zebrafish embryos

To form tissues with unique functions and structures, it is important that the cells that comprise them maintain physical contact. On the other hand, with each mitosis, drastic changes in cell shapes, cell adhesion, and cytoskeletal architecture may cause such contacts to be temporarily weakened, risking improper development and maintenance of tissues. Despite such risks, tissues form properly during normal development. However, it is not well understood whether mitotic abnormalities affect tissue formation. Here, analysis of zebrafish embryos with aberrant mitosis shows that proper progression of mitosis is important to maintain cell contact in developing tissues. By screening mutants with abnormal trunk and tail development, we obtained a mutant with perturbed expression of some tissue-specific genes in embryonic caudal regions. The responsible gene is mastl/gwl, which is involved in progression of mitosis. Analysis focusing on the chordo-neural hinge (CNH), the primordium of axial tissues, shows that cell detachment from the CNH is increased in mastl mutant embryos. Time-lapse imaging reveals that this cell detachment occurs during mitosis. These results suggest that cells are unable to maintain contact due to abnormalities in progression of mitosis in mastl mutants.

Efficient detection of single nucleotide variants in targeted genomic loci

Single nucleotide variants (SNVs), including single nucleotide polymorphisms, are often associated with morphological and/or physiological abnormalities in various organisms. Targeted genomic DNA can be amplified and directly sequenced to detect these mutations, but this method is relatively time consuming and expensive. We recently established the heteroduplex mobility assay to detect genetic mutations as an easy, low-cost method in genome editing, but detecting such small genetic differences remains difficult. Here, we developed a new, simple method to detect single nucleotide changes in the zebrafish genome by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and electrophoresis. We first designed a specific single stranded DNA with four tandem guanine nucleotides inserted beside the mutation site, called guanine-inserted primer (GIP). When reannealing, hybridized complexes of GIP and PCR amplicons with or without 1-bp-mutated alleles form different bulge structures, presumably leading to different mobilities on a polyacrylamide gel. This GIP-interacting mobility assay is easy to use; therefore, it could contribute to the detection of SNVs in any organism.

Generation of translucent Xenopus tropicalis through triple knockout of pigmentation genes

Amphibians generally have three types of pigment cells, namely, melanophores (black and brown), xanthophores (yellow and red), and iridophores (iridescent). Single knockout of the tyr, slc2a7, and hps6 genes in Xenopus tropicalis results in the absence of melanophores, xanthophores, and iridophores, respectively. The generation of triple- knockout (3KO) X. tropicalis for these three genes could allow for observation of internal organs without sacrificing the animals, which would be transparent due to the absence of pigments. In this study, we generated 3KO X. tropicalis, which is one of the most widely used model amphibians, through crossing of a slc2a7 single-knockout frog with a tyr and hps6 double-knockout frog, followed by intercrossing of their offspring. The 3KO tadpoles had transparent bodies like the nop mutant and the frogs had translucent bodies. This translucency allowed us to observe the heart, lungs, stomach, liver, and digestive tract through the ventral body skin without surgery. After intravital staining, 3KO X. tropicalis showed much clearer fluorescent signals of mineralized tissues compared with the wild type. These 3KO X. tropicalis provide a useful mutant line for continuous observation of internal organs and fluorescent signals in the body. In particular, such 3KO frogs would revolutionize fluorescence monitoring in transgenic tadpoles and frogs expressing fluorescent proteins.

Phenotype-genotype relationships in Xenopus sox9 crispants provide insights into campomelic dysplasia and vertebrate jaw evolution

Since CRISPR-based genome editing technology works effectively in the diploid frog Xenopus tropicalis, a growing number of studies have successfully modeled human genetic diseases in this species. However, most of their targets were limited to non-syndromic diseases that exhibit abnormalities in a small fraction of tissues or organs in the body. This is likely because of the complexity of interpreting the phenotypic variations resulting from somatic mosaic mutations generated in the founder animals (crispants). In this study, we attempted to model the syndromic disease campomelic dysplasia (CD) by generating sox9 crispants in X. tropicalis. The resulting crispants failed to form neural crest cells at neurula stages and exhibited various combinations of jaw, gill, ear, heart, and gut defects at tadpole stages, recapitulating part of the syndromic phenotype of CD patients. Genotyping of the crispants with a variety of allelic series of mutations suggested that the heart and gut defects depend primarily on frame-shift mutations expected to be null, whereas the jaw, gill, and ear defects could be induced not only by such mutations but also by in-frame deletion mutations expected to delete part of the jawed vertebrate-specific domain from the encoded Sox9 protein. These results demonstrate that Xenopus crispants are useful for investigating the phenotype-genotype relationships behind syndromic diseases and examining the tissue-specific role of each functional domain within a single protein, providing novel insights into vertebrate jaw evolution.

phox2ba: The Potential Genetic Link behind the Overlap in the Symptomatology between CHARGE and Central Congenital Hypoventilation Syndromes

CHARGE syndrome typically results from mutations in the gene encoding chromodomain helicase DNA-binding protein 7 (CHD7). CHD7 is involved in regulating neural crest development, which gives rise to tissues of the skull/face and the autonomic nervous system (ANS). Individuals with CHARGE syndrome are frequently born with anomalies requiring multiple surgeries and often experience adverse events post-anesthesia, including oxygen desaturations, decreased respiratory rates, and heart rate abnormalities. Central congenital hypoventilation syndrome (CCHS) affects ANS components that regulate breathing. Its hallmark feature is hypoventilation during sleep, clinically resembling observations in anesthetized CHARGE patients. Loss of PHOX2B (paired-like homeobox 2b) underlies CCHS. Employing a chd7-null zebrafish model, we investigated physiologic responses to anesthesia and compared these to loss of phox2b. Heart rates were lower in chd7 mutants compared to the wild-type. Exposure to tricaine, a zebrafish anesthetic/muscle relaxant, revealed that chd7 mutants took longer to become anesthetized, with higher respiratory rates during recovery. chd7 mutant larvae demonstrated unique phox2ba expression patterns. The knockdown of phox2ba reduced larval heart rates similar to chd7 mutants. chd7 mutant fish are a valuable preclinical model to investigate anesthesia in CHARGE syndrome and reveal a novel functional link between CHARGE syndrome and CCHS.

