1
|
Laznovsky J, Kavkova M, Helena Reis A, Robovska-Havelkova P, Maia LA, Krivanek J, Zikmund T, Kaiser J, Buchtova M, Harnos J. Unveiling vertebrate development dynamics in frog Xenopus laevis using micro-CT imaging. Gigascience 2024; 13:giae037. [PMID: 39013635 DOI: 10.1093/gigascience/giae037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2023] [Revised: 04/10/2024] [Accepted: 06/03/2024] [Indexed: 07/18/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Xenopus laevis, the African clawed frog, is a versatile vertebrate model organism in various biological disciplines, prominently in developmental biology to study body plan reorganization during metamorphosis. However, a notable gap exists in the availability of comprehensive datasets encompassing Xenopus' late developmental stages. FINDINGS This study utilized micro-computed tomography (micro-CT), a noninvasive 3-dimensional (3D) imaging technique with micrometer-scale resolution, to explore the developmental dynamics and morphological changes in Xenopus laevis. Our approach involved generating high-resolution images and computed 3D models of developing Xenopus specimens, spanning from premetamorphosis tadpoles to fully mature adults. This dataset enhances our understanding of vertebrate development and supports various analyses. We conducted a careful examination, analyzing body size, shape, and morphological features, focusing on skeletogenesis, teeth, and organs like the brain and gut at different stages. Our analysis yielded valuable insights into 3D morphological changes during Xenopus' development, documenting details previously unrecorded. These datasets hold the solid potential for further morphological and morphometric analyses, including segmentation of hard and soft tissues. CONCLUSIONS Our repository of micro-CT scans represents a significant resource that can enhance our understanding of Xenopus' development and the associated morphological changes in the future. The widespread utility of this amphibian species, coupled with the exceptional quality of our scans, which encompass a comprehensive series of developmental stages, opens up extensive opportunities for their broader research application. Moreover, these scans can be used in virtual reality, 3D printing, and educational contexts, further expanding their value and impact.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jakub Laznovsky
- Central European Institute of Technology, Brno University of Technology, 612 00 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Michaela Kavkova
- Central European Institute of Technology, Brno University of Technology, 612 00 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Alice Helena Reis
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Columbia University, New York, NY 10025, USA, and Department of Genetics and Development, Columbia Stem Cell Initiative, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Pavla Robovska-Havelkova
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia, 370 05 Ceske Budejovice, Czech Republic
| | - Lorena Agostini Maia
- Department of Experimental Biology, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, 625 00 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Jan Krivanek
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, Masaryk University, 625 00 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Tomas Zikmund
- Central European Institute of Technology, Brno University of Technology, 612 00 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Jozef Kaiser
- Central European Institute of Technology, Brno University of Technology, 612 00 Brno, Czech Republic
- Institute of Physical Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Brno University of Technology, 616 69 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Marcela Buchtova
- Department of Experimental Biology, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, 625 00 Brno, Czech Republic
- Laboratory of Molecular Morphogenesis, Institute of Animal Physiology and Genetics, v.v.i., Czech Academy of Sciences, 602 00 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Jakub Harnos
- Department of Experimental Biology, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, 625 00 Brno, Czech Republic
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Lukas P. Embryonic pattern of cartilaginous head development in the European toad, Bufo bufo. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL ZOOLOGY. PART B, MOLECULAR AND DEVELOPMENTAL EVOLUTION 2023; 340:437-454. [PMID: 37358281 DOI: 10.1002/jez.b.23214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2022] [Revised: 04/17/2023] [Accepted: 06/12/2023] [Indexed: 06/27/2023]
Abstract
The craniofacial skeleton of vertebrates is a major innovation of the whole clade. Its development and composition requires a precisely orchestrated sequence of chondrification events which lead to a fully functional skeleton. Sequential information on the precise timing and sequence of embryonic cartilaginous head development are available for a growing number of vertebrates. This enables a more and more comprehensive comparison of the evolutionary trends within and among different vertebrate clades. This comparison of sequential patterns of cartilage formation enables insights into the evolution of development of the cartilaginous head skeleton. The cartilaginous sequence of head formation of three basal anurans (Xenopus laevis, Bombina orientalis, Discoglossus scovazzi) was investigated so far. This study investigates the sequence and timing of larval cartilaginous development of the head skeleton from the