Effects of Preretirement Work Complexity and Postretirement Leisure Activity on Cognitive Aging

The role of individual and environmental socio-economic resources for cognitive change in very old age

OBJECTIVES

Very old adults aged 80+ years old belong to the fastest growing population segment in many countries. Nevertheless, this age group is often underrepresented in studies of cognitive aging. The goal of this study was to examine individual and environmental socio-economic resources as correlates of cognitive aging in very old age.

METHOD

We used two waves of data from 2017-2018 and 2019-2021 as part of NRW80+, a survey of a population-based sample of very old individuals who are registered with their main residence in North-Rhine Westphalia, the most populous federal state in Germany. The analyses are based on data from 797 participants, who provided data on at least one cognitive test at both waves. Individual socio-economic resources included education, income, wealth, and occupational prestige. Environmental factors were assessed at the municipality level, including population density, unemployment, (public) transportation, broadband availability, healthcare, and libraries. Control variables included age, sex, marital/partner status, living alone, and living in a nursing care institution. Data were analyzed with latent difference score models.

RESULTS

Education and wealth were independently associated with better cognitive function at baseline. None of the individual socio-economic variables was significantly related to change in cognitive function. Beyond these individual characteristics and control variables, higher population density and higher broadband availability, but also higher unemployment rate were associated with better baseline cognitive function. Greater distance to highways, but also fewer hospital beds and a higher number of residents per medical doctor were associated with less decline.

DISCUSSION

Our findings suggest that individual socio-economic resources continue to be associated with better cognitive function in very old age, but are unrelated to short-term cognitive decline. In addition, there is some evidence for associations of baseline cognitive function and cognitive change with environmental factors over and above individual resources. Implications for future research are discussed.

Frontotemporal structure preservation underlies the protective effect of lifetime intellectual cognitive reserve on cognition in the elderly

BACKGROUND

Cognitive decline with age has heterogeneous, which might be related to the accumulation of protective factors called cognitive reserve, especially intellectual engagement factors over the life course. However, how lifetime intellectual cognitive reserve (LICR) protects cognitive function in the elderly remains unclear. We aimed to examine the relationship between LICR and cognition and the mild cognitive impairment (MCI) risk, as well as the neural mechanism of LICR on cognition.

METHODS

A total of 5126 participants completed extensive neuropsychological tests, with LICR indicator encompassing early education, midlife occupational complexity, and mental leisure activities after retirement. Confirmatory factor analysis was performed to derive LICR score and cognitive function scores, then the hierarchical regression analysis was used to explore the relationship between LICR and cognitive functions and the risk of MCI. We further explored the macro- and micro-structural preservation underly LICR in 1117 participants. Multiple regressions and tract-based spatial statistics were used to explore the relationship between LICR and gray matter volume and white matter microstructure (FA value). Finally, using the mediation model to explore the relationship of "LICR-brain-cognition".

RESULT

The new LICR index, which was more protective than its single indexes, could protect widespread cognitive functions and was associated with a reduction in MCI risk (Odds Ratio, 0.52; 95% CI, 0.47-0.57). For the structure basis of LICR, the higher LICR score was associated with the greater gray matter volume in right fusiform gyrus (t = 4.62, FDR corrected, p < 0.05) and left orbital superior frontal gyrus (t = 4.56, FDR corrected, p < 0.05), and the higher FA values in the frontotemporal related white matter fiber tracts. Furthermore, the right fusiform gyrus partially mediated the relationship between LICR and executive processing ability (β = 0.01, p = 0.02) and general cognitive ability (β = 0.01, p = 0.03).

CONCLUSIONS

The new comprehensive cognitive reserve index could promote the temporal macro-structural preservation and thus contribute to maintain better cognitive function. These findings highlight the importance of intellectual CR accumulation over the life course in successful cognitive aging and MCI prevention, thereby contributing to improve the quality of life in the elderly.

N. Association of auditory processing abilities and employment in young women

Background

This study aimed to investigate the relationship between employment status and auditory processing abilities in women, considering the cognitive impact of work-related demands. The objective was to study the influence of employment on forward -, backward -, operation span, 2n back, and speech perception in noise (SPIN) scores.

Methods

Fifty-eight women aged 20 to 64 years were categorized into working and non-working groups. Auditory cognitive assessments included forward and backward digit span, auditory 2n-back, operational span, and speech perception in noise. Mental workload, listening effort, and fatigue levels were evaluated for each test using standardized scales. Handedness was assessed using the Edinburgh Handedness Inventory. Statistical analysis involved Mann–Whitney tests and effect size calculations.

Results

Working women scored significantly higher in 2n-back task compared to non-working counterparts, emphasizing the positive impact of employment on working memory and cognitive control processes. The working women group perceptually rated greater mental load on the operational span task than non-working group, indicating the task-specific manifestation of group differences. When the tasks are easier (2n back) or difficult (operation span), employed women exhibited an advantage in auditory processing over their counterparts.  

Conclusion

This study reveals nuanced cognitive differences influenced by employment status in women. Working women demonstrated superior auditory processing abilities, specifically in working memory tasks, suggesting potential cognitive benefits associated with engagement in the workforce. The elevated mental workload for dual task working memory paradigms underscores the complexity of simultaneous processing and storage, highlighting cognitive challenges in specific occupational contexts.

Association of primary lifetime occupational cognitive complexity and cognitive decline in a diverse cohort: Results from the KHANDLE study

INTRODUCTION

Higher occupational complexity has been linked to favorable cognitive outcomes, but rarely examined in racially and ethnically diverse populations.

METHODS

In a diverse cohort (n = 1536), linear mixed-effects models estimated associations between main lifetime occupational complexity and domain-specific cognitive decline (z-standardized). Occupational complexity with data, people, and things were classified using the Dictionary of Occupational Titles.