Redundant actions of neuropeptides encoded by the dh-pban gene for larval color pattern formation in the oriental armyworm Mythimnaseparata

The pyrokinin (PK)/pheromone biosynthesis-activating neuropeptide (PBAN) family, which is defined by a conserved C-terminal pentapeptide (FXPRLamide), is involved in many physiological processes in insects. In the oriental armyworm Mythimna separata, the larvae exhibit a variety of color patterns in response to changes in population density, which are caused by melanization and a reddish coloration hormone (MRCH), which is a member of the FXPRLamide neuropeptides. Interestingly, in some lepidopteran insects, MRCH is known as a PBAN, which activates the pheromone gland to produce sex pheromones. PBAN is encoded by a single gene, dh-pban, which encodes additional FXPRLamide neuropeptides, such as the diapause hormone (DH) and subesophageal ganglion neuropeptides (SGNPs). To determine the roles of the dh-pban gene, which produces multiple types of FXPRLamide neuropeptides after post-transcriptional cleavage of the precursor protein, we performed CRISPR/Cas9-mediated targeted mutagenesis in M. separata. We demonstrated that knockout armyworm larvae lost density-dependent cuticular melanization and retained yellow body color, even when reared under crowded conditions. Moreover, our rescue experiments using the synthetic peptides showed that not only PBAN but also β- and γ-SGNPs significantly induce the cuticular melanization in a dose dependent manner. Taken together, our results provide genetic evidence that neuropeptides encoded by the single dh-pban gene act redundantly to control density-dependent color pattern formation in M. separata.

Establishment of an Integrated CRISPR/Cas9 Plasmid System for Simple and Efficient Genome Editing in Medaka In Vitro and In Vivo

Although CRISPR/Cas9 has been used in gene manipulation of several fish species in vivo, its application in fish cultured cells is still challenged and limited. In this study, we established an integrated CRISPR/Cas9 plasmid system and evaluated its efficiency of gene knock-out or knock-in at a specific site in medaka (Oryzias latipes) in vitro and in vivo. By using the enhanced green fluorescent protein reporter plasmid pGNtsf1, we demonstrate that pCas9-U6sgRNA driven by endogenous U6 promoter (pCas9-mU6sgRNA) mediated very high gene editing efficiency in medaka cultured cells, but not by exogenous U6 promoters. After optimizing the conditions, the gene editing efficiencies of eight sites targeting for four endogenous genes were calculated, and the highest was up to 94% with no detectable off-target. By one-cell embryo microinjection, pCas9-mU6sgRNA also mediated efficient gene knock-out in vivo. Furthermore, pCas9-mU6sgRNA efficiently mediated gene knock-in at a specific site in medaka cultured cells as well as embryos. Collectively, our study demonstrates that the genetic relationship of U6 promoter is critical to gene editing efficiency in medaka cultured cells, and a simple and efficient system for medaka genome editing in vitro and in vivo has been established. This study provides an insight into other fish genome editing and promotes gene functional analysis.

Critical Role of the Cortical Alveolus Protease Alveolin in Chorion Hardening In Vivo at Medaka Fertilization

Alveolin is a cortical alveolus proteinase that is secreted in the perivitelline space (PVS) at fertilization to act on the chorion. Purified alveolin is known to induce chorion hardening in vitro by processing zona pellucida B (ZPB), a major chorion component. However, in vivo function of alveolin remains unclear; thus, in this study, the effects of alveolin efficiency (Alv-/-) at the organism level were investigated using the medaka, Oryzias latipes. The Alv-/- fertilized eggs were mechanically fragile; however, they developed normally and left offspring as long as they were carefully handled before hatching. A mechanical press test showed that the Alv-/- fertilized eggs were six times more fragile than the wild-type eggs. They were 35% larger owing to the enlarged PVS, 34% thinner, and permeable to even 10 kDa FITC-dextran. These results are consistent with the transmission electron microscopy observation that the periphery of the inner layers was highly porous in the Alv-/- chorion. In chorion hardening, the alveolin-mediated processing of ZPB and the transglutaminase (TGase)-mediated crosslinking of chorion components are the key steps. This study was the first to show that alveolin also processed TGase concomitantly with ZPB, which greatly facilitated the crosslinking. Thus, alveolin was concluded to be the primary trigger for chorion hardening in vivo. Furthermore, fertilization in a balanced salt solution could partially improve the impaired chorion hardening of the Alv-/- eggs fertilized in water, probably through an alveolin-independent mechanism.

Sulfation of sialic acid is ubiquitous and essential for vertebrate development

Glycosylation of proteins and lipids occurs in vertebrates, usually terminating with sialylation, which regulates the physicochemical and biological properties of these glycoconjugates. Although less commonly known, sialic acid residues also undergo various modifications, such as acetylation, methylation, and sulfation. However, except for acetylation, the enzymes or functions of the other modification processes are unknown. To the best of our knowledge, this study is the first to demonstrate the ubiquitous occurrence of sulfated sialic acids and two genes encoding the sialate: O-sulfotransferases 1 and 2 in vertebrates. These two enzymes showed about 50% amino acid sequence identity, and appeared to be complementary to each other in acceptor substrate preferences. Gene targeting experiments showed that the deficiency of these genes was lethal for medaka fish during young fry development and accompanied by different phenotypes. Thus, the sulfation of sialic acids is essential for the vertebrate development.

Fibronectin and Integrin α5 play overlapping and independent roles in regulating the development of pharyngeal endoderm and cartilage

Craniofacial skeletal elements are derived from cranial neural crest cells (CNCCs), which migrate along discrete paths and populate distinct pharyngeal arches, structures that are separated by the neighboring endodermal pouches (EPs). Interactions between the CNCCs and the endoderm are critical for proper craniofacial development. In zebrafish, integrin α5 (Itga5) functions in the endoderm to regulate formation of specifically the first EP (EP1) and the development of the hyoid cartilage. Here we show that fibronectin (Fn), a major component of the extracellular matrix (ECM), is also required for these developmental processes, and that the penetrance of defects in mutants is temperature-dependent. fn1a^-/- embryos exhibited defects that are similar to, but much more severe than, those of itga5^-/- embryos, and a loss of integrin av (itgav) function enhanced both endoderm and cartilage defects in itga5^-/- embryos, suggesting that Itga5 and Itgav cooperate to transmit signals from Fn to regulate the development of endoderm and cartilage. Whereas the endodermal defects in itga5; itga5v^-/- double mutant embryos were comparable to those of fn1a^-/- mutants, the cartilage defects were much milder. Furthermore, Fn assembly was detected in migrating CNCCs, and the epithelial organization and differentiation of CNCC-derived arches were impaired in fn1a^-/- embryos, indicating that Fn1 exerts functions in arch development that are independent of Itga5 and Itgav. Additionally, reduction of itga5 function in fn1a^-/- embryos led to profound defects in body axis elongation, as well as in endoderm and cartilage formation, suggesting that other ECM proteins signal through Itga5 to regulate development of the endoderm and cartilage. Thus, our studies reveal that Fn1a and Itga5 have both overlapping and independent functions in regulating development of the pharyngeal endoderm and cartilage.

