Effects of different frozen embryo transfer regimens on abnormalities of fetal weight: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Obstetric and perinatal outcomes in singleton pregnancies following medicated, stimulated and natural, frozen embryo transfer cycles: an updated systematic review and meta-analysis

Frozen embryo transfer (FET) has been associated with higher risks of hypertensive disorders of pregnancy (HDP), large for gestational age and high birth weight. This systematic review and meta-analysis evaluates obstetric and perinatal outcomes in medicated, stimulated and natural FET cycles. A literature search was performed using MEDLINE, EMBASE, CINAHL and the Cochrane Library database; 152,590 FET cycles were analysed from 31 included studies. Risk ratios (RR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) were calculated using fixed and random effects models determined by the heterogeneity (I2). There was significantly higher risk of obstetric and perinatal complications, including HDP (RR 1.84, CI:1.48-2.29, I2 87%) and low birth weight (LBW) (RR 1.25, CI:1.12-1.39, I2 57%) following medicated compared to natural FET cycles. A higher risk of HDP (RR 1.50, CI:1.33-1.64, I2 32%) and macrosomia (RR 1.28, CI:1.17-1.40, I2 37%) was noted following medicated compared to stimulated cycles. Natural demonstrated lower risk of HDP (RR 0.77, CI:0.60-0.99, I2 32%), gestational diabetes (RR 0.78, CI:0.68-0.89, I2 43%), LBW (RR 0.78, CI:0.64-0.95, I2 48%) and small for gestational age (RR 0.83, CI:0.70-0.98, I2 12%) than stimulated cycles. These findings indicate that medicated FET cycles convey greater risks of obstetric and perinatal complications than natural or stimulated cycles.

Risk of preeclampsia and other pregnancy complications in frozen single euploid embryo transfers after natural versus artificial endometrial preparation: A truncated randomized controlled trial

INTRODUCTION

To determine for the first time the incidence of preeclampsia and other pregnancy complications according to the mode of endometrial preparation for frozen embryo transfer (FET) in a randomized fashion.

METHODS

Women about to undergo FET of a single euploid blastocyst were randomly assigned to a modified natural cycle (MNC) or an artificial cycle (AC). Inclusion criteria were as follows: Caucasian; non-obese; 18-43 years of age; nulliparity; regular menstrual cycles; and autologous oocytes. Exclusion criteria were as follows: uterine alterations; moderate-heavy smokers; gamete donation; and chronic diseases. A pilot sub-study of first-trimester markers of preeclampsia was performed in 60 of the patients.

RESULTS

Of the 1260 patients estimated, 591 met the inclusion criteria and were willing to participate; of these, 306 and 285 were randomly assigned to a MNC or AC, respectively. After exclusion, 242 and 227 patients finally underwent a MNC or AC, resulting in 131 and 103 clinical pregnancies, 121 and 92 live births, and 91 and 70 questionnaires obtained concerning pregnancy complications, respectively. The incidence of preeclampsia was double in the AC group (10.00 % versus 4.39 %), though not significantly different. In the AC group, the prevalence of first trimester bleeding was significantly higher (42.85 % versus 15.38 %), and there was a significant reduction in live birth rates (40.53 % versus 50.00 %) in the per protocol analysis. No differences in early markers of preeclampsia were detected between the two groups.

DISCUSSION

Although this randomized study was truncated, our findings are in accordance with previous reports of a higher risk of preeclampsia and other complications when the endometrium is artificially prepared for FET.

Impact of maternal body mass index on pregnancy outcomes following frozen embryo transfer: A systematic review and meta-analysis

OBJECTIVE

There is still a significant gap in understanding how maternal body mass index (BMI) impacts outcomes of pregnancy after frozen embryo transfer (FET). This review aims to evaluate the effects of various BMI categories on clinical pregnancy and live birth rates in women undergoing FET.

METHODS

PubMed, Scopus, Embase, and Web of Science databases were searched for studies, published up to March, 2024, using the keywords "obesity", "overweight", "obese", "maternal body mass index," "pregnancy outcomes," "frozen embryo transfer,". Eligible studies were selected based on predefined inclusion criteria, statistical analysis was performed using a random-effects model, and ther results were presented as odds ratios (OR) with 95% confidence intervals (CI).

RESULTS

A total of 17 studies were included in the meta-analysis. Pooled findings indicate significantly reduced live birth rate in underweight (OR 0.93; 95% CI: 0.89, 0.98) and obese (OR 0.85; 95% CI: 0.77, 0.93) women but not in those who were overweight (OR 0.96; 95% CI: 0.92, 1.00), compared to those with normal BMI. Further, only those women who were underweight (OR 0.91; 95% CI: 0.85, 0.97) had reduced odds of clinical pregnancy rate but not those who were overweight (OR 0.99; 95% CI: 0.94, 1.05) or obese (OR 0.92; 95% CI: 0.82, 1.03).

CONCLUSION

Maternal BMI impacts pregnancy outcomes after frozen embryo transfer, with underweight and obese women having lower live birth rates and only underweight women showing reduced clinical pregnancy rates compared to those with normal BMI. These findings underscore the importance of addressing BMI in women undergoing FET to improve pregnancy outcomes.

Trophectoderm Biopsy: Present State of the Art

Trophectoderm (TE) biopsy is at present the most widely used procedure for preimplantation genetic testing (PGT). At the blastocyst stage, more TE cells (five to seven) can be obtained for genetic analysis. While removing TE cells and not touching the inner cell mass (ICM), the procedure is less invasive. Due to a natural selection happening between day 3 and day 5, 6 or 7 of human embryo development, fewer embryos will have to be biopsied and tested. An additional benefit, especially in view of aneuploidy testing (PGT-A), is the lower level of mosaicism present at the blastocyst stage. The biopsy procedure involves two steps: laser-assisted zona pellucida (ZP) opening and the excision of five to eight TE cells from the blastocyst with or without additional laser energy. Different protocols have emerged over time with variations regarding the technique, the exact moment of ZP opening, and the method of cell removal. The 'pulling' method involves laser excision, whereas the 'flicking' method represents a mechanical approach with or without laser assistance. Embryo developmental speed reaching the full/expanded or hatching/hatched blastocyst stage dictates the timing of the procedure, mostly on day 5 post-insemination, and to a lesser extent on day 6 or even on day 7. The inclusion of lesser quality or delayed blastocysts may impact the quality of the TE sample as well as the clinical outcome. Intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) is still the preferred method of fertilization for PGT-M (monogenic disorders) and PGT-SR (structural rearrangements). However, conventional in vitro fertilization (IVF) seems feasible for PGT-A (aneuploidy testing). In the absence of a (conclusive) genetic result, the re-biopsy of cryopreserved blastocysts is possible, however, with reduced clinical outcomes. So far, neonatal outcome post-TE biopsy has so far been reassuringly documented.