RESULTS

For occupational complexity with data, highest tertile (vs. lowest) was associated with higher baseline executive function (β = 0.11; 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.00-0.22) and slower annual rate of decline (β = 0.03; 95% CI 0.01-0.06), and higher baseline semantic memory (β = 0.14; 95% CI 0.04-0.25). Highest tertile of occupational complexity with people was associated with higher baseline executive function (β = 0.29; 95% CI 0.18-0.40), verbal episodic memory (β = 0.12; 95% CI 0.00-0.24), and semantic memory (β = 0.23; 95% CI 0.12-0.34).

DISCUSSION

In a diverse cohort, higher occupational complexity is associated with better cognition. Findings should be verified in larger cohorts.

HIGHLIGHT

Few studies have examined associations of occupational complexity with cognition in diverse populations. Racial and ethnic minorities are disproportionately exposed to lower occupational complexity. Occupational complexity with data and people are associated with better cognition.

Financial Self-Efficacy, Retirement Goal Clarity, and Preretirement Anxiety Among Nurses in Southeast Nigeria: The Mediating Role of Job Embeddedness

Background and Objectives

It has been evidenced that retirement transitions are accompanied by preretirement anxiety about transitioning from a work-oriented lifestyle to retirement. Most employees do not proactively address these concerns during this transitional period. Thus, identifying the factors inherent in preretirement anxiety is imperative for a positive retirement transition. This study explored the role of financial self-efficacy and preretirement goal clarity on preretirement anxiety and the mediating role of job embeddedness in such relationships among prospective retiree nurses in Sub-Saharan Africa.

Research Design and Methods

This cross-sectional study used self-report measures of the Pre-retirement Anxiety Scale, Financial Self-Efficacy Scale, Retirement Goal Clarity Scale, and Job Embeddedness Scale for data collection. A total of 236 nurses participated in the study. Descriptive analyses were done to determine the bivariate correlations among the study variables, while regression-based path analysis was carried out to test the hypotheses.

Results

Results revealed that goal clarity and financial self-efficacy showed a strong negative association with preretirement anxiety. Also, higher job embeddedness was negatively associated with preretirement anxiety. In addition, there was a significant indirect relationship between financial self-efficacy and preretirement anxiety, as well as preretirement goal clarity and preretirement anxiety through job embeddedness. Hence, the influence of financial self-efficacy and preretirement goal clarity on preretirement anxiety was mediated by job embeddedness.

Discussion and Implications

The results emphasized that financial self-efficacy and preretirement planning are imperative for a positive perception toward retirement transition. In addition, job embeddedness should be encouraged among employees because it facilitates connectedness and interrelatedness in social fusion, ideas, and projections toward retirement transition. This connotes that the development of attachment to place and the formation of strong social ties are sacrosanct for retirement transition. These results are crucial for developing a methodology for support services for prospective employees in retirement transition.

Life course engagement in enriching activities: When and how does it matter for cognitive aging?

Growing evidence suggests that participation in enriching activities (physical, social, and mental) across the life course is beneficial for cognitive functioning in older age. However, few studies have examined the effects of enrichment across the entire life course within the same participants. Using 2,931 participants in the Health and Retirement Study, we linked self-report data from later life and retrospective self-report data from early life and midlife to cognitive performance after Age 65. We categorized participants as having either high (top ∼25%) or average to low (bottom ∼75%) level of enrichment during each life period. Thus, eight groups were identified that reflected unique patterns of enrichment during early, mid, and later life (e.g., high-high-high). Using growth curve modeling, we found that life course enrichment patterns predicted both cognitive functioning and the rate of cognitive decline across five time points spanning 8 years (Aim 1). Groups with high enrichment during at least one life period had higher performance and slower decline in older age, compared to those who had average to low levels of enrichment throughout all three life periods. We also found that high enrichment during each life period independently predicted better cognitive performance and that high enrichment during early and later life also predicted slower cognitive decline (Aim 2). These findings support the idea that high enrichment is beneficial for cognition in later life and that the effects are long-lasting, even when individuals are inconsistent in enrichment engagement throughout the entire life course. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Early- to late-life environmental factors and late-life global cognition in septuagenarian and octogenarians: The SONIC study

This study aimed to evaluate cognitively stimulating environments throughout life and to examine direct and indirect associations between these environments and late-life cognition. Early-life education, three domains of work complexity (data, people, and things) based on the longest-held occupation, and engagement in late-life leisure activities (LAs) were assessed. A structural equation model was developed using cross-sectional data of 1721 Japanese older adults in 70 ± 1 and 80 ± 1 years. The model confirmed significant direct effects of work complexity with data and late-life LAs on late-life cognitive performance. The associations of education and work complexity with late-life cognition were mediated through the subsequent environment(s). However, the total effects of work complexity with people and things on late-life cognition were insignificant. The findings suggest that cognitively stimulating activities in adulthood and beyond may lead to individual differences in late-life global cognition. In addition, antecedent complex environments might make subsequent life environments more cognitively stimulating. The results are discussed from the perspectives of cognitive plasticity and environmental complexity.

Retirement and Sexual Satisfaction

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Although interest in sexuality in older age has increased over the last decades, few studies have focused on longitudinal change in sexual satisfaction around retirement age. In the present study, we studied change in sexual satisfaction across retirement in a sample of Swedish older adults with a partner.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

Our analyses were based on n = 759 participants (359 male, 400 female) from the longitudinal Health, Aging, and Retirement Transitions in Sweden study. For this study, we used 5 waves spanning over a period of 4 years.