A Comprehensive Review of Indel Detection Methods for Identification of Zebrafish Knockout Mutants Generated by Genome-Editing Nucleases

The use of zebrafish in functional genomics and disease modeling has become popular due to the ease of targeted mutagenesis with genome editing nucleases, i.e., zinc finger nucleases (ZFNs), transcription activator-like effector nucleases (TALENs), and clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats/Cas9 (CRISPR/Cas9). These nucleases, specifically CRISPR/Cas9, are routinely used to generate gene knockout mutants by causing a double stranded break at the desired site in the target gene and selecting for frameshift insertions or deletions (indels) caused by the errors during the repair process. Thus, a variety of methods have been developed to identify fish with indels during the process of mutant generation and phenotypic analysis. These methods range from PCR and gel-based low-throughput methods to high-throughput methods requiring specific reagents and/or equipment. Here, we provide a comprehensive review of currently used indel detection methods in zebrafish. By discussing the molecular basis for each method as well as their pros and cons, we hope that this review will serve as a comprehensive resource for zebrafish researchers, allowing them to choose the most appropriate method depending upon their budget, access to required equipment and the throughput needs of the projects.

Production of Germ Cell-Less Rainbow Trout by dead end Gene Knockout and their Use as Recipients for Germ Cell Transplantation

In germ cell transplantation experiments, the use of sterile recipients that do not produce their own gametes is an important prerequisite. Triploidization and dnd gene knockdown (KD) methods have been widely used to produce sterile fish. However, triploidization does not produce complete sterility in some fish species, and gene KD is labor and time intensive since it requires microinjection into individual fertilized eggs. To overcome these problems, in this study, we generated homozygous mutants of the dead end (dnd) gene in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) using the clustered regulatory interspaced short palindromic repeats/CRISPR-associated protein 9 (CRISPR/Cas9) system, analyzed their reproductive capacity, and evaluated their suitability as recipients for germ cell transplantation. By crossing F1 heterozygous mutants produced from founders subjected to genome editing, an F2 generation consisting of approximately 1/4 homozygous knockout mutants (dnd KO) was obtained. The dnd KO hatchlings retained the same number of primordial germ cells (PGCs) as the wild-type (WT) individuals, after which the number gradually decreased. At 1 year of age, germ cells were completely absent in all analyzed individuals. To evaluate the dnd KO individuals as recipients for germ cell transplantation, germ cells prepared from donor individuals were transplanted into the abdominal cavity of dnd KO hatchlings. These cells migrated to the recipient gonads, where they initiated gametogenesis. The mature recipient individuals produced only donor-derived sperm and eggs in equivalent numbers to WT rainbow trout. These results indicate that dnd KO rainbow trout are suitable recipient candidates possessing a high capacity to nurse donor-derived germ cells.

An Efficient Hairy Root System for Validation of Plant Transformation Vector and CRISPR/Cas Construct Activities in Cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.)

Hairy root induction system has been applied in various plant species as an effective method to study gene expression and function due to its fast-growing and high genetic stability. Recently, these systems have shown to be an effective tool to evaluate activities of CRISPR/Cas9 systems for genome editing. In this study, Rhizobium rhizogenes mediated hairy root induction was optimized to provide an effective tool for validation of plant transformation vector, CRISPR/Cas9 construct activities as well as selection of targeted gRNAs for gene editing in cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.). Under the optimized conditions including OD₆₅₀ at 0.4 for infection and 5 days of co-cultivation, the highest hairy root induction frequency reached 100% for the cucumber variety Choka F1. This procedure was successfully utilized to overexpress a reporter gene (gus) and induce mutations in two Lotus japonicus ROOTHAIRLESS1 homolog genes CsbHLH66 and CsbHLH82 using CRISPR/Cas9 system. For induced mutation, about 78% of transgenic hairy roots exhibited mutant phenotypes including sparse root hair and root hair-less. The targeted mutations were obtained in individual CsbHLH66, CsbHLH82, or both CsbHLH66 and CsbHLH82 genes by heteroduplex analysis and sequencing. The hairy root transformation system established in this study is sufficient and potential for further research in genome editing of cucumber as well as other cucumis plants.

Functional conservation and diversification of yellow-y in lepidopteran insects

The diverse colors and patterns found in Lepidoptera are important for success of these species. Similar to the wings of adult butterflies, lepidopteran larvae exhibit diverse color variations to adapt to their habitats. Compared with butterfly wings, however, less attention has been paid to larval body colorations and patterns. In the present study, we focus on the yellow-y gene, which participates in the melanin synthesis pathway. We conducted CRISPR/Cas9-mediated targeted mutagenesis of yellow-y in the tobacco cutworm Spodoptera litura. We analyzed the role of S. litura yellow-y in pigmentation by morphological observation and discovered that yellow-y is necessary for normal black pigmentation in S. litura. We also showed species- and tissue-specific requirements of yellow-y in pigmentation in comparison with those of Bombyx mori yellow-y mutants. Furthermore, we found that almost none of the yellow-y mutant embryos hatched unaided. We provide evidence that S. litura yellow-y has a novel important function in egg hatching, in addition to pigmentation. The present study will enable a greater understanding of the functions and diversification of the yellow-y gene in insects.

The second pharyngeal pouch is generated by dynamic remodeling of endodermal epithelium in zebrafish

Pharyngeal arches (PAs) are segmented by endodermal outpocketings called pharyngeal pouches (PPs). Anterior and posterior PAs appear to be generated by different mechanisms, but it is unclear how the anterior and posterior PAs combine. Here, we addressed this issue with precise live imaging of PP development and cell tracing of pharyngeal endoderm in zebrafish embryos. We found that two endodermal bulges are initially generated in the future second PP (PP2) region, which separates anterior and posterior PAs. Subsequently, epithelial remodeling causes contact between these two bulges, resulting in the formation of mature PP2 with a bilayered morphology. The rostral and caudal bulges develop into the operculum and gill, respectively. Development of the caudal PP2 and more posterior PPs is affected by impaired retinoic acid signaling or pax1a/b dysfunction, suggesting that the rostral front of posterior PA development corresponds to the caudal PP2. Our study clarifies an aspect of PA development that is essential for generation of a seamless array of PAs in zebrafish.

Seasonal changes in NRF2 antioxidant pathway regulates winter depression-like behavior

At high latitudes, about 10% of the population suffers from depression in winter. Although it has become a serious public health issue, its underlying mechanism remains unknown. Interestingly, animals also show depression-like behavior in winter, and small teleosts have emerged as powerful models for the study of complex brain disorders. Here, we show that medaka exhibit decreased sociability and increased anxiety-like behavior under winter-like conditions. Using metabolomic and transcriptomic analyses, we found changes in multiple signaling pathways involved in depression, including the NRF2 antioxidant pathway. Chemical genomics and targeted mutation of the NRF2 gene revealed that seasonal changes in the NRF2 pathway regulate winter depression-like behavior. This study provides insights into the understanding and treatment of seasonally regulated affective disorders.