Perinatal outcomes of progesterone in natural frozen-thawed embryo transfer pregnancies: insights from 2 randomized controlled trials

OBJECTIVE

To explore whether progesterone supplementation during luteal phase and early pregnancy after a natural frozen-thawed embryo transfer (NC-FET) cycle affects perinatal outcomes.

DESIGN

A secondary data analysis study on the basis of 2 randomized control trials taking place during 2008-2011 and 2013-2018 at 2 university hospitals in Sweden.

SETTING

Two university hospitals in Sweden.

PATIENTS

A total of 923 women undergoing an NC-FET cycle. The present study included all women who became pregnant after treatment and delivered a single live-born infant (N = 227).

INTERVENTIONS

Study participants were randomized to receive luteal phase vaginal progesterone supplementation until gestational week 8 (n = 136) or to the standard of care that was no progesterone supplementation (n = 91).

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

We assessed the incidence of obstetric and neonatal outcomes. Furthermore, we calculated the odds ratios with 95% confidence intervals representing the likelihood of developing gestational hypertensive disorders. Odds ratios were adjusted for participants' demographics (model 1) or both demographic and in vitro fertilization treatment variables (model 2).

RESULTS

Apart from a slightly higher maternal age in the group receiving progesterone supplementation, the subjects in both groups were otherwise comparable in terms of infertility diagnosis, fertilization mode, embryo stage, and number of embryos transferred. Our results revealed a higher proportion of infants delivered with birth weights in the normal range after progesterone supplementation (82.4% vs. 70.3% respectively). Furthermore, pregnancies after progesterone supplementation in NC-FET cycles showed a numerically lower incidence of gestational hypertensive disorders; however, this difference did not reach statistical significance (4.4% vs. 11.1%). A similar pattern was noted in the logistic regression analyses performed. No differences were observed regarding other major adverse obstetric or neonatal outcomes.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study demonstrates the absence of harmful perinatal effects associated with the use of vaginal progesterone supplementation at the luteal phase and early pregnancy of an NC-FET cycle. These findings have increased generalizability across other populations and are particularly significant given the growing utilization of cryopreservation and freeze-all practice in assisted reproduction. The associations noted between progesterone supplementation and certain perinatal outcomes warrant further investigation.

Fetal growth after fresh and frozen embryo transfer and natural conception: A population-based register study

OBJECTIVE

To investigate fetal growth trajectories and risks of small and large for gestational age (SGA and LGA), and macrosomia in pregnancies after fresh and frozen embryo transfer (ET), and natural conception (NC).

DESIGN

Longitudinal population-based cohort study.

SETTING

Swedish national registers.

POPULATION

A total of 196 008 singleton pregnancies between 2013 and 2017.

METHODS

Of all singleton pregnancies resulting in live births in the Swedish Pregnancy Register, 10 970 fresh ET, 6520 frozen ET, and 178 518 NC pregnancies with ultrasound data were included. A general least squares model was used to examine the effect of fresh or frozen ET on fetal growth while adjusting for confounders.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Fetal growth velocity. SGA, LGA and macrosomia.

RESULTS

At 120 days, fetal weights were lower in fresh ET pregnancies compared with NC pregnancies. Thereafter fresh ET as well as FET fetuses had higher fetal weights than NC fetuses, with no differences between themselves until the second trimester. From 210 days, FET fetuses were heavier than fresh ET fetuses, whereas fresh ET fetuses had lower fetal weights than NC fetuses from 245 days. After fresh ET, SGA was more frequent, whereas LGA and macrosomia were less frequent, than after FET.

CONCLUSIONS

This study gives new insights into the differences in fetal growth dynamics between fresh and frozen ET and NC pregnancies. Clinically relevant differences in proportions of SGA, LGA and macrosomia were observed.

Association between endometrial thickness and birthweight of singletons from vitrified-warmed cycles: a retrospective cohort study

RESEARCH QUESTION

What is the association between endometrial thickness (EMT) and the birthweight of singleton infants born from frozen-thawed embryo transfer cycles?

DESIGN

This retrospective cohort study was conducted from January 2016 to December 2019. Participants were categorized into a natural cycle (NC, n = 8132) group and hormone replacement therapy (HRT, n = 4975) group. Only singleton deliveries were included. The primary outcomes were measures of birthweight and relevant indexes. Multivariable logistic regression and multivariable-adjusted linear regression models that incorporated restricted cubic splines were used.

RESULTS

In the HRT group, the risk of delivering a small for gestational age (SGA) infant was increased in women with an EMT <8.0 mm (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] 1.85, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.17-2.91) compared with women with an EMT of 8.0 to <12.0 mm, and increased with an EMT ≥12.0 mm (aOR 1.85, 95% CI 1.03-3.33). An inverted U-shaped relationship was found between EMT and birthweight in women with HRT. No significant differences were shown in birthweight z-score, or being SGA or large for gestational age, in singletons among the three EMT groups in the natural cycles.

CONCLUSIONS

A thinner endometrium seen in women undergoing HRT cycles was associated with a lower birthweight z-score, as well as a higher risk of SGA. However, no significant association was observed between EMT and birthweight z-score or SGA in the NC group. It is noteworthy that a thicker endometrium was not associated with a higher birthweight in frozen-thawed embryo transfer (FET) cycles. Women with a thin endometrium who achieve pregnancy require specialized attention, particularly if they are undergoing FET with HRT cycles.

Vitrification of human blastocysts for couples undergoing assisted reproduction: an updated review

Over the past 40 years there has been a worldwide critical change in the field of assisted reproduction technology (ART), leading to the increased application of single blastocyst transfer, which is extremely important to avoid the risks of multiple pregnancy and associated complications for both mother and babies. Indeed, advancements in ART over the last few decades have been obtained thanks to several improvements, including ovarian stimulation, embryo culture conditions and, of course, progress in cryopreservation methods, especially with the application of vitrification. The ability to cryopreserve human embryos has improved significantly with vitrification compared to the initially adopted slow-freezing procedures. Since the introduction of vitrification, it has become the gold standard method to effectively cryopreserve human blastocysts. However, some new protocols are now being explored, such as the short warming procedure and even shorter exposure to the equilibration solution before vitrification, which seem to provide optimal results. Therefore, the main aim of the current narrative review, will be to illustrate the benefit of vitrification as an effective method to cryopreserve the human blastocyst and to illustrate new protocols and variations which in future may increase the performance of vitrification protocols.

Association of duration of embryo culture with risk of large for gestational age delivery in cryopreserved embryo transfer cycles

OBJECTIVE

To examine the relationship between the day of embryo cryopreservation and large for gestational age (LGA) infants in women undergoing frozen embryo transfers (FETs) after cryopreservation on days 2-7 after fertilization and to compare the risk of the day of embryo cryopreservation to other possible risk factors of LGA after FET cycles.