RESULTS

On average, sexual satisfaction did not change significantly before retirement, but decreased after retirement. Interestingly, women showed higher sexual satisfaction than men, as well as a more positive development of both pre- and postretirement sexual satisfaction. Individuals with higher relationship satisfaction had a higher sexual satisfaction until retirement, but their sexual satisfaction also decreased faster after retirement, whereas those with lower relationship satisfaction showed a stable but lower sexual satisfaction.

DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS

Sexual satisfaction can change in the retirement transition in several important ways and further studies on the impact of retirement and other late-life stage transitions are warranted.

Midlife occupational cognitive requirements protect cognitive function in old age by increasing cognitive reserve

Introduction

Several lifestyle factors promote protection against Alzheimer's disease (AD) throughout a person's lifespan. Although such protective effects have been described for occupational cognitive requirements (OCR) in midlife, it is currently unknown whether they are conveyed by brain maintenance (BM), brain reserve (BR), or cognitive reserve (CR) or a combination of them.

Methods

We systematically derived hypotheses for these resilience concepts and tested them in the population-based AgeCoDe cohort and memory clinic-based AD high-risk DELCODE study. The OCR score (OCRS) was measured using job activities based on the O*NET occupational classification system. Four sets of analyses were conducted: (1) the interaction of OCR and APOE-ε4 with regard to cognitive decline (N = 2,369, AgeCoDe), (2) association with differentially shaped retrospective trajectories before the onset of dementia of the Alzheimer's type (DAT; N = 474, AgeCoDe), (3) cross-sectional interaction of the OCR and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) AD biomarkers and brain structural measures regarding memory function (N = 873, DELCODE), and (4) cross-sectional and longitudinal association of OCR with CSF AD biomarkers and brain structural measures (N = 873, DELCODE).

Results

Regarding (1), higher OCRS was associated with a reduced association of APOE-ε4 with cognitive decline (mean follow-up = 6.03 years), consistent with CR and BR. Regarding (2), high OCRS was associated with a later onset but subsequently stronger cognitive decline in individuals converting to DAT, consistent with CR. Regarding (3), higher OCRS was associated with a weaker association of the CSF Aβ42/40 ratio and hippocampal volume with memory function, consistent with CR. Regarding (4), OCR was not associated with the levels or changes in CSF AD biomarkers (mean follow-up = 2.61 years). We found a cross-sectional, age-independent association of OCRS with some MRI markers, but no association with 1-year-change. OCR was not associated with the intracranial volume. These results are not completely consistent with those of BR or BM.

Discussion

Our results support the link between OCR and CR. Promoting and seeking complex and stimulating work conditions in midlife could therefore contribute to increased resistance to pathologies in old age and might complement prevention measures aimed at reducing pathology.

Working beyond SPA and the trajectories of cognitive and mental health of UK pensioners: Do gender, choice, and occupational status matter?

We assessed the association between work status beyond state pension age (SPA) and the long-term trajectories of cognitive and mental health for men and women separately, and the extent to which this relationship is conditioned by their occupational status and whether the choice to retire or continue working is voluntary or involuntary. Data are pensioners (aged between SPA and SPA + 9) from the English Longitudinal Study of Ageing waves 4 (2008/09) through 9 (2018/19). The analytic sample includes 959 men and 1217 women when considering cognitive outcomes and 1131 men and 1434 women when evaluating depression. Findings based on growth curve models reveal that, compared to women who retired at SPA and without any particular reason, their peers who retired due to frailing health reported a more precipitous decline in memory over time (coefficient = -0.10). However, analysis stratified by occupation shows that this association between ill-health retirement and long-term memory decline was concentrated among older women of the highest occupational status. We also found that men who retired or worked past SPA voluntarily reported a better baseline verbal fluency and were less likely to report depression over time (coefficient for work = 0.80; coefficient for retired = 0.87). Women who worked past SPA voluntarily were less likely to report depression at baseline (OR = 0.53). Policies that extend work life should offer older people more personal control over decision surrounding retirement.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10433-021-00644-4.

Health Insurances and the Health-Related Work Capacity of Retirement-Aged Workers: A Comparative Investigation

OBJECTIVE

This study is to investigate the health-related work capacity of retirement-aged workers under the beneficiary status of different health insurance schemes in China.

METHOD

Using the data from CHARLS program, we investigate the health-related work capacity of retirement-aged workers in China (more than 60/55 years-old for men/women respectively). Multivariate regressions and robustness checks (Heckman two-stage procedures, chronological design, etc) are conducted.

RESULTS

(1) Late-life career participation could reduce the risk of declining work capacity due to health problems; (2) different social health insurances affect health-related work capacity among retirement-aged workers differently; (3) social health insurances influence the role of late-life career participation in reducing the risk of health-related work capacity, with different schemes displaying different effects (mitigate or strengthen).

CONCLUSIONS

Systematic inequity in benefit across health insurances may result in contrasting health outcomes of retirement-aged workers.

Would It Kill You to Retire? Testing Short/Long Term/Recurrent Effects of Retirement on All-Cause Mortality Risk

This study traced all-cause mortality risk over the course of retirement and tested whether re-retirement impacts mortality risk differently than the first time. The study differentiated retirement on whether prompted by health (health retirement) or not (non-health retirement). Based on data from 1992 to 2016 Health and Retirement Study (HRS), the sample consists of 7747 women and 7958 men who were working at the baseline. Adjusting for physical health before/after retirement, the discrete-time logit model found increased mortality risk within the first year of non-health retirement only for men, regardless of physical health changes. Re-retirement did not raise mortality risk further. Furthermore, health retirement increased mortality for men and women but substantially less after their surviving the first year. The findings urge future study to explore non-physical pathways of an immediate mortality increase for men in retirement, as well as the monitoring of population trends in health retirement and its antecedents.