Seasonal changes in the environment lead to depression-like behaviors in humans and animals. The underlying mechanisms, however, are unknown. We observed decreased sociability and increased anxiety-like behavior in medaka fish exposed to winter-like conditions. Whole brain metabolomic analysis revealed seasonal changes in 68 metabolites, including neurotransmitters and antioxidants associated with depression. Transcriptome analysis identified 3,306 differentially expressed transcripts, including inflammatory markers, melanopsins, and circadian clock genes. Further analyses revealed seasonal changes in multiple signaling pathways implicated in depression, including the nuclear factor erythroid-derived 2-like 2 (NRF2) antioxidant pathway. A broad-spectrum chemical screen revealed that celastrol (a traditional Chinese medicine) uniquely reversed winter behavior. NRF2 is a celastrol target expressed in the habenula (HB), known to play a critical role in the pathophysiology of depression. Another NRF2 chemical activator phenocopied these effects, and an NRF2 mutant showed decreased sociability. Our study provides important insights into winter depression and offers potential therapeutic targets involving NRF2.

CRISPR/Cas12a-based biosensing platform for precise and efficient screening of CRISPR/Cas9-induced biallelic mutants

CRISPR/Cas9 is a robust tool to manipulate genes in a wide range of species. Although several methods are introduced to identify the CRISPR/Cas9-induced mutations, they are labor-intensive, costly, and not easy to use or were sequence-limited. Moreover, few of them could identify the biallelic mutants that are the desired outcomes of targeted mutagenesis. Recently, a CRISPR/Cas12a-mediated biosensing platform was developed to detect nucleic acids based on the collateral DNA cleavage activity of Cas12a; it was highly sensitive, specific, rapid, and cost-efficient for genotyping, mutation detection, and single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) identification, thereby deeming it as an innovative method for screening the CRISPR/Cas9-induced biallelic mutants. Thus, the CRISPR/Cas12a-based biosensing platform has been successfully utilized for screening 23 CRISPR/Cas9-induced biallelic mutants in Thp-1 cells, which were also confirmed by direct sequencing and ELISA. The precision and efficiency of CRISPR/Cas12a-based biosensing platform make it a promising tool for screening of CRISPR/Cas9-induced biallelic mutants in the future.

Optimized knock-in of point mutations in zebrafish using CRISPR/Cas9

We have optimized point mutation knock-ins into zebrafish genomic sites using clustered regularly interspaced palindromic repeats (CRISPR)/Cas9 reagents and single-stranded oligodeoxynucleotides. The efficiency of knock-ins was assessed by a novel application of allele-specific polymerase chain reaction and confirmed by high-throughput sequencing. Anti-sense asymmetric oligo design was found to be the most successful optimization strategy. However, cut site proximity to the mutation and phosphorothioate oligo modifications also greatly improved knock-in efficiency. A previously unrecognized risk of off-target trans knock-ins was identified that we obviated through the development of a workflow for correct knock-in detection. Together these strategies greatly facilitate the study of human genetic diseases in zebrafish, with additional applicability to enhance CRISPR-based approaches in other animal model systems.

Targeting FER Kinase Inhibits Melanoma Growth and Metastasis

Melanoma is one of the most aggressive types of tumors and exhibits high metastatic potential. Fes-related (FER) kinase is a non-receptor tyrosine kinase that has been implicated in growth and metastasis of various epithelial tumors. In this study, we have examined the role that FER kinase plays in melanoma at the molecular level. FER-depleted melanoma cells exhibit impaired Wnt/β-catenin pathway activity, as well as multiple proteomic changes, which include decreased abundance of L1-cell adhesion molecule (L1-CAM). Consistent with the pro-metastatic functions of these pathways, we demonstrate that depletion of FER kinase decreases melanoma growth and formation of distant metastases in a xenograft model. These findings indicate that FER is an important positive regulator of melanoma metastasis and a potential target for innovative therapies.

smarce1 mutants have a defective endocardium and an increased expression of cardiac transcription factors in zebrafish

SWI/SNF or BAF chromatin-remodeling complexes are polymorphic assemblies of homologous subunit families that remodel nucleosomes and facilitate tissue-specific gene regulation during development. BAF57/SMARCE1 is a BAF complex subunit encoded in animals by a single gene and is a component of all mammalian BAF complexes. In vivo, the loss of SMARCE1 would lead to the formation of deficient combinations of the complex which might present limited remodeling activities. To address the specific contribution of SMARCE1 to the function of the BAF complex, we generated CRISPR/Cas9 mutations of smarce1 in zebrafish. Smarce1 mutants showed visible defects at 72 hpf, including smaller eyes, abnormal body curvature and heart abnormalities. Gene expression analysis revealed that the mutant embryos displayed defects in endocardial development since early stages, which led to the formation of a misshapen heart tube. The severe morphological and functional cardiac problems observed at 4 dpf were correlated with the substantially increased expression of different cardiac transcription factors. Additionally, we showed that Smarce1 binds to cis-regulatory regions of the gata5 gene and is necessary for the recruitment of the BAF complex to these regions.

Optimized knock-in of point mutations in zebrafish using CRISPR/Cas9

We have optimized point mutation knock-ins into zebrafish genomic sites using clustered regularly interspaced palindromic repeats (CRISPR)/Cas9 reagents and single-stranded oligodeoxynucleotides. The efficiency of knock-ins was assessed by a novel application of allele-specific polymerase chain reaction and confirmed by high-throughput sequencing. Anti-sense asymmetric oligo design was found to be the most successful optimization strategy. However, cut site proximity to the mutation and phosphorothioate oligo modifications also greatly improved knock-in efficiency. A previously unrecognized risk of off-target trans knock-ins was identified that we obviated through the development of a workflow for correct knock-in detection. Together these strategies greatly facilitate the study of human genetic diseases in zebrafish, with additional applicability to enhance CRISPR-based approaches in other animal model systems.