DESIGN

Retrospective cohort study.

SETTING

Society of Assisted Reproduction Clinical Outcomes Reporting System.

PATIENTS

Women undergoing FET cycles.

INTERVENTION

Day of cryopreservation.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE

Singleton LGA infant.

RESULTS

A total of 33,030 (18.2%) FET cycles in the study group (n = 181,592) resulted in LGA infants during the study period of 2014-2019. There was an increase in LGA risk when cryopreservation was performed from day 2 (13.7%) to days 3-7 (14.4%, 15.0%, 18.2%, 18.5%, and 18.9%). In the log-binomial model, the risk increased compared with days 2-3 combined when cryopreservation was performed on days 5-7 (adjusted relative risk [aRR] 1.32, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.22-1.44 for day 5, aRR 1.34, 95% CI 1.23-1.46 for day 6, and aRR 1.42, 95% CI 1.25-1.61 for day 7). Other factors most associated with LGA risk in the log-binomial model were preterm parity of >3 compared with 0 (aRR 1.82, 95% CI 1.24-2.69) and body mass index (BMI) of >35 kg/m2 compared with normal weight (aRR 1.94, 95% CI 1.88-2.01). Increasing gravity, parity, BMI, number of oocytes, and embryo grade were also associated with LGA in this model. Asian, Black, Hispanic, and combined Hawaiian and Pacific Islander were protective factors in the model compared with White patients. Low BMI (<18.5 kg/m2) was also considered a protective factor in the model compared with normal BMI.

CONCLUSION

Duration of embryo culture was associated with an increased risk of LGA in this study cohort when controlling for known confounders such as maternal BMI and parity. This study sheds new light on the possible link between FET and LGA infants.

Assessing obstetric outcomes: A systematic review and meta-analysis comparing fresh, artificial, and natural thaw embryo transfer cycles

BACKGROUND

The increasing utilisation of in vitro fertilisation (IVF) has prompted significant interest in determining the optimal endometrial environment to increase pregnancy rates and minimise the obstetric complications associated with various embryo transfer strategies.

AIMS

To determine which cycle is associated with increased obstetric complications: fresh embryo transfer (FreshET), natural thaw (NatThawET) or artificial thaw (ArtThawET). Outcomes of interest included: hypertensive disorders of pregnancy (HDP), gestational diabetes (GD), pre-term birth (PTB), post-partum haemorrhage (PPH) and large for gestational age (LGA).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A comprehensive search of MEDLINE, EMBASE, CENTRAL, and PUBMED was conducted from 1947 to May 17, 2022. Two independent reviewers carried out the screening, and data extraction for the following comparisons: ArtThawET vs NatThawET, ArtThawET vs FreshET, and NatThawET vs FreshET. Meta-analysis was conducted using a fixed-effect Mantel-Haenszel model. The quality of the studies was assessed using GRADEpro.

RESULTS

A total of 23 studies were included in this review. ArtThawET was associated with a significantly increased odds of HDP (odds ratio (OR) 1.76, confidence interval (CI) 1.66-1.86), PTB (OR 1.18, CI 1.13-1.23), PPH (OR 2.61, CI 2.3-2.97) and LGA (OR 1.11, CI 1.07-1.15), compared to NatThawET. ArtThawET was also associated with increased odds of HDP (OR 2.13, CI 1.89-2.4), PPH (OR 3.52, CI 3.06-4.04) and LGA (OR 2.12, CI 1.77-2.56), compared to FreshET. Furthermore, NatThawET demonstrated increased odds of HDP (OR 1.20, CI 1.11-1.29), PPH (OR 1.25, CI 1.14-1.38) and LGA (OR 1.85, CI 1.66-2.07) compared to FreshET.

CONCLUSION

When clinically feasible, ArtThawET should be avoided as a first-line option for IVF to reduce the risk of obstetric complications. An adequately powered, multicentre randomised controlled trial is necessary to confirm these findings and investigate the underlying pathophysiology.

Pathologic maternal and neonatal outcomes associated with programmed embryo transfer

PURPOSE

In this first of two companion papers, we critically review the evidence recently published in the primary literature, which addresses adverse maternal and neonatal pregnancy outcomes associated with programmed embryo transfer cycles. We next consider whether these pathological pregnancy outcomes might be attributable to traditional risk factors, unknown parental factors, embryo culture, culture duration, or cryopreservation. Finally, in the second companion article, we explore potential etiologies and suggest strategies for prevention.

METHODS

Comprehensive review of primary literature.

RESULTS

The preponderance of retrospective and prospective observational studies suggests that increased risk for hypertensive disorders of pregnancy (HDP) and preeclampsia in assisted reproduction involving autologous embryo transfer is associated with programmed cycles. For autologous frozen embryo transfer (FET) and singleton live births, the risk of developing HDP and preeclampsia, respectively, was less for true or modified natural and stimulated cycles relative to programmed cycles: OR 0.63 [95% CI (0.57-0.070)] and 0.44 [95% CI (0.40-0.50)]. Though data are limited, the classification of preeclampsia associated with programmed autologous FET was predominantly late-onset or term disease. Other adverse pregnancy outcomes associated with autologous FET, especially programmed cycles, included increased prevalence of large for gestational age infants and macrosomia, as well as higher birth weights. In one large registry study, FET was associated with fetal overgrowth of a symmetrical nature. Postterm birth and placenta accreta not associated with prior cesarean section, uterine surgery, or concurrent placenta previa were also associated with autologous FET, particularly programmed cycles. The heightened risk of these pathologic pregnancy outcomes in programmed autologous FET does not appear to be attributable to traditional risk factors, unknown parental factors, embryo culture, culture duration, or cryopreservation, although the latter may contribute a modest degree of increased risk for fetal overgrowth and perhaps HDP and preeclampsia in FET irrespective of the endometrial preparation.

CONCLUSIONS

Programmed autologous FET is associated with an increased risk of several, seemingly diverse, pathologic pregnancy outcomes including HDP, preeclampsia, fetal overgrowth, postterm birth, and placenta accreta. Though the greater risk for preeclampsia specifically associated with programmed autologous FET appears to be well established, further research is needed to substantiate the limited data currently available suggesting that the classification of preeclampsia involved is predominately late-onset or term. If substantiated, then this knowledge could provide insight into placental pathogenesis, which has been proposed to differ between early- and late-onset or term preeclampsia (see companion paper for a discussion of potential mechanisms). If a higher prevalence of preeclampsia with severe features as suggested by some studies is corroborated in future investigations, then the danger to maternal and fetal/neonatal health is considerably greater with severe disease, thus increasing the urgency to find preventative measures. Presupposing significant overlap of these diverse pathologic pregnancy outcomes within subjects who conceive by programmed embryo transfer, there may be common etiologies.