appearance of mesenchymal Anlagen until the premetamorphic larvae in the neobatrachian species Bufo bufo. Clearing and staining, histology, and 3D reconstruction enabled the tracking of 75 cartilaginous structures and the illustration of the sequential changes of the skull as well as the identification of evolutionary trends of sequential cartilage formation in the anuran head. The anuran viscerocranium does not chondrify in the ancestral anterior to posterior direction and the neurocranial elements do not chondrify in posterior to anterior direction. Instead, the viscerocranial and neurocranial development is mosaic-like and differs greatly from the gnathostome sequence. Strict ancestral anterior to posterior developmental sequences can be observed within the branchial basket. Thus, this data is the basis for further comparative developmental studies of anuran skeletal development.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Paul Lukas
- Institute of Zoology and Evolutionary Research, Friedrich-Schiller-University Jena, Jena, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Rose CS. The cellular basis of cartilage growth and shape change in larval and metamorphosing Xenopus frogs. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0277110. [PMID: 36634116 PMCID: PMC9836273 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0277110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2022] [Accepted: 10/19/2022] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
As the first and sometimes only skeletal tissue to appear, cartilage plays a fundamental role in the development and evolution of vertebrate body shapes. This is especially true for amphibians whose largely cartilaginous feeding skeleton exhibits unparalleled ontogenetic and phylogenetic diversification as a consequence of metamorphosis. Fully understanding the evolutionary history, evolvability and regenerative potential of cartilage requires in-depth analysis of how chondrocytes drive growth and shape change. This study is a cell-level description of the larval growth and postembryonic shape change of major cartilages of the feeding skeleton of a metamorphosing amphibian. Histology and immunohistochemistry are used to describe and quantify patterns and trends in chondrocyte size, shape, division, death, and arrangement, and in percent matrix from hatchling to froglet for the lower jaw, hyoid and branchial arch cartilages of Xenopus laevis. The results are interpreted and integrated into programs of cell behaviors that account for the larval growth and histology, and metamorphic remodeling of each element. These programs provide a baseline for investigating hormone-mediated remodeling, cartilage regeneration, and intrinsic shape regulating mechanisms. These programs also contain four features not previously described in vertebrates: hypertrophied chondrocytes being rejuvenated by rapid cell cycling to a prechondrogenic size and shape; chondrocytes dividing and rearranging to reshape a cartilage; cartilage that lacks a perichondrium and grows at single-cell dimensions; and an adult cartilage forming de novo in the center of a resorbing larval one. Also, the unexpected superimposition of cell behaviors for shape change onto ones for larval growth and the unprecedented exploitation of very large and small cell sizes provide new directions for investigating the development and evolution of skeletal shape and metamorphic ontogenies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Christopher S. Rose
- Department of Biology, James Madison University, Harrisonburg, Virginia, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Abstract
The ability to sense and localize sound is so advantageous for survival that it is difficult to understand the almost 100 million year gap separating the appearance of early tetrapods and the emergence of an impedance-matching tympanic middle ear - which we normally regard as a prerequisite for sensitive hearing on land - in their descendants. Recent studies of hearing in extant atympanate vertebrates have provided significant insights into the ancestral state(s) and the early evolution of the terrestrial tetrapod auditory system. These reveal a mechanism for sound pressure detection and directional hearing in 'earless' atympanate vertebrates that may be generalizable to all tetrapods, including the earliest terrestrial species. Here, we review the structure and function of vertebrate tympanic middle ears and highlight the multiple acquisition and loss events that characterize the complex evolutionary history of this important sensory structure. We describe extratympanic pathways for sound transmission to the inner ear and synthesize findings from recent studies to propose a general mechanism for hearing in 'earless' atympanate vertebrates. Finally, we integrate these studies with research on tympanate species that may also rely on extratympanic mechanisms for acoustic reception of infrasound (<20 Hz) and with studies on human bone conduction mechanisms of hearing.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Grace Capshaw
- Department of Biology, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA
| | | | - Catherine E. Carr