Efficient genome editing using CRISPR/Cas9 ribonucleoprotein approach in cultured Medaka fish cells

Gene editing with CRISPR/Cas9 is a powerful tool to study the function of target genes. Although this technology has demonstrated wide efficiency in many species, including fertilized zebrafish and medaka fish embryos when microinjected, its application to achieve efficient gene editing in cultured fish cells have met some difficulty. Here, we report an efficient and reliable approach to edit genes in cultured medaka (Oryzias latipes) fish cells using pre-formed gRNA-Cas9 ribonucleoprotein (RNP) complex. Both medaka fish haploid and diploid cells were transfected with the RNP complex by electroporation. Efficient gene editing was demonstrated by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification of the target gene from genomic DNA and heteroduplex mobility assay carried out with polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE). The heteroduplex bands caused by RNP cleavage and non-homologous end joining could be readily detected by PAGE. DNA sequencing confirmed that these heteroduplex bands contains the mutated target gene sequence. The average gene editing efficiency in haploid cells reached 50%, enabling us to generate a clonal cell line with ntrk3b gene mutation for further study. This RNP transfection method also works efficiently in diploid medaka cells, with the highest mutation efficiency of 61.5%. The specificity of this synthetic RNP CRISPR/Cas9 approach was verified by candidate off-target gene sequencing. Our result indicated that transfection of pre-formed gRNA-Cas9 RNP into fish cells is efficient and reliable to edit target genes in cultured medaka fish cells. This method will be very useful for gene function studies using cultured fish cells.

CRISPR/Cas9-based heritable targeted mutagenesis in Thermobia domestica: A genetic tool in an apterygote development model of wing evolution

Despite previous developmental studies on basally branching wingless insects and crustaceans, the evolutionary origin of insect wings remains controversial. Knowledge regarding genetic regulation of tissues hypothesized to have given rise to wings would help to elucidate how ancestral development changed to allow the evolution of true wings. However, genetic tools available for basally branching wingless species are limited. The firebrat Thermobia domestica is an apterygote species, phylogenetically related to winged insects. T. domestica presents a suitable morphology to investigate the origin of wings, as it forms the tergal paranotum, from which wings are hypothesized to have originated. Here we report the first successful CRISPR/Cas9-based germline genome editing in T. domestica. We provide a technological platform to understand the development of tissues hypothesized to have given rise to wings in an insect with a pre-wing evolution body plan.

Etiology and functional validation of gastrointestinal motility dysfunction in a zebrafish model of CHARGE syndrome

CHARGE syndrome is linked to autosomal-dominant mutations in the CHD7 gene and results in a number of physiological and structural abnormalities, including heart defects, hearing and vision loss, and gastrointestinal (GI) problems. Of these challenges, GI problems have a profound impact throughout an individual's life, resulting in increased morbidity and mortality. A homolog of CHD7 has been identified in the zebrafish, the loss of which recapitulates many of the features of the human disease. Using a morpholino chd7 knockdown model complemented by a chd7 null mutant zebrafish line, we examined GI structure, innervation, and motility in larval zebrafish. Loss of chd7 resulted in physically smaller GI tracts with normal epithelial and muscular histology, but decreased and disorganized vagal projections, particularly in the foregut. chd7 morphant larvae had significantly less ability to empty their GI tract of gavaged fluorescent beads, and this condition was only minimally improved by the prokinetic agents, domperidone and erythromycin, in keeping with mixed responses to these agents in patients with CHARGE syndrome. The conserved genetics and transparency of the zebrafish have provided new insights into the consequences of chd7 gene dysfunction on the GI system and cranial nerve patterning. These findings highlight the opportunity of the zebrafish to serve as a preclinical model for studying compounds that may improve GI motility in individuals with CHARGE syndrome.

Efficient Gene Transfer and Gene Editing in Sterlet (Acipenser ruthenus)

The sturgeon (Acipenseriformes) is an important farmed species because of its economical value. However, neither gene transfer nor gene editing techniques have been established in sturgeon for molecular breeding and gene functional study until now. In this study, we accomplished gene transfer and gene editing in sterlet (Acipenser ruthenus), which has the shortest sexual maturation period of sturgeons. The plasmid encoding enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) was transferred into the embryos of sterlet at injection concentration of 100 ng/μL, under which condition high survival rate and gene transfer rate could be achieved. Subsequently, exogenous EGFP was efficiently disrupted by transcription activator-like effector nucleases (TALENs) or clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)/Cas9 nuclease/guide RNA (gRNA), with injection concentrations of 300 ng/μL TALENs, or 100 ng/μL Cas9 nuclease and 30 ng/μL gRNA, respectively, under which condition high survival rate and gene mutation rate could be achieved. Finally, the endogenous gene no tail in sterlet was successfully mutated by Cas9 nuclease/gRNA. We observed the CRISPR-induced no tail mutation, at a high efficiency with the mutant P0 embryos displaying the expected phenotype of bent spine and twisted tail.

Distinct interactions of Sox5 and Sox10 in fate specification of pigment cells in medaka and zebrafish

Mechanisms generating diverse cell types from multipotent progenitors are fundamental for normal development. Pigment cells are derived from multipotent neural crest cells and their diversity in teleosts provides an excellent model for studying mechanisms controlling fate specification of distinct cell types. Zebrafish have three types of pigment cells (melanocytes, iridophores and xanthophores) while medaka have four (three shared with zebrafish, plus leucophores), raising questions about how conserved mechanisms of fate specification of each pigment cell type are in these fish. We have previously shown that the Sry-related transcription factor Sox10 is crucial for fate specification of pigment cells in zebrafish, and that Sox5 promotes xanthophores and represses leucophores in a shared xanthophore/leucophore progenitor in medaka. Employing TILLING, TALEN and CRISPR/Cas9 technologies, we generated medaka and zebrafish sox5 and sox10 mutants and conducted comparative analyses of their compound mutant phenotypes. We show that specification of all pigment cells, except leucophores, is dependent on Sox10. Loss of Sox5 in Sox10-defective fish partially rescued the formation of all pigment cells in zebrafish, and melanocytes and iridophores in medaka, suggesting that Sox5 represses Sox10-dependent formation of these pigment cells, similar to their interaction in mammalian melanocyte specification. In contrast, in medaka, loss of Sox10 acts cooperatively with Sox5, enhancing both xanthophore reduction and leucophore increase in sox5 mutants. Misexpression of Sox5 in the xanthophore/leucophore progenitors increased xanthophores and reduced leucophores in medaka. Thus, the mode of Sox5 function in xanthophore specification differs between medaka (promoting) and zebrafish (repressing), which is also the case in adult fish. Our findings reveal surprising diversity in even the mode of the interactions between Sox5 and Sox10 governing specification of pigment cell types in medaka and zebrafish, and suggest that this is related to the evolution of a fourth pigment cell type.

How individual cell fates become specified from multipotent progenitors is a fundamental question in developmental and stem cell biology. Body pigment cells derive from a multipotent progenitor, but while in zebrafish there are three types of pigment cells (melanocytes, iridophores and xanthophores), in medaka these progenitors form four (as zebrafish, plus leucophores). Here, we address whether mechanisms generating each cell-type are conserved between the two species. We focus on two key regulatory proteins, Sox5 and Sox10, which we previously showed were involved in pigment cell development in medaka and zebrafish, respectively. We compare experimentally how the two proteins interact in regulating development of each of the pigment cell lineages in these fish. We show that development of all pigment cells, except leucophores, is dependent on Sox10, and that Sox5 modulates Sox10 activity antagonistically in all pigment cells in zebrafish, and melanocytes and iridophores in medaka. Surprisingly, in medaka, Sox5 acts co-operatively with Sox10 to promote xanthophore fate and to repress leucophore fate. Our findings reveal surprising diversity how Sox5 and Sox10 interact to govern pigment cell development in medaka and zebrafish, and suggest that this likely relates to the evolution of the novel leucophore pigment cell type in medaka.