Blood pressure and lipid profiles in children born after ART with frozen embryo transfer

STUDY QUESTION

Are blood pressure (BP) and lipid profiles different between children conceived after ART with frozen embryo transfer (FET), fresh embryo transfer (fresh-ET), and natural conception (NC)?

SUMMARY ANSWER

Girls conceived after FET had significantly higher systolic BP and heart rate compared with girls born after fresh-ET; boys conceived after FET had a slightly more favourable lipid profile compared with boys born after fresh-ET and NC.

WHAT IS KNOWN ALREADY

Children conceived after ART with FET are more often born large for gestational age (LGA). LGA in general increases the risk of obesity, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease later in life. Studies on mice and humans on the whole ART population have raised concerns about premature vascular ageing and higher BP. The cardiovascular health of children born after FET is scarcely explored and the results are diverging.

STUDY DESIGN SIZE DURATION

This study was part of the cohort study 'Health in Childhood following Assisted Reproductive Technology' (HiCART), which included 606 singletons (292 boys) born between December 2009 and December 2013: 200 children were conceived after FET; 203 children were conceived after fresh-ET; and 203 children were conceived naturally and matched for birth year and sex. The study period lasted from January 2019 to September 2021.

PARTICIPANTS/MATERIALS SETTING METHODS

The included children were 7-10 years of age at examination and underwent a clinical examination with anthropometric measurements, pubertal staging, and BP measurement. Additionally, a fasting blood sample was collected and analysed for cholesterol, low-density lipoproteins (LDL), high-density lipoproteins (HDL), and triglycerides. Systolic and diastolic BP were converted to standard deviation scores (SDS) using an appropriate reference and accounting for height (SDS) of the child. The three study groups were compared pairwise using a univariate linear regression model. Mean differences were adjusted for confounders using multiple linear regression analyses.

MAIN RESULTS AND THE ROLE OF CHANCE

Girls and boys conceived after FET had significantly higher birthweight (SDS) compared with naturally conceived peers (mean difference: girls: 0.35, 95% CI (0.06-0.64), boys: 0.35, 95% CI (0.03-0.68)). Girls conceived after FET had significantly higher systolic BP (SDS) and heart rate compared with girls conceived after fresh-ET (adjusted mean difference: systolic BP (SDS): 0.25 SDS, 95% CI (0.03-0.47), heart rate: 4.53, 95% CI (0.94-8.13)). Regarding lipid profile, no significant differences were found between the three groups of girls. For the boys, no significant differences were found for BP and heart rate. Lipid profiles were more favourable in boys born after FET compared with both boys conceived after fresh-ET and NC. All outcomes were adjusted for parity, maternal BMI at early pregnancy, smoking during pregnancy, educational level, birthweight, breastfeeding, child age at examination, and onset of puberty.

LIMITATIONS REASONS FOR CAUTION

The participation rate varied from 18 to 42% in the three groups, and therefore selection bias cannot be excluded. However, extensive non-participant analyses were performed that showed almost no differences in background characteristics between participants and non-participants in the three groups, making selection bias less likely.

WIDER IMPLICATIONS OF THE FINDINGS

The higher birthweight in children conceived after FET was associated with increased systolic BP (SDS) and heart rate in girls conceived after FET compared with fresh-ET. This may be an early indicator of compromised long-term cardiovascular health in this group. The study was not powered to investigate these outcomes and further studies are therefore warranted to confirm the findings.

STUDY FUNDING/COMPETING INTERESTS

The study was funded by the Novo Nordisk Foundation (grant number: NNF18OC0034092, NFF19OC0054340) and Rigshospitalets Forskningsfond. The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT03719703.

Does embryo biopsy, independent of vitrification, impact perinatal outcomes? An analysis of perinatal outcomes following preimplantation genetic testing biopsy in fresh and frozen embryo transfer cycles

Objective

To compare neonatal outcomes in pregnancies resulting from embryos that have undergone preimplantation genetic testing (PGT) biopsy compared with no biopsy in both fresh and frozen embryo transfers (ETs) and determine whether findings are mediated by multiple births.

Design

Retrospective cohort study.

Setting

Society of Assisted Reproductive Technologies-Clinical Outcomes Reporting System data, 2014-2015.

Patients

Autologous in vitro fertilization treatment cycles using fresh or frozen blastocyst ET, with or without PGT biopsy.

Interventions

Not applicable.

Main Outcome Measures

Large for gestational age (LGA), small for gestational age, and preterm delivery. Secondary outcomes included high birthweight, low birthweight, and clinical pregnancy measures. Outcomes were evaluated using log-binomial regression models with repeated measures. Models were used to estimate the controlled direct effects of biopsy on birth outcomes that were not mediated by multiple gestations.

Results

In fresh ET, biopsy was associated with an increase in LGA (relative risk [RR] 1.45, confidence interval [CI] 1.04-2.02) that persisted in the model mediated for multiple gestation (RR 1.36, 95% CI 1.01-1.83) but was not present in an analysis restricted to elective single ET (RR 0.99, 95% CI 0.91-1.09). In frozen ET, there were no differences in any of the primary outcomes after accounting for multiple gestations.

Conclusions

In a large multicenter database, there were no differences in neonatal outcomes after PGT biopsy in frozen ET cycles, and an increase in LGA was noted in fresh transfers that persisted even after accounting for multiple gestations but was not present in analysis restricted to elective single ET.

Impact of trophectoderm biopsy for preimplantation genetic testing on obstetric and neonatal outcomes: a meta-analysis

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to investigate whether trophectoderm biopsy for preimplantation genetic testing is associated with an increased risk of adverse obstetrical and neonatal outcomes compared with conventional in vitro fertilization or intracytoplasmic sperm injection without preimplantation genetic testing.

DATA SOURCES

Entries between January 1990 and August 2022 were searched using MEDLINE, Embase, Web of Science, the Cochrane Library, and Google Scholar.

STUDY ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA

Publications comparing the outcomes of pregnancies after preimplantation genetic testing using trophectoderm biopsy and in vitro fertilization or intracytoplasmic sperm injection were included. Only human studies with a cohort or case-control design or randomized controlled trials were eligible for inclusion.

METHODS

The study selection process was performed independently by 2 investigators. The quality of the observational studies was assessed using the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale, and the Cochrane risk-of-bias tool version 2 was used to grade the level of bias in randomized controlled trials. The pooled odds ratio and 95% confidence interval were calculated using a random-effects model when substantial heterogeneity occurred (indicated by I2 of >50% and P<.1). Otherwise, a fixed-effects model was used.