- Department of Biology, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Lasser M, Bolduc J, Murphy L, O'Brien C, Lee S, Girirajan S, Lowery LA. 16p12.1 Deletion Orthologs are Expressed in Motile Neural Crest Cells and are Important for Regulating Craniofacial Development in Xenopus laevis. Front Genet 2022; 13:833083. [PMID: 35401697 PMCID: PMC8987115 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2022.833083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2021] [Accepted: 03/09/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Copy number variants (CNVs) associated with neurodevelopmental disorders are characterized by extensive phenotypic heterogeneity. In particular, one CNV was identified in a subset of children clinically diagnosed with intellectual disabilities (ID) that results in a hemizygous deletion of multiple genes at chromosome 16p12.1. In addition to ID, individuals with this deletion display a variety of symptoms including microcephaly, seizures, cardiac defects, and growth retardation. Moreover, patients also manifest severe craniofacial abnormalities, such as micrognathia, cartilage malformation of the ears and nose, and facial asymmetries; however, the function of the genes within the 16p12.1 region have not been studied in the context of vertebrate craniofacial development. The craniofacial tissues affected in patients with this deletion all derive from the same embryonic precursor, the cranial neural crest, leading to the hypothesis that one or more of the 16p12.1 genes may be involved in regulating neural crest cell (NCC)-related processes. To examine this, we characterized the developmental role of the 16p12.1-affected gene orthologs, polr3e, mosmo, uqcrc2, and cdr2, during craniofacial morphogenesis in the vertebrate model system, Xenopus laevis. While the currently-known cellular functions of these genes are diverse, we find that they share similar expression patterns along the neural tube, pharyngeal arches, and later craniofacial structures. As these genes show co-expression in the pharyngeal arches where NCCs reside, we sought to elucidate the effect of individual gene depletion on craniofacial development and NCC migration. We find that reduction of several 16p12.1 genes significantly disrupts craniofacial and cartilage formation, pharyngeal arch migration, as well as NCC specification and motility. Thus, we have determined that some of these genes play an essential role during vertebrate craniofacial patterning by regulating specific processes during NCC development, which may be an underlying mechanism contributing to the craniofacial defects associated with the 16p12.1 deletion.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Micaela Lasser
- Department of Biology, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA, United States
| | - Jessica Bolduc
- Department of Biology, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA, United States
| | - Luke Murphy
- Department of Biology, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA, United States
| | - Caroline O'Brien
- Department of Biology, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA, United States
| | - Sangmook Lee
- Department of Biology, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA, United States
| | - Santhosh Girirajan
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Pennsylvania State University, State College, PA, United States
| | - Laura Anne Lowery
- Alfred B. Nobel Section of Hematology and Medical Oncology, Boston University School of Medicine and Boston Medical Center, Boston, MA, United States
- *Correspondence: Laura Anne Lowery,
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
MacKenzie EM, Atkins JB, Korneisel DE, Cantelon AS, McKinnell IW, Maddin HC. Normal development in Xenopus laevis: A complementary staging table for the skull based on cartilage and bone. Dev Dyn 2022; 251:1340-1356. [PMID: 35247013 DOI: 10.1002/dvdy.465] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2021] [Revised: 02/10/2022] [Accepted: 02/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Xenopus laevis is a widely used model organism in the fields of genetics and development, and more recently evolution. At present, the most widely used staging table for X. laevis is based primarily on external features and does not describe the corresponding skull development in detail. Here, we describe skull development in X. laevis, complete with labelled figures, for each relevant stage in the most widely used staging table. RESULTS We find skull development in X. laevis is, for the most part, distinct at each of the previously established stages based on external anatomy. However, variation does exist in the timing of onset of ossification of certain bones in the skull, which results in a range of stages where a skull element first ossifies. The overall sequence of ossification is less variable than the timing of ossification onset. CONCLUSIONS While events in skull development vary somewhat between specimens, and in comparison, to external events, this staging table is useful in showing both when bones first appear and for documenting the range of temporal variance in X. laevis skull development more accurately than previously done. Furthermore, when only skull data is available, the approximate stage of a specimen can now be determined. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Erin M MacKenzie
- Department of Earth Sciences, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Jade B Atkins
- Department of Earth Sciences, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Dana E Korneisel
- Department of Earth Sciences, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Alanna S Cantelon
- Department of Earth Sciences, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Iain W McKinnell
- Department of Biology, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Hillary C Maddin