Benefits of volunteerism for middle-aged and older adults: comparisons between types of volunteering activities

Volunteering is a popular activity among middle-aged and older adults as means to contribute to the society and to maintain personal health and wellbeing. While the benefits of volunteering have been well-documented in the current literature, it does not tend to distinguish between various types of volunteering activities. This cross-sectional study aims to compare the effects of instrumental (e.g. food preparation, fundraising) and cognitively demanding volunteering activities (e.g. befriending, mentoring) in a sample of 487 middle-aged and older Hong Kong Chinese adults. Participation in instrumental and cognitively demanding volunteering, life satisfaction, depressive symptoms, cognitive functioning and hand-grip strength were measured. The results of two-way between-subject robust analyses of variance demonstrated significant main effects of volunteering type and their interaction effect with age on life satisfaction and depressive symptoms. Comparisons among four volunteering groups (no volunteering, instrumental volunteering, cognitively demanding volunteering and both types) revealed that individuals engaging in instrumental volunteering exhibited lower life satisfaction and more depressive symptoms compared to those who engaged in cognitively demanding volunteering and those who did not volunteer at all. This detrimental pattern of instrumental volunteering was only seen in middle-aged adults, but not in older adults. Findings of this study revealed distinctive effects of two volunteering types, and provide valuable directions for designing future volunteering programmes.

The interaction of delayed retirement initiative and the multilevel social health insurance system on physical health of older people in China

With many social challenges posed by an ageing population, the delayed retirement initiative has received wide attention from policymakers. However, China's current multi-level social health insurance system seems not perfect and not ready for the delayed retirement initiative. The public are generally concerned that the benefits of late retirees cannot be well guaranteed. Using data from China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study (CHARLS) and the chorological design (CHARLS-2015 and -2018 waves), this study finds that (1) late retirement could be beneficial for physical health among older adults; (2) there have disparities between the effects of different social health insurances on physical health among older adults; (3) social health insurances could weaken the benefits of late retirement to physical health among older adults. Results imply that China's current multi-level social medical insurance system may lag behind the proposed delayed retirement initiative and have policy limitations for late retirees.

Retirement type and cognitive functioning in Japan

OBJECTIVES

A growing literature examines the effect of retirement on cognitive function, but pays little attention to how this relationship may depend upon the nature of retirement. Of particular importance is the growing prevalence of gradual retirement characterized by continued employment - either with a new employer or with the same employer - after retiring from a career job.

METHODS

We use data from men and women aged 50 or older in the Japanese Study of Aging and Retirement to examine the effects of full retirement, partial retirement with the same employer, and partial retirement with a new employer on cognitive function. Our analyses consider the moderating role of career job complexity and exploit distinctive features of the Japanese public pension and mandatory retirement systems to estimate the causal effect of retirement type on cognition.

RESULTS

Results indicate that partial retirement with the same employer has a significant and adverse effect on cognitive function (relative to those not yet retired). In contrast, those who experienced either full retirement or partial retirement with a new employer were, on average, no different from those still in their career job. Partial retirement with a new employer has a beneficial effect on cognition among those who had a high complexity career job.

DISCUSSION

Results are consistent with the idea that novel work exposures and experiences have a beneficial effect on cognition. They also suggest that ongoing policy efforts to promote partial retirement with the same employer may have unexpected adverse implications for cognitive health.

Status and Factors of Cognitive Function Among Older Adults in Urban China

The present study aimed to examine the current status and influencing mechanisms of different demographic factors associated with cognitive function in urban Chinese older adults. A total of 644 older adults from 14 communities in urban China (e.g., Shanghai, Beijing, and Wuxi) were investigated by using the Mini-Mental State Examination and the Repeatable Battery for the Assessment of Neuropsychological Status. The results indicated that the overall cognitive function of older adults in urban China was normal. We found an aging effect on cognitive level, and cognitive function declined more rapidly after age 80. Older age, unmarried status, and lower occupational cognitive requirements increased the likelihood of cognitive risk. Higher educational levels and active engagement in exercise may contribute to cognitive reserve and have a protective effect on cognitive decline in late life. Further study is needed to develop appropriate interventions to improve the mental health of older people.

The evolution trend of availability of China's community-based care services and its impact on the cognitive function of elderly people: 2008-2018

Background

To address the challenge of the aging population, community-based care services (CBCS) have been developed rapidly in China as a new way of satisfying the needs of elderly people. Few studies have described the evolution trend of availability of CBCS in rural and urban areas and evaluated their effectiveness. This study aims to show the availability of China’s CBCS and further analyze the effect of the CBCS on the cognitive function of elderly people.

Methods

Longitudinal analysis was performed using data from the 2008 to 2018 Chinese Longitudinal Healthy Longevity Survey (CLHLS). A total of 23937 observations from 8421 elderly people were included in the study. The Chinese version of the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) was used to assess cognitive function. We aggregated similar CBCS to generate three binary variable categories (daily life support, emotional comfort and entertainment services, medical support and health services) indicating the availability of CBCS (1 = yes, 0 = no). Multilevel growth models were employed to estimate the association between CBCS and cognitive function while adjusting for many demographic and socioeconomic characteristics.

Results

The availability of CBCS increased a lot from 2008 to 2018 in China. Although the availability of CBCS in urban areas was higher than that in rural areas in 2008, by 2018 the gap narrowed significantly. Emotional comfort and entertainment services (B = 0.331, 95% CI = 0.090 to 0.572) and medical support and health services (B = 1.041, 95% CI = 0.854 to 1.228) were significantly and positively associated with cognitive function after adjusting for the covariates.