RESULTS

This meta-analysis included 13 studies involving 11,469 live births after preimplantation genetic testing treatment with trophectoderm biopsy before embryo transfer and 20,438 live births after in vitro fertilization or intracytoplasmic sperm injection only. The odds ratio of preterm delivery was higher in the trophectoderm-biopsied group than in the routine in vitro fertilization or intracytoplasmic sperm injection group (pooled odds ratio, 1.12; 95% confidence interval, 1.03-1.21); however, the difference did not exist after sensitivity analysis (odds ratio, 0.97; 95% confidence interval, 0.84-1.11). The risk of low birthweight did not increase among the biopsied pregnancies (pooled odds ratio, 1.01; 95% confidence interval, 0.85-1.20). No marked difference was observed in the risk of other obstetrical or neonatal outcomes between the biopsy and control groups. Furthermore, no difference was noted in the perinatal outcomes between trophectoderm-biopsied and nonbiopsied groups in the subgroup analyses by intracytoplasmic sperm injection, frozen-thawed transfer, or single embryo transfer.

CONCLUSION

Trophectoderm biopsy for preimplantation genetic testing treatment did not alter the risk of obstetrical or neonatal outcomes compared with conventional in vitro fertilization or intracytoplasmic sperm injection without preimplantation genetic testing. However, this study was limited by the large observational evidence base, and more randomized controlled trials are needed to further confirm these findings.

hMG addition affects the change in progesterone level during IVF stimulation and LBR: a retrospective cohort study

BACKGROUND

Premature progesterone (P) rise during IVF stimulation reduces endometrial receptivity and is associated with lower pregnancy rates following embryo transfer (ET), which can influence provider recommendation for fresh or frozen ET. This study aimed to determine whether change in P level between in IVF baseline and trigger (𝚫P) is predictive of pregnancy outcome following fresh ET, and whether the ratio of gonadotropins influences P rise and, as a result, clinical pregnancy outcomes: clinical pregnancy rate (CPR) and live birth rates (LBR).

METHODS

Retrospective cohort study at a single fertility center at an academic institution. The peak P level and 𝚫P were modeled in relation to prediction of CPR and LBR, and the ratios of hMG:rFSH were also modeled in relation to prediction of peak P level on day of trigger, 𝚫P, and CPR/LBR in a total of 291 patients undergoing fresh embryo transfer after controlled ovarian hyperstimulation-IVF (COH-IVF).

RESULTS

𝚫P correlates with CPR, with the most predictive range for success as 𝚫P 0.7-0.85 ng/mL (p = 0.005, 95% CI 0.635, 3.636; predicting CPR of 88.9%). The optimal range for peak P in regard to pregnancy outcome was 0.15-1.349 ng/mL (p = 0.01; 95% CI for coefficient in model 0.48-3.570). A multivariable logistic model for prediction of CPR and LBR using either peak or 𝚫P supported a stronger association between 𝚫P and CPR/LBR as compared to peak P. Furthermore, an hMG:rFSH ratio of > 0.6 was predictive of lowest peak P (p = 0.010, 95% CI 0.035, 0.256) and smallest 𝚫P (p = 0.012, 95% CI 0.030, 0.243) during COH-IVF cycles. Highest CPRs were observed within hMG:rFSH ratios of 0.3-0.4 [75.6% vs. 62.5% within and outside of the range, respectively, (p = 0.023, 95% CI 0.119, 1.618)]. Highest LBRs were seen within the range of 0.3-0.6 hMG:rFSH, [LBR of 55.4% vs. 41.4% (p = 0.010, 95% CI 0.176, 1.311)].

CONCLUSIONS

Our data supports use of 𝚫P to best predict pregnancy rates and therefore can improve clinical decision making as to when fresh ET is most appropriate. Furthermore, we found optimal gonadotropin ratios can be considered to minimize P rise and to optimize CPR/LBR, emphasizing the importance of luteinizing hormone (LH) activity in COH-IVF cycles.

Impact of Assisted Reproduction Techniques on Adverse Maternal Outcomes and on the Rate of Hospitalization in Maternal Intensive Care

Background and Objective: The aim of this retrospective cohort study is to evaluate the impact of assisted reproductive treatment (ART) on adverse maternal outcomes and the rate of hospitalization in maternal intensive care (MIC) in a tertiary university center in Liege, Belgium. Materials and Methods: This is a retrospective cohort study comparing two groups, 6557 patients who achieved pregnancy spontaneously and 330 patients who achieved pregnancy after ART, between January 2020 and December 2022. These patients were followed in the academic obstetrics department of Citadelle Hospital, Liège. The database of the ART center was compared with the database of the delivery unit to determine the cohort of patients who conceived after ART. Adverse maternal outcomes and MIC hospitalization rates were compared with between spontaneous pregnancies and ART groups. ART groups were also compared with each other. Results: The rate of hospitalization in maternal intensive care for patients who achieved pregnancy spontaneously was 12.1%, compared to 17.3% after ART. Comparing the rate of pre-eclampsia, 3.5% of spontaneous pregnancies were complicated by pre-eclampsia, while after ART, 10.9% of patients developed this complication during pregnancy. This rate was higher after IVF (12%) compared to intrauterine insemination and particularly after frozen embryo transfer (FET) in artificial cycle (17.9%). The birthweight of newborns after ART was also analyzed. A significant difference was obtained when comparing fresh embryo transfer with FET. Conclusions: Our study confirmed that FET in artificial cycle is a risk factor for pre-eclampsia and that fresh embryo transfer is associated with a higher rate of newborns with a lower percentile of birthweight. Our data showed that the rate of MIC hospitalization was significantly higher after ART but did not differ between groups.

The HERA (Hyper-response Risk Assessment) Delphi consensus for the management of hyper-responders in in vitro fertilization

PURPOSE

To provide agreed-upon guidelines on the management of a hyper-responsive patient undergoing ovarian stimulation (OS) METHODS: A literature search was performed regarding the management of hyper-response to OS for assisted reproductive technology. A scientific committee consisting of 4 experts discussed, amended, and selected the final statements. A priori, it was decided that consensus would be reached when ≥66% of the participants agreed, and ≤3 rounds would be used to obtain this consensus. A total of 28/31 experts responded (selected for global coverage), anonymous to each other.

RESULTS

A total of 26/28 statements reached consensus. The most relevant are summarized here. The target number of oocytes to be collected in a stimulation cycle for IVF in an anticipated hyper-responder is 15-19 (89.3% consensus). For a potential hyper-responder, it is preferable to achieve a hyper-response and freeze all than aim for a fresh transfer (71.4% consensus). GnRH agonists should be avoided for pituitary suppression in anticipated hyper-responders performing IVF (96.4% consensus). The preferred starting dose in the first IVF stimulation cycle of an anticipated hyper-responder of average weight is 150 IU/day (82.1% consensus). ICoasting in order to decrease the risk of OHSS should not be used (89.7% consensus). Metformin should be added before/during ovarian stimulation to anticipated hyper-responders only if the patient has PCOS and is insulin resistant (82.1% consensus). In the case of a hyper-response, a dopaminergic agent should be used only if hCG will be used as a trigger (including dual/double trigger) with or without a fresh transfer (67.9% consensus). After using a GnRH agonist trigger due to a perceived risk of OHSS, luteal phase rescue with hCG and an attempt of a fresh transfer is discouraged regardless of the number of oocytes collected (72.4% consensus). The choice of the FET protocol is not influenced by the fact that the patient is a hyper-responder (82.8% consensus). In the cases of freeze all due to OHSS risk, a FET cycle can be performed in the immediate first menstrual cycle (92.9% consensus).