- Department of Earth Sciences, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Bardua C, Fabre A, Bon M, Das K, Stanley EL, Blackburn DC, Goswami A. Evolutionary integration of the frog cranium. Evolution 2020; 74:1200-1215. [DOI: 10.1111/evo.13984] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2019] [Revised: 04/09/2020] [Accepted: 04/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Carla Bardua
- Department of Genetics, Evolution, and EnvironmentUniversity College London London WC1E 6BT United Kingdom
- Department of Life SciencesNatural History Museum London SW7 5BD United Kingdom
| | - Anne‐Claire Fabre
- Department of Life SciencesNatural History Museum London SW7 5BD United Kingdom
| | - Margot Bon
- Department of Life SciencesNatural History Museum London SW7 5BD United Kingdom
| | - Kalpana Das
- Museum für NaturkundeLeibniz‐Institut für Evolutions‐ und Biodiversitätsforschung Berlin 10115 Germany
| | - Edward L. Stanley
- Department of HerpetologyFlorida Museum of Natural History, University of Florida Gainesville Florida 32610
| | - David C. Blackburn
- Department of Natural HistoryFlorida Museum of Natural History, University of Florida Gainesville Florida 32611
| | - Anjali Goswami
- Department of Life SciencesNatural History Museum London SW7 5BD United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Nguyen JKB, Eames BF. Evolutionary repression of chondrogenic genes in the vertebrate osteoblast. FEBS J 2020; 287:4354-4361. [PMID: 31994313 DOI: 10.1111/febs.15228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2019] [Revised: 12/30/2019] [Accepted: 01/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Gene expression in extant animals might reveal how skeletal cells have evolved over the past 500 million years. The cells that make up cartilage (chondrocytes) and bone (osteoblasts) express many of the same genes, but they also have important molecular differences that allow us to distinguish them as separate cell types. For example, traditional studies of later-diverged vertebrates, such as mouse and chick, defined the genes Col2a1 and sex-determining region Y-box 9 as cartilage-specific. However, recent studies have shown that osteoblasts of earlier-diverged vertebrates, such as frog, gar, and zebrafish, express these 'chondrogenic' markers. In this review, we examine the resulting hypothesis that chondrogenic gene expression became repressed in osteoblasts over evolutionary time. The amphibian is an underexplored skeletal model that is uniquely positioned to address this hypothesis, especially given that it diverged when life transitioned from water to land. Given the relationship between phylogeny and ontogeny, a novel discovery for skeletal cell evolution might bolster our understanding of skeletal cell development.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jason K B Nguyen
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology, and Pharmacology, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Canada
| | - B Frank Eames
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology, and Pharmacology, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Fabrezi M, Lozano VL, Cruz JC. Differences in responsiveness and sensitivity to exogenous disruptors of the thyroid gland in three anuran species. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL ZOOLOGY PART B-MOLECULAR AND DEVELOPMENTAL EVOLUTION 2019; 332:279-293. [PMID: 31613429 DOI: 10.1002/jez.b.22908] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2019] [Revised: 08/28/2019] [Accepted: 09/14/2019] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Anuran larval development comprises tissues/organs/systems that are: exclusively of larvae, able to be remodelled, and those of postmetamorphic stages. Also, the anuran larval development is characterized by inter-related parameters: time, size and shape forming part of growth and differentiation. The anuran metamorphosis starts when growth and differentiation achieve a threshold that differs among species since it is regulated by a number of external (environmental) and internal (hormonal) processes. Here we explore the consequences of exogenous disruptors on the thyroid gland (e.g., methimazole and thyroxine as T4) of three species by immersing premetamorphic tadpoles in predetermined concentrations of the disruptors for short periods (10 or 16 days). The species were Pleurodema borellii, Leptodactylus chaquensis, and Dermatonotus muelleri, which all breed in small temporary ponds during the summer, but differ in their ecomorphology. The experiments were conducted to evaluate the effects of these substances on larval development (based in Gosner larval stages), morphometric variation in body parameters (snout-vent and total length by larval stages), and thyroid gland histopathology at the end of the assays. In P. borelli and L. chaquensis, methimazole produces significant increment of size measurements (nonparametric Kruskal-Wallis, p < .05) during stages of digit differentiation and induced thyroid gland hypertrophy. In the three species, T4 exposure accelerated limb development and caused atrophy of thyroid gland. Prolonged T4 exposure in L. chaquensis and D. muelleri triggered metamorphic transformation in the gut and skull cartilages. Discussion about interspecific differences in responsiveness and sensitivity elucidates the importance of hormonal signals to morphological evolution.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marissa Fabrezi
- Instituto de Bio y Geociencias del NOA, CCT CONICET Salta-Jujuy, Salta, República Argentina
| | - Verónica Laura Lozano