Conclusion

There was a significant increase in the availability of CBCS from 2008 to 2018 in China. This study sheds light on the positive correlation between CBCS and cognitive function among Chinese elderly individuals. The results suggest that policymakers should pay more attention to the development of CBCS and the equity of the supply of CBCS in urban and rural areas.

The Influences of Community-Enriched Environment on the Cognitive Trajectories of Elderly People

To examine the influences of community-enriched environment on the cognitive trajectories of the elderly in China, using panel data of 10,057, 3994, 2387, and 1749 older persons aged 65–104 years of the 2005, 2008, 2011, and 2014 waves from the Chinese Longitudinal Health Longevity Survey (CLHLS) and a growth curve model, the authors analyzed the changing trend of elderly people’s cognitive abilities with age. The influences of community-enriched environments on cognitive abilities were also investigated. Results show that when all the factors are out of consideration except age, for an older person aged 82.5 years, as he/she grows one year older, his/her cognitive abilities will be reduced by 0.139 points, while for one aged 92.5 years, they will be reduced by 0.199 points, which means cognitive abilities decline rapidly as the individuals grow older. The elderly people from communities with enriched environments have higher cognitive levels and slower declining speeds of cognitive abilities than the other elderly people, proving the long-term ability of such environments to facilitate cognitive abilities. An increase in the stimulation of the enriched environment is needed to prevent or slow down the degeneration of cognitive abilities.

Development of a protective mental work demands questionnaire

OBJECTIVES

Research shows that mental demands at work affect later-life cognitive functioning and dementia risk, but systematic assessment of protective mental work demands (PMWDs) is still missing. The goal of this research was to develop a questionnaire to assess PMWDs.

DESIGN

The instrument was developed in accordance with internationally recognized scientific standards comprising conceptualization, pretesting, and validation via confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), principal component analysis (PCA), and multiple regression analyses.

PARTICIPANTS

We included 346 participants, 72.3% female, with an average age of 56.3 years.

MEASUREMENT

Item pool, sociodemographic questions, and cognitive tests: Trail-Making Test A/B, Word List Recall, Verbal Fluency Test, Benton Visual Retention Test, Reading Minds in the Eyes Test.

RESULTS

CFAs of eight existing PMWD-concepts revealed weaker fit indices than PCA of the item pool that resulted in five concepts. We computed multivariate regression analyses with all 13 PMWD-concepts as predictors of cognitive functioning. After removing PMWD-concepts that predicted less than two cognitive test scores and excluding others due to overlapping items, the final questionnaire contained four PMWD-concepts: Mental Workload (three items, Cronbach's α = .58), Verbal Demands (four, Cronbach's α = .74), Information Load (six, Cronbach's α = .83), and Extended Job Control (six, Cronbach's α = .83).

CONCLUSIONS

The PMWD-Questionnaire intends to assess protective mental demands at the workplace. Information processing demands and job control make up the primary components emphasizing their relevance regarding cognitive health in old age. Long-term follow-up studies will need to validate construct validity with respect to dementia risk.

Towards an active and happy retirement? Changes in leisure activity and depressive symptoms during the retirement transition

Objectives: Retirement is a major life transition in the second half of life, and it can be associated with changes in leisure activity engagement. Although theories of retirement adjustment have emphasized the need to find meaningful activities in retirement, little is known about the nature of changes in leisure activity during the retirement transition and their association with mental health.Methods: Based on four annual waves of the 'Health, Aging and Retirement Transitions in Sweden' study, we investigated the longitudinal association of leisure activity engagement and depressive symptoms using bivariate dual change score models. We distinguished intellectual, social, and physical activity engagement.Results: We found increases in all three domains of activity engagement after retirement. Although level and change of activity and depressive symptoms were negatively associated, the coupling parameters were not significant, thus the direction of effects remains unclear.Conclusion: The results highlight the need to consider the role of lifestyle changes for retirement adjustment and mental health.

Impact of Retirement on Sleep Problems Among Older Workers and Their Partners

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Sleep problems are a public health burden and have adverse health consequences in older adults. Despite sleep being a shared biological process between couples, to date there have not been any studies that have assessed the association between retirement and sleep, in older couples. The objective of this study was to examine the impact of retirement on diagnosed sleep problems in older Dutch couples.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

This study used data from two waves of the NIDI Pension Panel Study for older Dutch adults living with a partner (n= 3,726). Logistic regression models examined the strength of association between retirement and sleep problems, while accounting for the moderating role of relationship characteristics.

RESULTS

Retirement was associated with decreased odds of sleep problems at wave 2 (OR= 0.60, 95%CI=0.46-0.78). Lower relationship quality was associated with increased odds of sleep problems in the fully adjusted model (OR=1.81, 95%CI=1.32-2.49). Having a partner with sleep problems was associated with increased risk of sleep problems as well (OR=1.51, 95%CI=1.07-2.13). There was evidence of effect modification by relationship quality (OR= 1.87, 95%CI =1.05-3.31).

DISCISSION AND IMPLICATIONS

Retirement and sleep do not occur in a social vacuum and have implications beyond the individual level. More research is therefore needed to understand the impact of sleep and its health consequences on older coupled workers. Such research may provide valuable insights for management and treatment of sleep problems and may have implications for public health of aging communities.