CONCLUSION

These guidelines for the management of hyper-response can be useful for tailoring patient care and for harmonizing future research.

Obstetric and neonatal outcomes after natural versus artificial cycle frozen embryo transfer and the role of luteal phase support: a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

The number of frozen embryo transfers (FET) has increased dramatically over the past decade. Based on current evidence, there is no difference in pregnancy rates when natural cycle FET (NC-FET) is compared to artificial cycle FET (AC-FET) in subfertile women. However, NC-FET seems to be associated with lower risk of adverse obstetric and neonatal outcomes compared with AC-FET cycles. Currently, there is no consensus about whether NC-FET needs to be combined with luteal phase support (LPS) or not. The question of how to prepare the endometrium for FET has now gained even more importance and taken the dimension of safety into account as it should not simply be reduced to the basic question of effectiveness.

OBJECTIVE AND RATIONALE

The objective of this project was to determine whether NC-FET, with or without LPS, decreases the risk of adverse obstetric and neonatal outcomes compared with AC-FET.

SEARCH METHODS

A systematic review and meta-analysis was carried out. A literature search was performed using the following databases: CINAHL, EMBASE, and MEDLINE from inception to 10 October 2022. Observational studies, including cohort studies, and registries comparing obstetric and neonatal outcomes between singleton pregnancies after NC-FET and those after AC-FET were sought. Risk of bias was assessed using the ROBINS-I tool. The quality of evidence was evaluated using the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation approach. We calculated pooled odds ratios (ORs), pooled risk differences (RDs), pooled adjusted ORs, and prevalence estimates with 95% CI using a random effect model, while heterogeneity was assessed by the I2.

OUTCOMES

The conducted search identified 2436 studies, 890 duplicates were removed and 1546 studies were screened. Thirty studies (NC-FET n = 56 445; AC-FET n = 57 231) were included, 19 of which used LPS in NC-FET. Birthweight was lower following NC-FET versus AC-FET (mean difference 26.35 g; 95% CI 11.61-41.08, I2 = 63%). Furthermore NC-FET compared to AC-FET resulted in a lower risk of large for gestational age (OR 0.88, 95% 0.83-0.94, I2 = 54%), macrosomia (OR 0.81; 95% CI 0.71-0.93, I2 = 68%), low birthweight (OR 0.81, 95% CI 0.77-0.85, I2 = 41%), early pregnancy loss (OR 0.73; 95% CI 0.61-0.86, I2 = 70%), preterm birth (OR 0.80; 95% CI 0.75-0.85, I2 = 20%), very preterm birth (OR 0.66, 95% CI 0.53-0.84, I2 = 0%), hypertensive disorders of pregnancy (OR 0.60, 95% CI 0.50-0.65, I2 = 61%), pre-eclampsia (OR 0.50; 95% CI 0.42-0.60, I2 = 44%), placenta previa (OR 0.84, 95% CI 0.73-0.97, I2 = 0%), and postpartum hemorrhage (OR 0.43; 95% CI 0.38-0.48, I2 = 53%). Stratified analyses on LPS use in NC-FET suggested that, compared to AC-FET, NC-FET with LPS decreased preterm birth risk, while NC-FET without LPS did not (OR 0.75, 95% CI 0.70-0.81). LPS use did not modify the other outcomes. Heterogeneity varied from low to high, while quality of the evidence was very low to moderate.

WIDER IMPLICATIONS

This study confirms that NC-FET decreases the risk of adverse obstetric and neonatal outcomes compared with AC-FET. We estimate that for each adverse outcome, use of NC-FET may prevent 4 to 22 cases per 1000 women. Consequently, NC-FET should be the preferred treatment in women with ovulatory cycles undergoing FET. Based on very low quality of evidence, the risk of preterm birth be decreased when LPS is used in NC-FET compared to AC-FET. However, because of many uncertainties-the major being the debate about efficacy of the use of LPS-future research is needed on efficacy and safety of LPS and no recommendation can be made about the use of LPS.

The influence of embryo stage on obstetric complications and perinatal outcomes following programmed compared to natural frozen-thawed embryo transfer cycles: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Objective

To investigate the effect of embryo stage at the time of transfer on obstetric and perinatal outcomes in programmed frozen-thawed embryo transfer (FET) versus natural FET cycles.

Design

Systematic review and meta-analysis.

Setting

Not applicable.

Patients

Women with programmed frozen-thawed embryo transfer (FET) and natural FET.

Interventions

The PubMed, MEDLINE, and EMBASE databases and the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CCRT) were searched from 1983 to October 2022. Twenty-three observational studies were included.

Primary outcome measure

The primary outcomes were hypertensive disorders of pregnancy (HDPs), gestational hypertension and preeclampsia (PE). The secondary outcomes were gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM), placenta previa, postpartum haemorrhage (PPH), placental abruption, preterm premature rupture of membranes (PPROM), large for gestational age (LGA), small for gestational age (SGA), macrosomia, and preterm delivery (PTD).