- Instituto de Bio y Geociencias del NOA, CCT CONICET Salta-Jujuy, Salta, República Argentina.,Depto. Ecología, Genética y Evolución, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales and Instituto de Ecología, Genética y Evolución de Buenos Aires (IEGEBA) CONICET - Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Julio César Cruz
- Instituto de Bio y Geociencias del NOA, CCT CONICET Salta-Jujuy, Salta, República Argentina
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Mills A, Bearce E, Cella R, Kim SW, Selig M, Lee S, Lowery LA. Wolf-Hirschhorn Syndrome-Associated Genes Are Enriched in Motile Neural Crest Cells and Affect Craniofacial Development in Xenopus laevis. Front Physiol 2019; 10:431. [PMID: 31031646 PMCID: PMC6474402 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2019.00431] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2018] [Accepted: 03/28/2019] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Wolf-Hirschhorn Syndrome (WHS) is a human developmental disorder arising from a hemizygous perturbation, typically a microdeletion, on the short arm of chromosome four. In addition to pronounced intellectual disability, seizures, and delayed growth, WHS presents with a characteristic facial dysmorphism and varying prevalence of microcephaly, micrognathia, cartilage malformation in the ear and nose, and facial asymmetries. These affected craniofacial tissues all derive from a shared embryonic precursor, the cranial neural crest (CNC), inviting the hypothesis that one or more WHS-affected genes may be critical regulators of neural crest development or migration. To explore this, we characterized expression of multiple genes within or immediately proximal to defined WHS critical regions, across the span of craniofacial development in the vertebrate model system Xenopus laevis. This subset of genes, whsc1, whsc2, letm1, and tacc3, are diverse in their currently-elucidated cellular functions; yet we find that their expression demonstrates shared tissue-specific enrichment within the anterior neural tube, migratory neural crest, and later craniofacial structures. We examine the ramifications of this by characterizing craniofacial development and neural crest migration following individual gene depletion. We observe that several WHS-associated genes significantly impact facial patterning, cartilage formation, neural crest motility in vivo and in vitro, and can separately contribute to forebrain scaling. Thus, we have determined that numerous genes within and surrounding the defined WHS critical regions potently impact craniofacial patterning, suggesting their role in WHS presentation may stem from essential functions during neural crest-derived tissue formation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra Mills
- Biology Department, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA, United States
| | - Elizabeth Bearce
- Biology Department, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA, United States
| | - Rachael Cella
- Biology Department, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA, United States
| | - Seung Woo Kim
- Biology Department, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA, United States
| | - Megan Selig
- Biology Department, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA, United States
| | - Sangmook Lee
- Biology Department, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA, United States
| | - Laura Anne Lowery
- Biology Department, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA, United States
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Lukas P, Olsson L. Sequence and timing of early cranial skeletal development in Xenopus laevis. J Morphol 2017; 279:62-74. [PMID: 28960402 DOI: 10.1002/jmor.20754] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2017] [Revised: 09/01/2017] [Accepted: 09/05/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Xenopus laevis is widely used as a model organism in biological research. Morphological descriptions of the larval cartilaginous skeleton are more than half a century old and comprehensive studies of early cartilage differentiation and development are missing. A proper understanding of early cranial skeletal development in X. laevis requires a detailed description that can function as a baseline for experimental studies. This basis makes it possible to evaluate skeletal defects produced by experiments on gene interactions, such as gain- or loss-of function experiments. In this study, we provide a detailed description of the pattern and timing of early cartilage differentiation and development in the larval head of X. laevis. Methods used include antibody staining, confocal laser scanning microscopy and 3D-reconstruction. Results were than compared to earlier studies based on classical histological approaches and clearing-and-staining. The first cartilage to chondrify is, in contrast to other vertebrates investigated so far, the ceratohyal. The components of the branchial basket chondrify in anterior-to-posterior direction as reported for other amphibians. Chondrification of different cartilages begins at different stages and the majority of cartilages are fully developed at Ziermann and Olsson stage 17. Our baseline data on the pattern and timing of early cartilaginous development in X. laevis is useful for evaluation of experiments which alter head skeletal development as well as for identifying heterochronic shifts in head development in other amphibians.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Paul Lukas
- Institut für Spezielle Zoologie und Evolutionsbiologie mit Phyletischem Museum, Friedrich-Schiller-Universität, Jena, Germany
| | - Lennart Olsson