Gender-related differences in the relationship between social and activity participation and health and subjective well-being in later life

A growing body of work suggests that social and activity participation (SAP) may contribute to health and well-being. Studies examining the effects of these activities largely focused on healthy older adults and older adults with more resources, not on frail older adults. On the latter, there is a lack of information about which activities contribute most and whether their effects vary between men and women given the gender-differentiated social roles. To address these gaps we extracted longitudinal data from the D-SCOPE frailty program for 380 participants aged 60 years or older residing in Belgium. Structural equation models tested the relationships between six levels of SAP based on a taxonomy of social activities (Levasseur et al., 2010) - from level 1 (for oneself) to level 6 (for others) - on longitudinal changes in physical and mental deterioration, well-being, and gender differences within these relationships. Results first show that older adults at risk of frailty benefit longitudinally from participating in activities in terms of their physical deterioration and well-being. Second, socially oriented activities were significantly associated with lower levels of physical deterioration and higher levels of subjective well-being (SWB), and volunteering with higher levels of SWB. Heterogeneity of activities, regardless of level on the taxonomy of social activities, seems to benefit SWB and counteract physical deterioration. Third, gender differences were confirmed by two activities for women (alone, task-oriented) and three activities for men (alone, being with others, task-oriented e.g. associational membership). Results imply that the activity itself may play a more important role than the nature of social involvement and social interaction in relation to health and wellbeing.

Mechanisms of neuroplasticity and brain degeneration: strategies for protection during the aging process

Aging is a dynamic and progressive process that begins at conception and continues until death. This process leads to a decrease in homeostasis and morphological, biochemical and psychological changes, increasing the individual’s vulnerability to various diseases. The growth in the number of aging populations has increased the prevalence of chronic degenerative diseases, impairment of the central nervous system and dementias, such as Alzheimer’s disease, whose main risk factor is age, leading to an increase of the number of individuals who need daily support for life activities. Some theories about aging suggest it is caused by an increase of cellular senescence and reactive oxygen species, which leads to inflammation, oxidation, cell membrane damage and consequently neuronal death. Also, mitochondrial mutations, which are generated throughout the aging process, can lead to changes in energy production, deficiencies in electron transport and apoptosis induction that can result in decreased function. Additionally, increasing cellular senescence and the release of proinflammatory cytokines can cause irreversible damage to neuronal cells. Recent reports point to the importance of changing lifestyle by increasing physical exercise, improving nutrition and environmental enrichment to activate neuroprotective defense mechanisms. Therefore, this review aims to address the latest information about the different mechanisms related to neuroplasticity and neuronal death and to provide strategies that can improve neuroprotection and decrease the neurodegeneration caused by aging and environmental stressors.

Older adults’ accounts of the relationships between retirement timing and health: a descriptive qualitative analysis in Chile

Retirement timing can have important health implications. Little is known, however, about older adults’ views on this issue and whether they consider it better to retire later, earlier, on time or anytime. This knowledge gap about older adults’ views is particularly true outside North America and Europe. This qualitative study aims to examine older Chileans’ ideas about the relationship between retirement timing and health and to explore gender and class patterns in qualitative themes identified, knowledge which may strengthen quantitative population-based approaches. Framework analysis was conducted on qualitative accounts from a purposive, non-random sample of 40 older Chileans in six focus groups, stratified by gender and class as marked by lifetime occupation. Transcriptions were coded by two independent reviewers (inter-coder reliability = 81%) according to four deductive categories of retirement timing as well as inductive coding of emergent themes. The content and sequence of codes were visually represented in MAXQDA's document portraits and illustrated with descriptive quotes. Results indicate that participants’ views about when to retire in order to maximise health did not highlight retirement age or timing (later, earlier, on time, anytime). Instead, these older Chileans emphasised that the optimal retirement age depends on other conditions, such as employment quality, retirement income and gender. These views were patterned: lower occupational-class participants emphasised income and job hazards, higher-class males emphasised job satisfaction and higher-class females emphasised gendered patterns. Women and lower-class participants were relatively more favourable to earlier retirements than men and higher-class participants. Overall, qualitative analyses of lay perspectives from understudied country contexts complement and extend population-based models focused on timing or retirement age, suggest specific characteristics of retirement transitions that may moderate health consequences, and highlight class and gender differences in views of retirement timing. More research is needed using mixed-methods approaches and leveraging both purposive and random samples.

Retirement or no Retirement? The Decision's Effects on Cognitive Functioning, Well-Being, and Quality of Life

This study addressed the psychological effects on personal well-being and reported quality of life of staying professionally active in late adulthood, and to what extent years of professional inactivity modulates cognitive abilities. Design and Methods: We collected data on 262 elderly adults, 129 of whom were professionally active elderly adults (who voluntarily maintained their professional activity after the age of retirement) and 133 of whom were retired adults, in a set of experimental tasks to measure basic cognitive resources. The study took place during the first quarter of 2020. Results: Active elderly people performed better on cognitive tasks that assessed attention, memory, and solving abilities and also reported more satisfaction with life and their current work. Multiple linear regressions analyses revealed that years of inactivity were associated with lower cognitive performance. Mentally demanding jobs were significantly associated with memory performance, but not with attention and planning. Conclusions: An involuntary separation from professional activity in the beginning of late adulthood may cause a deeper decline of cognitive functions, poorer adaptive adjustment to the aging process, and higher dissatisfaction with the period of life the individual is going through.

Occupational Physical Stress Is Negatively Associated With Hippocampal Volume and Memory in Older Adults

Our jobs can provide intellectually and socially enriched environments but also be the source of major psychological and physical stressors. As the average full-time worker spends >8 h at work per weekday and remains in the workforce for about 40 years, occupational experiences must be important factors in cognitive and brain aging. Therefore, we studied whether occupational complexity and stress are associated with hippocampal volume and cognitive ability in 99 cognitively normal older adults. We estimated occupational complexity, physical stress, and psychological stress using the Work Design Questionnaire (Morgeson and Humphrey, 2006), Quantitative Workload Inventory and Interpersonal Conflict at Work Scale (Spector and Jex, 1998). We found that physical stress, comprising physical demands and work conditions, was associated with smaller hippocampal volume and poorer memory performance. These associations were independent of age, gender, brain size, socioeconomic factors (education, income, and job title), duration of the job, employment status, leisure physical activity and general stress. This suggests that physical demands at work and leisure physical activity may have largely independent and opposite effects on brain and cognitive health. Our findings highlight the importance of considering midlife occupational experiences, such as work physical stress, in understanding individual trajectories of cognitive and brain aging.