Results

The risk of HDP (14 studies, odds ratio (OR) 2.17; 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.95-2.41; P<0.00001; I2 = 43%), gestational hypertension (11 studies, OR 1.38; 95% CI 1.15-1.66; P=0.0006; I2 = 19%), PE (12 studies, OR 2.09; 95% CI 1.88-2.32; P<0.00001; I2 = 0%), GDM (20 studies, OR 1.09; 95% CI 1.02-1.17; P=0.02; I2 = 8%), LGA (18 studies, OR 1.11; 95% CI 1.07-1.15; P<0.00001; I2 = 46%), macrosomia (12 studies, OR 1.15; 95% CI 1.07-1.24; P=0.0002; I2 = 31%), PTD (22 studies, OR 1.21; 95% CI 1.15-1.27; P<0.00001; I2 = 49%), placenta previa (17 studies, OR 1.2; 95% CI 1.02-1.41; P=0.03; I2 = 11%), PPROM (9 studies, OR 1.19; 95% CI 1.02-1.39; P=0.02; I2 = 40%), and PPH (12 studies, OR 2.27; 95% CI 2.02-2.55; P <0.00001; I2 = 55%) were increased in programmed FET cycles versus natural FET cycles with overall embryo transfer. Blastocyst transfer had a higher risk of HDP (6 studies, OR 2.48; 95% CI 2.12-2.91; P<0.00001; I2 = 39%), gestational hypertension (5 studies, OR 1.87; 95% CI 1.27-2.75; P=0.002; I2 = 25%), PE (6 studies, OR 2.23; 95% CI 1.93-2.56; P<0.00001; I2 = 0%), GDM (10 studies, OR 1.13; 95% CI 1.04-1.23; P=0.005; I2 = 39%), LGA (6 studies, OR 1.14; 95% CI 1.07-1.21; P<0.0001; I2 = 9%), macrosomia (4 studies, OR 1.15; 95% CI 1.05-1.26; P<0.002; I2 = 68%), PTD (9 studies, OR 1.43; 95% CI 1.31-1.57; P<0.00001; I2 = 22%), PPH (6 studies, OR 1.92; 95% CI 1.46-2.51; P<0.00001; I2 = 55%), and PPROM (4 studies, OR 1.45; 95% CI 1.14-1.83; P=0.002; I2 = 46%) in programmed FET cycles than in natural FET cycles. Cleavage-stage embryo transfers revealed no difference in HDPs (1 study, OR 0.81; 95% CI 0.32-2.02; P=0.65; I2 not applicable), gestational hypertension (2 studies, OR 0.85; 95% CI 0.48-1.51; P=0.59; I2 = 0%), PE (1 study, OR 1.19; 95% CI 0.58-2.42; P=0.64; I2not applicable), GDM (3 study, OR 0.79; 95% CI 0.52-1.20; P=0.27; I2 = 21%), LGA (1 study, OR 1.15; 95% CI 0.62-2.11; P=0.66; I2not applicable), macrosomia (1 study, OR 1.22; 95% CI 0.54-2.77; P=0.64; I2 not applicable), PTD (2 studies, OR 1.05; 95% CI 0.74-1.49; P=0.79; I2 = 0%), PPH (1 study, OR 1.49; 95% CI 0.85-2.62; P=0.17; I2not applicable), or PPROM (2 studies, OR 0.74; 95% CI 0.46-1.21; P=0.23; I2 = 0%) between programmed FET cycles and natural FET cycles.

Conclusions

The risks of HDPs, gestational hypertension, PE, GDM, LGA, macrosomia, SGA, PTD, placenta previa, PPROM, and PPH were increased in programmed FET cycles versus natural FET cycles with overall embryo transfer and blastocyst transfer, but the risks were not clear for cleavage-stage embryo transfer.

Higher risk of pre-eclampsia and other vascular disorders with artificial cycle for frozen-thawed embryo transfer compared to ovulatory cycle or to fresh embryo transfer following in vitro fertilization

Background

Risks of maternal morbidity are known to be reduced in pregnancies resulting from frozen embryo transfer (FET) compared to fresh-embryo transfer (fresh-ET), except for the risk of pre-eclampsia, reported to be higher in FET pregnancies compared to fresh-ET or natural conception. Few studies have compared the risk of maternal vascular morbidities according to endometrial preparation for FET, either with ovulatory cycle (OC-FET) or artificial cycle (AC-FET). Furthermore, maternal pre-eclampsia could be associated with subsequent vascular disorders in the offspring.

Methods

A 2013-2018 French nationwide cohort study comparing maternal vascular morbidities in 3 groups of single pregnancies was conducted: FET with either OC or AC preparation, and fresh-ET. Data were extracted from the French National Health System database. Results were adjusted for maternal characteristics and infertility (age, parity, smoking, obesity, history of diabetes or hypertension, endometriosis, polycystic ovary syndrome and premature ovarian insufficiency).

Results

A total of 68025 single deliveries were included: fresh-ET (n=48152), OC-FET (n=9500), AC-FET (n=10373). The risk of pre-eclampsia was higher in AC-FET compared to OC-FET and fresh-ET groups in univariate analysis (5.3% vs. 2.3% and 2.4%, respectively, P<0.0001). In multivariate analysis the risk was significantly higher in AC-FET compared to fresh-ET: aOR=2.43 [2.18-2.70], P<0.0001). Similar results were observed for the risk of other vascular disorders in univariate analysis (4.7% vs. 3.4% and 3.3%, respectively, P=0.0002) and in multivariate analysis (AC-FET compared to fresh-ET: aOR=1.50 [1.36-1.67], P<0.0001). In multivariate analysis, the risk of pre-eclampsia and other vascular disorders were comparable in OC-FET and fresh-ET: aOR=1.01 [0.87-1.17, P= 0.91 and aOR=1.00 [0.89-1.13], P=0.97, respectively).Within the group of FET, the risks of pre-eclampsia and other vascular disorders in multivariate analysis were higher in AC-FET compared to OC-FET (aOR=2.43 [2.18-2.70], P<0.0001 and aOR=1.5 [1.36-1.67], P<0.0001, respectively).

Conclusion

This nationwide register-based cohort study highlights the possibly deleterious role of prolonged doses of exogenous estrogen-progesterone supplementation on gestational vascular pathologies and the protective role of the corpus luteum present in OC-FET for their prevention. Since OC-FET has been demonstrated not to strain the chances of pregnancy, OC preparation should be advocated as first-line preparation in FET as often as possible in ovulatory women.

The likelihood of a healthy live birth after frozen embryo transfer with endometrium prepared by natural ovulation regimen vs programmed regimen: a propensity-score matching study

BACKGROUND

The number of frozen embryo transfer cycles is increasing, but the optimal method of endometrial preparation for frozen embryo transfer remains controversial. Few studies have investigated the healthy live birth outcome after the natural ovulation regimen vs the programmed regimen.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to explore whether the likelihood of a healthy live birth after frozen embryo transfer differs between the natural ovulation regimen and the programmed regimen.

STUDY DESIGN

We conducted a retrospective cohort study including 7824 ovulatory women who underwent the first frozen embryo transfer cycle of single-blastocyst transfer with endometrial preparation by natural ovulation regimen vs programmed regimen, between June 2017 and June 2021. Propensity score matching was used to control for confounding variables in a 1:1 ratio. The primary outcome was healthy live birth, defined as birth of a live, singleton infant born at term, with an appropriate birthweight for gestational age.

RESULTS

The natural ovulation regimen resulted in a higher probability of achieving healthy live birth compared with the programmed regimen (35.8% vs 30.6%; P<.0001). In addition, a higher rate of singleton live birth was observed after the natural ovulation regimen relative to the programmed regimen (49.6% vs 45.7%; P=.003). Women with the natural ovulation regimen were also less likely to experience clinical pregnancy loss (16.0% vs 19.7%; P=.005) and hypertensive disorders of pregnancy (3.9% vs 6.0%; P=.004) compared with women with the programmed regimen. Singletons born after the programmed regimen had greater mean birthweight (3441.50±539.97 vs 3394.96±503.87; P=.020) and higher risk of being large for gestational age (23.3% vs 18.7%; P=.003) than those conceived after the natural ovulation regimen.