Deactivated CRISPR Associated Protein 9 for Minor-Allele Enrichment in Cell-Free DNA

BACKGROUND

Cell-free DNA (cfDNA) diagnostics are emerging as a new paradigm of disease monitoring and therapy management. The clinical utility of these diagnostics is relatively limited by a low signal-to-noise ratio, such as with low allele frequency (AF) mutations in cancer. While enriching for rare alleles to increase their AF before sample analysis is one strategy that can greatly improve detection capability, current methods are limited in their generalizability, ease of use, and applicability to point mutations.

METHODS

Leveraging the robust single-base-pair specificity and generalizability of the CRISPR associated protein 9 (Cas9) system, we developed a deactivated Cas9 (dCas9)-based method of minor-allele enrichment capable of efficient single-target and multiplexed enrichment. The dCas9 protein was complexed with single guide RNAs targeted to mutations of interest and incubated with cfDNA samples containing mutant strands at low abundance. Mutation-bound dCas9 complexes were isolated, dissociated, and the captured DNA purified for downstream use.

RESULTS

Targeting the 3 most common epidermal growth factor receptor mutations (exon 19 deletion, T790M, L858R) found in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC), we achieved >20-fold increases in AF and detected mutations by use of qPCR at an AF of 0.1%. In a cohort of 18 NSCLC patient-derived cfDNA samples, our method enabled detection of 8 out of 13 mutations that were otherwise undetected by qPCR.

CONCLUSIONS

The dCas9 method provides an important application of the CRISPR/Cas9 system outside the realm of genome editing and can provide a step forward for the detection capability of cfDNA diagnostics.

TALENs and CRISPR/Cas9 fuel genetically engineered clinically relevant Xenopus tropicalis tumor models

The targeted nuclease revolution (TALENs, CRISPR/Cas9) now allows Xenopus researchers to rapidly generate custom on-demand genetic knockout models. These novel methods to perform reverse genetics are unprecedented and are fueling a wide array of human disease models within the aquatic diploid model organism Xenopus tropicalis (X. tropicalis). This emerging technology review focuses on the tools to rapidly generate genetically engineered X. tropicalis models (GEXM), with a focus on establishment of genuine genetic and clinically relevant cancer models. We believe that due to particular advantageous characteristics, outlined within this review, GEXM will become a valuable alternative animal model for modeling human cancer. Furthermore, we provide perspectives of how GEXM will be used as a platform for elucidation of novel therapeutic targets and for preclinical drug validation. Finally, we also discuss some future prospects on how the recent expansions and adaptations of the CRISPR/Cas9 toolbox might influence and push forward X. tropicalis cancer research.

Co-accumulation of cis-regulatory and coding mutations during the pseudogenization of the Xenopus laevis homoeologs six6.L and six6.S

Common models for the evolution of duplicated genes after genome duplication are subfunctionalization, neofunctionalization, and pseudogenization. Although the crucial roles of cis-regulatory mutations in subfunctionalization are well-documented, their involvement in pseudogenization and/or neofunctionalization remains unclear. We addressed this issue by investigating the evolution of duplicated homeobox genes, six6.L and six6.S, in the allotetraploid frog Xenopus laevis. Based on a comparative expression analysis, we observed similar eye-specific expression patterns for the two loci and their single ortholog in the ancestral-type diploid species Xenopus tropicalis. However, we detected lower levels of six6.S expression than six6.L expression. The six6.S enhancer sequence was more highly diverged from the orthologous enhancer of X. tropicalis than the six6.L enhancer, and showed weaker activity in a transgenic reporter assay. Based on a phylogenetic analysis of the protein sequences, we observed greater divergence between X. tropicalis Six6 and Six6.S than between X. tropicalis Six6 and Six6.L, and the observed mutations were reminiscent of a microphthalmia mutation in human SIX6. Misexpression experiments showed that six6.S has weaker eye-enlarging activity than six6.L, and targeted disruption of six6.L reduced the eye size more significantly than that of six6.S. These results suggest that enhancer attenuation stimulates the accumulation of hypomorphic coding mutations, or vice versa, in one duplicated gene copy and facilitates pseudogenization. We also underscore the value of the allotetraploid genome of X. laevis as a resource for studying latent pathogenic mutations.

A rapid and effective method for screening, sequencing and reporter verification of engineered frameshift mutations in zebrafish

Clustered regularly interspaced palindromic repeats (CRISPR)/Cas-based adaptive immunity against pathogens in bacteria has been adapted for genome editing and applied in zebrafish (Danio rerio) to generate frameshift mutations in protein-coding genes. Although there are methods to detect, quantify and sequence CRISPR/Cas9-induced mutations, identifying mutations in F1 heterozygous fish remains challenging. Additionally, sequencing a mutation and assuming that it causes a frameshift does not prove causality because of possible alternative translation start sites and potential effects of mutations on splicing. This problem is compounded by the relatively few antibodies available for zebrafish proteins, limiting validation at the protein level. To address these issues, we developed a detailed protocol to screen F1 mutation carriers, and clone and sequence identified mutations. In order to verify that mutations actually cause frameshifts, we created a fluorescent reporter system that can detect frameshift efficiency based on the cloning of wild-type and mutant cDNA fragments and their expression levels. As proof of principle, we applied this strategy to three CRISPR/Cas9-induced mutations in pycr1a, chd7 and hace1 genes. An insertion of seven nucleotides in pycr1a resulted in the first reported observation of exon skipping by CRISPR/Cas9-induced mutations in zebrafish. However, of these three mutant genes, the fluorescent reporter revealed effective frameshifting exclusively in the case of a two-nucleotide deletion in chd7, suggesting activity of alternative translation sites in the other two mutants even though pycr1a exon-skipping deletion is likely to be deleterious. This article provides a protocol for characterizing frameshift mutations in zebrafish, and highlights the importance of checking mutations at the mRNA level and verifying their effects on translation by fluorescent reporters when antibody detection of protein loss is not possible.