The association between mental demands at the workplace and cognitive functioning: the role of the big five personality traits

Objectives: Mental demands at the workplace can be preventive against cognitive decline. However, personality shapes the way information is processed and we therefore assume that Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness, Agreeableness and Conscientiousness, would moderate the beneficial effects of workplace stimulation on cognitive outcomes.Methods: We analyzed data from the population-based LIFE-Adult-Study (n = 6529). Cognitive outcomes were assessed via the Trail-Making Test (TMTA, TMTB) and the Verbal Fluency Test. Personality was assessed via the Personality Adjective List (16 AM). Mental demands were classified with the indices Verbal and Executive based on the O*NET database.Results: Multivariate regression analyses showed only two significant moderation effects of personality, i.e. in individuals with low scores on Conscientiousness/Openness, index Verbal was connected to better TMTB performance, while this effect disappeared for individuals with high values on the personality trait. However, the additional explained variance remained marginal.Conclusion: The findings suggest that personality does not modify associations between high mental demands at work and better cognitive functioning in old age; however, there is a tendency that high levels of Openness and Conscientiousness may offset effects of mental demands.

Complexity of Work and Incident Cognitive Impairment in Puerto Rican Older Adults

OBJECTIVE

We investigated complexity of work in main occupation in relation to incident cognitive impairment in older Puerto Ricans.

METHOD

A population-based sample of 1,673 adults age 60+ for the Puerto Rican Elderly: Health Conditions (PREHCO) study was used. Cognition was measured at baseline and 4 years later using the Mini-Mental Cabán (MMC), with scoring 1.5 SD below the MMC score adjusted for age, education, gender, and reading ability comprising cognitive impairment. Complexity scores were derived from the 1970 U.S. Census, 1977 and 2000 Dictionary of Occupational Titles, and 2001 O*Net.

RESULTS

Controlling for baseline age, gender, childhood economic hardship, adult money problems, depressive symptoms, and self-reported health, greater scores for most work complexity measures were associated with significantly lower risk of cognitive impairment (ps < .05), with significant odds ratios ranging between 0.74, reflecting 26% reduction in risk for every extra standard deviation of complexity, and 0.81. Controlling for education reduced these effects slightly but also reduced most associations to nonsignificant. The results were stronger for those with less childhood economic hardship or education (ps < .05).

DISCUSSION

Complexity of work may reduce risk of cognitive impairment in Puerto Rican older adults, especially when combined with favorable childhood economic conditions and higher educational attainment.

Mental Demands at the Workplace-Are Information Load, Time Control, and Exploration Associated With Depressiveness?

OBJECTIVE

According to self-determination theory, autonomy and competence are two essential basic human needs. It is the aim of this study to show that mental demands at the workplace (WPMDs) that address those basic needs can protect employees against depressiveness.

METHODS

Using a sample of 346 working participants (average age 56.2), we derived three WPMDs (Information Load, Time Control, and Exploration) via principal component analysis. We then analyzed how far they predict depressiveness, and how far this mechanism is mediated by perceived fit between job and person (PJF).

RESULTS

Time Control and Exploration significantly reduced depressiveness, and the relationship between exploration and depressiveness was mediated by PJF.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results emphasize the importance of addressing basic human needs at the workplace, and the relevance of PJF for employee mental health.

Concepts of Mental Demands at Work That Protect Against Cognitive Decline and Dementia: A Systematic Review

Objective:

Workplace-related mental demands (WPMDs) are considered to be protective factors for cognitive health in old age and are linked to delayed onset of dementia. Yet, what exactly is meant by WPMDs differs greatly between studies, putting an enormous challenge on researchers and practitioners. Aim of our study was thus to create a systematic overview on WPMD concepts and to depict their associations with dementia and cognitive decline. Thereby, we want to create a solid basis for further work and implementation.

Data Source:

PubMed, PsycINFO, Web of Science.

Inclusion/Exclusion Criteria:

We included observational studies with populations older than 18 that addressed the association between WPMDs and dementia/cognitive functioning and that were published as journal articles. We excluded studies with emotional and physical demands, stress, and organizational frameworks such as exposure variables and quality of life, depressive symptoms, burnout, and Parkinson as outcome. Furthermore, we excluded study populations younger than 18 and students.

Data Extraction:

Standardized search string.

Data Synthesis:

Based on theoretical concepts.

Results:

Thirty-four studies that employed concepts of WPMDs in 5 different categories: complexity with people/data/things, cognitive demands, job control, novelty, and mental workload.

Discussion:

Challenges associated with categorizing WPMDs as well as theoretical and measurement-related implications are discussed.

Conclusion:

This review helps to better understand how workplaces can contribute to later life cognitive fitness, and it offers a conceptual overview for practitioners that want to create more protective working environments or improve existing ones.

Successful Memory Aging

For more than 50 years, psychologists, gerontologists, and, more recently, neuroscientists have considered the possibility of successful aging. How to define successful aging remains debated, but well-preserved age-sensitive cognitive functions, like episodic memory, is an often-suggested criterion. Evidence for successful memory aging comes from cross-sectional and longitudinal studies showing that some older individuals display high and stable levels of performance. Successful memory aging may be accomplished via multiple paths. One path is through brain maintenance, or relative lack of age-related brain pathology. Through another path, successful memory aging can be accomplished despite brain pathology by means of efficient compensatory and strategic processes. Genetic, epigenetic, and lifestyle factors influence memory aging via both paths. Some of these factors can be promoted throughout the life course, which, at the individual as well as the societal level, can positively impact successful memory aging.