CONCLUSION

The natural ovulation regimen may be superior to the programmed regimen with regard to higher likelihood of healthy live birth and lower risk of pregnancy loss and maternal hypertensive disorders of pregnancy.

The future of frozen-thawed embryo transfer in hormone replacement therapy cycles

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

This review focuses on the efficacy of letrozole stimulated frozen-thawed embryo transfer (FET) compared to hormone replacement therapy (HRT) FET in women with polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS) and/or oligo-anovulation. Further, obstetric and perinatal risks in HRT FET are summarized.

RECENT FINDINGS

The presence of a corpus luteum seems to reduce the risk of pregnancy-related hypertension and preeclampsia after FET. As a natural cycle (NC) FET is not an option for women with oligo-/amenorrhea these women may benefit from FET with mild stimulation compared to HRT FET. The intention of mild stimulation in anovulatory women is to induce (mono) ovulation to mimic the endocrine profiles of the natural cycle and the early pregnancy after natural conception. Mild stimulation by letrozole is patient friendly and cheap compared to gonadotropin stimulated FET and has been increasingly used in recent years. Although the quality of evidence is low, the pregnancy outcomes after letrozole FET seems similar or even better compared to HRT FET in women with PCOS and/or oligo-anovulation.

SUMMARY

Natural and modified NC FET should be used whenever possible to mitigate adverse obstetric and perinatal outcomes after HRT FET. For anovulatory women, whenever ovulation can be induced, we advocate the use of mild stimulation FET to create a corpus luteum awaiting results from RCTs limited to oligo-anovulatory women.

Non-linear association of birth weight with lung function and risk of asthma: A population-based study

Background

The impact of birth weight on lung function and risk of asthma remains contentious. Our aim was to investigate the specific association of birth weight with lung function and the risk of asthma in children.

Methods

We performed cross-sectional analyses of 3,295 children aged 6-15 years who participated in the 2007-2012 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES). After controlling for potential covariates other than gestational diabetes, maternal asthma and obesity, the linear and non-linear associations of birth weight with lung function metrics and the risk of asthma were evaluated by a generalized linear model and generalized additive model, respectively.

Results

We observed a non-linear association of birth weight with FEV₁ %predicted, FEV₁/FVC %predicted and FEF_{25 - 75} %predicted (P for non-linearity was 0.0069, 0.0057, and 0.0027, respectively). Further threshold effect analysis of birth weight on lung function detected the turning point for birth weight was 3.6 kg. When the birth weight was < 3.6 kg, birth weight was significantly positively associated with all pulmonary function metrics. However, negative associations were found in FEV₁ %predicted, FEV₁/FVC %predicted and FEF_{25 - 75} %predicted when the birth weight was ≥3.6 kg. These results were consistent in the stratified and sensitivity analyses. Additionally, a possible non-linear relationship was also detected between birth weight and the risk of asthma.

Conclusion

Although not all maternal factors were accounted for, our findings provided new insight into the association of birth weight with lung function. Future studies are warranted to confirm the present findings and understand the clinical significance.

Should any use of artificial cycle regimen for frozen-thawed embryo transfer in women capable of ovulation be abandoned: yes, but what's next for FET cycle practice and research?

Over the past decade, the use of frozen-thawed embryo transfer (FET) treatment cycles has increased substantially. The artificial ('programmed') cycle regimen, which suppresses ovulation, is widely used for that purpose, also in ovulatory women or women capable of ovulation, under the assumption of equivalent efficacy in terms of pregnancy achievement as compared to a natural cycle or modified natural cycle. The advantage of the artificial cycle is the easy alignment of the time point of thawing and transferring embryos with organizational necessities of the IVF laboratory, the treating doctors and the patient. However, recent data indicate that pregnancy establishment under absence of a corpus luteum as a consequence of anovulation may cause relevant maternal and fetal risks. Herein, we argue that randomized controlled trials (RCTs) are not needed to aid in the clinical decision for or against routine artificial cycle regimen use in ovulatory women. We also argue that RCTs are unlikely to answer the most burning questions of interest in that context, mostly because of lack of power and precision in detecting rare but decisive adverse outcomes (e.g. pre-eclampsia risk or long-term neonatal health outcomes). We pinpoint that, instead, large-scale observational data are better suited for that purpose. Eventually, we propose that the existing understanding and evidence is sufficient already to discourage the use of artificial cycle regimens for FET in ovulatory women or women capable of ovulation, as these may cause a strong deviation from physiology, thereby putting patient and fetus at avoidable health risk, without any apparent health benefit.

Maternal and neonatal outcomes of pregnancies with COVID-19 after medically assisted reproduction: results from the prospective COVID-19-Related Obstetrical and Neonatal Outcome Study

Background

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus type 2 infections in pregnancy have been associated with maternal morbidity, admission to intensive care, and adverse perinatal outcomes such as preterm birth, stillbirth, and hypertensive disorders of pregnancy. It is unclear whether medically assisted reproduction additionally affects maternal and neonatal outcomes in women with COVID-19.

Objective

To evaluate the effect of medically assisted reproduction on maternal and neonatal outcomes in women with COVID-19 in pregnancy.

Study Design

A total of 1485 women with COVID-19 registered in the COVID-19 Related Obstetric and Neonatal Outcome Study (a multicentric, prospective, observational cohort study) were included. The maternal and neonatal outcomes in 65 pregnancies achieved with medically assisted reproduction and in 1420 spontaneously conceived pregnancies were compared. We used univariate und multivariate (multinomial) logistic regressions to estimate the (un)adjusted odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals for adverse outcomes.

Results

The incidence of COVID-19-associated adverse outcomes (eg, pneumonia, admission to intensive care, and death) was not different in women after conceptions with COVID-19 than in women after medically assisted reproduction pregnancies. Yet, the risk of obstetrical and neonatal complications was higher in pregnancies achieved through medically assisted reproduction. However, medically assisted reproduction was not the primary risk factor for adverse maternal and neonatal outcomes including pregnancy-related hypertensive disorders, gestational diabetes mellitus, cervical insufficiency, peripartum hemorrhage, cesarean delivery, preterm birth, or admission to neonatal intensive care. Maternal age, multiple pregnancies, nulliparity, body mass index >30 (before pregnancy) and multiple gestation contributed differently to the increased risks of adverse pregnancy outcomes in women with COVID-19 independent of medically assisted reproduction.

Conclusion

Although women with COVID-19 who conceived through fertility treatment experienced a higher incidence of adverse obstetrical and neonatal complications than women with spontaneous conceptions, medically assisted reproduction was not the primary risk factor.