Principal function of mineralocorticoid signaling suggested by constitutive knockout of the mineralocorticoid receptor in medaka fish

As in osmoregulation, mineralocorticoid signaling is implicated in the control of brain-behavior actions. Nevertheless, the understanding of this role is limited, partly due to the mortality of mineralocorticoid receptor (MR)-knockout (KO) mice due to impaired Na⁺ reabsorption. In teleost fish, a distinct mineralocorticoid system has only been identified recently. Here, we generated a constitutive MR-KO medaka as the first adult-viable MR-KO animal, since MR expression is modest in osmoregulatory organs but high in the brain of adult medaka as for most teleosts. Hyper- and hypo-osmoregulation were normal in MR-KO medaka. When we studied the behavioral phenotypes based on the central MR localization, however, MR-KO medaka failed to track moving dots despite having an increase in acceleration of swimming. These findings reinforce previous results showing a minor role for mineralocorticoid signaling in fish osmoregulation, and provide the first convincing evidence that MR is required for normal locomotor activity in response to visual motion stimuli, but not for the recognition of these stimuli per se. We suggest that MR potentially integrates brain-behavioral and visual responses, which might be a conserved function of mineralocorticoid signaling through vertebrates. Importantly, this fish model allows for the possible identification of novel aspects of mineralocorticoid signaling.

Ribozyme Mediated gRNA Generation for In Vitro and In Vivo CRISPR/Cas9 Mutagenesis

CRISPR/Cas9 is now regularly used for targeted mutagenesis in a wide variety of systems. Here we report the use of ribozymes for the generation of gRNAs both in vitro and in zebrafish embryos. We show that incorporation of ribozymes increases the types of promoters and number of target sites available for mutagenesis without compromising mutagenesis efficiency. We have tested this by comparing the efficiency of mutagenesis of gRNA constructs with and without ribozymes and also generated a transgenic zebrafish expressing gRNA using a heat shock promoter (RNA polymerase II-dependent promoter) that was able to induce mutagenesis of its target. Our method provides a streamlined approach to test gRNA efficiency as well as increasing the versatility of conditional gene knock out in zebrafish.

Quadruple zebrafish mutant reveals different roles of Mesp genes in somite segmentation between mouse and zebrafish

The segmental pattern of somites is generated by sequential conversion of the temporal periodicity provided by the molecular clock. Whereas the basic structure of this clock is conserved among different species, diversity also exists, especially in terms of the molecular network. The temporal periodicity is subsequently converted into the spatial pattern of somites, and Mesp2 plays crucial roles in this conversion in the mouse. However, it remains unclear whether Mesp genes play similar roles in other vertebrates. In this study, we generated zebrafish mutants lacking all four zebrafish Mesp genes by using TALEN-mediated genome editing. Contrary to the situation in the mouse Mesp2 mutant, in the zebrafish Mesp quadruple mutant embryos the positions of somite boundaries were clearly determined and morphological boundaries were formed, although their formation was not completely normal. However, each somite was caudalized in a similar manner to the mouse Mesp2 mutant, and the superficial horizontal myoseptum and lateral line primordia were not properly formed in the quadruple mutants. These results clarify the conserved and species-specific roles of Mesp in the link between the molecular clock and somite morphogenesis.

Gene replacement by zinc finger nucleases in medaka embryos

Gene replacement (GR) via homologous recombination is a powerful tool for genome editing. Recently, direct GR is achieved successfully by coinjection of mRNAs for engineered endonucleases such as zinc finger nucleases (ZFNs) and donor DNA in developing embryos of diverse organisms. Here, we report the procedures and efficiency for direct GR by using ZFNs in the fish medaka. Upon zygotic coinjection of mRNAs encoding ZFNs that target the gonad-specifically expressed gsdf locus, linear DNA of GR vector pGRgsdf containing the red fluorescent protein (rfp) gene flanked by two homology arms of ~1-kb each underwent GR via homologous recombination. Specifically, 15 of 231 adults from manipulated embryos contained a GR allele in the caudal fin, producing an efficiency of ~7 % for somatic GR. Progeny test revealed that two out of nine fertile fish containing the GR allele in the fin were capable of transmitting the GR allele to ~6 % of F1 generation at adulthood, generating an efficiency of ~22 % for germline transmission. Sequencing and Southern blotting validated precise GR. We show that the GR allele expressed a chimeric gsdf:rfp RNA between gsdf and cointegrated rfp specifically in the gonad, demonstrating recapitulation of endogenous RNA expression as predicted for the defined GR allele. Most importantly, RFP expression coincides faithfully with the gonad-specific gsdf expression in developing embryos and adults. These results demonstrate, for the first time, the feasibility and efficiency of ZFN-mediated precise GR directly in the developing embryo of medaka as a lower vertebrate model.

Targeted mutagenesis using CRISPR/Cas system in medaka

Clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)/CRISPR-associated (Cas) system-based RNA-guided endonuclease (RGEN) has recently emerged as a simple and efficient tool for targeted genome editing. In this study, we showed successful targeted mutagenesis using RGENs in medaka, Oryzias latipes. Somatic and heritable mutations were induced with high efficiency at the targeted genomic sequence on the DJ-1 gene in embryos that had been injected with the single guide RNA (sgRNA) transcribed by a T7 promoter and capped RNA encoding a Cas9 nuclease. The sgRNAs that were designed for the target genomic sequences without the 5′ end of GG required by the T7 promoter induced the targeted mutations. This suggests that the RGEN can target any sequence adjacent to an NGG protospacer adjacent motif (PAM) sequence, which occurs once every 8 bp. The off-target alterations at 2 genomic loci harboring double mismatches in the 18-bp targeting sequences were induced in the RGEN-injected embryos. However, we also found that the off-target effects could be reduced by lower dosages of sgRNA. Taken together, our results suggest that CRISPR/Cas-mediated RGENs may be an efficient and flexible tool for genome editing in medaka.

Direct gene disruption by TALENs in medaka embryos

Targeted gene disruption (GD) is powerful for generating genetic alterations in animal genomes. Engineered endonucleases such as zinc finger nucleases and transcription activator-like effector nucleases (TALENs) allow for GD directly in animal embryos to achieve germline transmission. Here we report procedures and parameters of TALEN-mediated GD in the fish medaka by using a germ cell-specific gene dnd as a model. Embryos at the 1-cell stage were microinjected with synthetic TALEN mRNAs and examined for the survival rate and GD efficiency. Medaka embryos can tolerate a high dosage of TALEN-mRNA injection and exhibit a steadily increasing GD efficiency with increasing mRNA dosages before peaking at 100 ng/μl. This dosage produced ~24% efficiency for somatic GD. Some of the animals from manipulated embryos developed into fertile female and male. Most importantly, four fish (3 males and 1 female) examined by progeny-test were able to produce GD-bearing male and female gametes for germline transmission to F1 generation at ~10% efficiency. Therefore, TALEN is proficient for somatic and germline GD in medaka embryos, and disruption of one dnd copy does not compromise somatic development and gamete production.