The Unbearable Lightness of Being Retired

ABSTRACTIn this qualitative study, I followed an approach to examine perceptions about retirement, using an interview guide informed by the life course perspective, among 26 men and women who had retired from positions as chief executive officers. Three key themes emerged: (1) the importance of productivity and networking as participants rose up the corporate ladder; (2) the sense of having a "best before" date and experiencing societal pressures to retire; and (3) struggles with feeling insignificant in retirement while desiring personal fulfillment through continued engagement in paid work. These findings shed light on the value of using a life course perspective to examine retirement as both a personal experience and as a social phenomenon. Findings also contribute to theoretical understandings of productive aging by illustrating how preconceptions about productivity contrast with ideations of a leisure-filled retirement in ways that can foreshorten the employment contributions of some individuals.

Cultural engagement predicts changes in cognitive function in older adults over a 10 year period: findings from the English Longitudinal Study of Ageing

There is increasing evidence that leading an active, socially engaged lifestyle might protect against cognitive decline. The arts have been proposed as potentially beneficial activities due to their combination of cognitive complexity and mental creativity. Yet it remains uncertain which types of arts engagement and what level of engagement is required for potential benefits to accrue. This study therefore explored the association between three types of cultural engagement (visiting museums/galleries/exhibitions, going to the theatre/concert/opera and going to the cinema) and change in cognitive function over 10 years amongst adults aged over 52. Our participants (n = 3,445), drawn from the English Longitudinal Study of Ageing, were assessed in 2004/5 and 2014/15. We measured memory and semantic fluency at baseline and follow-up, analysing results using ordinary least squares regression models. Independent of demographic, health and social confounders, visiting museums/galleries/exhibitions and going to the theatre/concert/opera were associated with a lesser decline in cognitive function. Sensitivity analyses confirmed effects were unaffected by considerations of mobility or dementia diagnoses. However, going to the cinema was found to hold little effect for cognitive preservation. Overall, our results suggest that more frequent cultural engagement is associated with more marked effects, but even annual engagement may be protective.

Retirement, Leisure Activity Engagement, and Cognition Among Older Adults in the United States

Objective: Retirement is a salient later-life transition that may influence cognition. Leisure activities can help individuals better adjust to life after significant life transitions. This study examined the role of leisure activity engagement in the relationship between retirement and cognition. Method: A path analysis (N = 2,827) was conducted using three waves of the Health and Retirement Study (2004, 2006, 2008) and its supplementary Consumption and Activities Mail Survey, to test the association between retirement (categorized as remained working, transitioned to retirement, remained retired) and cognition (memory, working memory, attention, and processing speed) via leisure (mental, physical, social, household) activity engagement. Results: Older adults who remained retired showed significantly lower cognition than those who remained working. Moreover, this negative association between retirement and cognition was attenuated by greater engagement mental activities. Discussion: Interventions that encourage mental activities among retired individuals are strongly suggested to help maintain cognitive function.

Economic Downturns, Retirement and Long-Term Cognitive Function Among Older Americans

Objective

Workers approaching retirement may be particularly vulnerable to economic downturns. This study assesses whether exposure to economic downturns around retirement age leads to poorer cognitive function in later life.

Method

Longitudinal data for 13,577 individuals in the Health and Retirement Study were linked to unemployment rates in state of residence. Random- and fixed-effect models were used to examine whether downturns at 55-64 years of age were associated with cognitive functioning levels and decline at ≥65 years, measured by the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Revised.

Results

Longer exposure to downturns at 55-64 years of age was associated with lower levels of cognitive function at ≥65 years. Compared to individuals experiencing only up to 1 year in a downturn at 55-64 years of age, individuals experiencing two downturns at these ages had 0.09 point (95% Confidence Interval [CI, -0.17, -0.02]) lower cognitive functioning scores at ≥65 years (3 years: b = -0.17, 95%CI [-0.29, -0.06]; 4 years: b = -0.14, 95%CI [-0.25, -0.02]; ≥5 years: b = -0.22, 95%CI [-0.38, -0.06]). Downturns at 55-64 years of age were not associated with rates of cognitive decline.

Discussion

Exposure to downturns around retirement is associated with a long-lasting decline in cognitive function in later life. Policies mitigating the impact of downturns on older workers may help to maintain cognitive function in later life.

Occupational social and mental stimulation and cognitive decline with advancing age

Objective

this study investigates the role of social and mental occupational characteristics in cognitive decline after retirement.

Methods

the study included 1,048 subjects aged ≥65 years from the Three City cohort. Participants were evaluated at home at the initial visit and at 2-year intervals for a period of 12 years. The study includes detailed assessments of cognition, health and information about the subjects' main occupation. The four cognitive tests have been grouped into one latent factor. Three independent raters specialised in employment were asked to evaluate the level of social and intellectual stimulation for each occupation, which was then rated as low, medium and high.

Results

after controlling for potential confounding factors, no association was found between higher levels of social stimulation at work and baseline cognition (medium score, P = 0.440; high score, P = 0.700) as compared with a low level. While cognitive trajectories were initially similar between high and medium levels of social stimulation compared with that of a low level, with advancing age this association diverged whereby more social stimulation during work years was related to accelerated cognitive decline that further grew in magnitude with older age. For mental stimulation, differences were only observed at baseline, with greater levels of mental stimulation during work years being associated with better cognitive performance (medium score, β = 0.573, P = 0.015; and high score, β = 0.510; P = 0.090) compared with a low level of mental stimulation.

Conclusion

workers retiring from occupations characterised by high levels of social stimulation may be at risk of accelerated cognitive decline with advancing age.