Practical application of DNA markers for high-throughput authentication of Panax ginseng and Panax quinquefolius from commercial ginseng products

Korean ginseng (Panax ginseng) and American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius) are widely used medicinal plants with similar morphology but different medicinal efficacy. Roots, flowers, and processed products of Korean and American ginseng can be difficult to differentiate from each other, leading to illegal trade in which one species is sold as the other. This study was carried out to develop convenient and reliable chloroplast genome-derived DNA markers for authentication of Korean and American ginseng in commercial processed products. One codominant marker could reproducibly identify both species and intentional mixtures of the two species. We further developed a set of species-unique dominant DNA markers. Each species-specific dominant marker could detect 1% cross contamination with other species by low resolution agarose gel electrophoresis or quantitative polymerase chain reaction. Both markers were successfully applied to evaluate the original species from various processed ginseng products purchased from markets in Korea and China. We believe that high-throughput application of this marker system will eradicate illegal trade and promote confident marketing for both species to increase the value of Korean as well as American ginseng in Korea and worldwide.

Parameters and efficiency of direct gene disruption by zinc finger nucleases in medaka embryos

Zinc finger nucleases (ZFNs) can generate targeted gene disruption (GD) directly in developing embryos of zebrafish, mouse and human. In the fish medaka, ZFNs have been attempted on a transgene. Here, we developed procedures and parameters for ZFN-mediated direct GD on the gonad-specifically expressed gsdf locus in medaka. A pair of ZFNs was designed to target the first exon of gsdf and their synthetic mRNAs were microinjected into 1-cell stage embryos. We reveal dose-dependent survival rate and GD efficiency. In fry, ZFN mRNA injection at 10 ng/μl led to a GD efficiency of 30 %. This value increased up to nearly 100 % when the dose was enhanced to 40 ng/μl. In a typical series of experiments of ZFN mRNA injection at 10 ng/μl, 420 injected embryos developed into 94 adults, 4 of which had altered gsdf alleles. This leads to a GD efficacy of ∼4 % in the adulthood. Sequencing revealed a wide variety of subtle allelic alterations including additions and deletions of 1∼18 bp in length in ZFN-injected samples. Most importantly, one of the 4 adults examined was capable of germline transmission to 15.2 % of its F1 progeny. Interestingly, ontogenic analyses of the allelic profile revealed that GD commenced early in development, continued during subsequent stages of development and in primordia for different adult organs of the three germ layers. These results demonstrate the feasibility and--for the first time to our knowledge--the efficacy of ZFN-mediated direct GD on a chromosomal gene in medaka embryos.

Genome editing using artificial site-specific nucleases in zebrafish

Zebrafish is a model vertebrate suitable for genetic analysis. Forward genetic analysis via chemical mutagenesis screening has established a variety of zebrafish mutants that are defective in various types of organogenesis, and the genes responsible for the individual mutants have been identified from genome mapping. On the other hand, reverse genetic analysis via targeted gene disruption using embryonic stem (ES) cells (e.g., knockout mouse) can uncover gene functions by investigating the phenotypic effects. However, this approach is mostly limited to mice among the vertebrate models because of the difficulty in establishing ES cells. Recently, new gene targeting technologies, such as the transcription activator-like effector nucleases (TALEN) and clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)/Cas9 systems, have been developed: that can directly introduce genome modifications at the targeted genomic locus. Here, we summarize these new and powerful genome editing techniques for the study of zebrafish.

Nanos3 gene targeting in medaka ES cells

Gene targeting (GT) by homologous recombination offers the best precision for genome editing in mice. nanos3 is a highly conserved gene and encodes a zinc-finger RNA binding protein essential for germ stem cell maintenance in Drosophila, zebrafish and mouse. Here we report nanos3 GT in embryonic stem (ES) cells of the fish medaka as a lower vertebrate model organism. A vector was designed for GT via homologous recombination on the basis of positive-negative selection (PNS). The ES cell line MES1 after gene transfer and PNS produced 56 colonies that were expanded into ES cell sublines. Nine sublines were GT-positive by PCR genotyping, 4 of which were homologous recombinants as revealed by Southern blot. We show that one of the 4, A15, contains a precisely targeted nanos3 allele without any random events, demonstrating the GT feasibility in medaka ES cells. Importantly, A15 retained all features of undifferentiated ES cells, including stable self-renewal, an undifferentiated phenotype, pluripotency gene expression and differentiation during chimeric embryogenesis. These results provide first evidence that the GT procedure and genuine GT on a chromosomal locus such as nanos3 do not compromise pluripotency in ES cells of a lower vertebrate.

Efficient identification of TALEN-mediated genome modifications using heteroduplex mobility assays

The heteroduplex mobility assay (HMA) is widely used to characterize strain variants of human viruses. To determine whether it can detect small sequence differences in homologous templates, we constructed a series of deletion constructs (1-10 bp deletions) in the multiple cloning site (MCS) of pBluescript II. After PCR amplification of the MCS using a mixture of wild-type and one of the deletion constructs, the resulting PCR amplicons were electrophoresed using 15% polyacrylamide gels. Two types of heteroduplexes exhibited retarded electrophoretic migration compared with individual homoduplexes. Therefore, we applied this HMA to detect transcription activator-like effector nucleases (TALEN)-induced insertion and/or deletion (indel) mutations at an endogenous locus. We found that TALEN in vivo activity was easily estimated by the degree of multiple HMA profiles derived from TALEN-injected F0 embryos. Furthermore, TALEN-injected F0 founder fish produced several unique HMA profiles in F1 embryos. Sequence analysis confirmed that the different HMA profiles contained distinct indel mutations. Thus, HMA is a rapid and sensitive analytical method for the detection of the TALEN-mediated genome modifications.

Multiple regulatory regions control the transcription of medaka germ gene vasa

Numerous regulatory DNA regions and trans-acting protein factors controlling transcription have been characterized for many genes that are expressed in somatic cells. Little is known about the transcriptional control of germ genes, and no cell culture system has been explored for quantitative reporter assay of germ gene transcription in vitro. Here we report the development of such an in vitro system and the identification of regulatory regions in the medaka germ gene vasa. We established the medaka germ cell line SG3 as a suitable in vitro system for analyzing germ gene transcription. Transgenic production revealed that VAS, a 5.1-kb genomic fragment of medaka vasa, possessed regulatory regions essential for germ cell-specific transcription. Importantly, reporter assays revealed 11 positive and negative regulatory regions alternatively positioned throughout VAS including the first intron. Strikingly, the regulatory regions may act in additive, non-additive and dependent manners. We show that a 39-bp element within one regulatory region is able to interact with the nuclear factor(s) of vasa-expressing embryos and testes. These results demonstrate the complexity of transcriptional control of medaka vasa and provide important insights into opposing mechanisms underlying germ gene transcription.