- Institut für Spezielle Zoologie und Evolutionsbiologie mit Phyletischem Museum, Friedrich-Schiller-Universität, Jena, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Porro LB, Richards CT. Digital dissection of the model organism Xenopus laevis using contrast-enhanced computed tomography. J Anat 2017; 231:169-191. [PMID: 28547827 DOI: 10.1111/joa.12625] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/15/2017] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
The African clawed frog, Xenopus laevis, is one of the most widely used model organisms in biological research. However, the most recent anatomical description of X. laevis was produced nearly a century ago. Compared with other anurans, pipid frogs - including X. laevis - exhibit numerous unusual morphological features; thus, anatomical descriptions of more 'typical' frogs do not detail many aspects of X. laevis skeletal and soft-tissue morphology. The relatively new method of using iodine-based agents to stain soft tissues prior to high-resolution X-ray imaging has several advantages over gross dissection, such as enabling dissection of very small and fragile specimens, and preserving the three-dimensional topology of anatomical structures. Here, we use contrast-enhanced computed tomography to produce a high-resolution three-dimensional digital dissection of a post-metamorphic X. laevis to successfully visualize: skeletal and muscular anatomy; the nervous, respiratory, digestive, excretory and reproductive systems; and the major sense organs. Our digital dissection updates and supplements previous anatomical descriptions of this key model organism, and we present the three-dimensional data as interactive portable document format (PDF) files that are easily accessible and freely available for research and educational purposes. The data presented here hold enormous potential for applications beyond descriptive purposes, particularly for biological researchers using this taxon as a model organism, comparative anatomy and biomechanical modelling.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Laura B Porro
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, Hertfordshire, UK
| | - Christopher T Richards
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, Hertfordshire, UK
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Deniz E, Jonas S, Hooper M, N. Griffin J, Choma MA, Khokha MK. Analysis of Craniocardiac Malformations in Xenopus using Optical Coherence Tomography. Sci Rep 2017; 7:42506. [PMID: 28195132 PMCID: PMC5307353 DOI: 10.1038/srep42506] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2016] [Accepted: 01/10/2017] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Birth defects affect 3% of children in the United States. Among the birth defects, congenital heart disease and craniofacial malformations are major causes of mortality and morbidity. Unfortunately, the genetic mechanisms underlying craniocardiac malformations remain largely uncharacterized. To address this, human genomic studies are identifying sequence variations in patients, resulting in numerous candidate genes. However, the molecular mechanisms of pathogenesis for most candidate genes are unknown. Therefore, there is a need for functional analyses in rapid and efficient animal models of human disease. Here, we coupled the frog Xenopus tropicalis with Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT) to create a fast and efficient system for testing craniocardiac candidate genes. OCT can image cross-sections of microscopic structures in vivo at resolutions approaching histology. Here, we identify optimal OCT imaging planes to visualize and quantitate Xenopus heart and facial structures establishing normative data. Next we evaluate known human congenital heart diseases: cardiomyopathy and heterotaxy. Finally, we examine craniofacial defects by a known human teratogen, cyclopamine. We recapitulate human phenotypes readily and quantify the functional and structural defects. Using this approach, we can quickly test human craniocardiac candidate genes for phenocopy as a critical first step towards understanding disease mechanisms of the candidate genes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Engin Deniz
- Pediatric Genomics Discovery Program, Department of Pediatrics, Yale University, 333 Cedar Street, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
| | - Stephan Jonas
- Department of Medical Informatics, RWTH Aachen University, Pauwelsstraße 30, 52074 Aachen, Germany
| | - Michael Hooper
- Pediatric Genomics Discovery Program, Department of Pediatrics, Yale University, 333 Cedar Street, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
| | - John N. Griffin
- Pediatric Genomics Discovery Program, Department of Pediatrics, Yale University, 333 Cedar Street, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
| | - Michael A. Choma
- Department of Radiology and Biomedical Imaging, Department of Pediatrics, Yale University, 333 Cedar, Street New Haven, CT 06510, USA
- Department of Biomedical Engineering and Applied Physics, Yale University, 333 Cedar Street, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
| | - Mustafa K. Khokha
- Pediatric Genomics Discovery Program, Department of Pediatrics, Yale University, 333 Cedar Street, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
- Department of Genetics, Yale University School of Medicine, 333 Cedar Street, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Craniofacial disorders are among the most common human birth defects and present an enormous health care and social burden. The development of animal models has been instrumental to investigate fundamental questions in craniofacial biology and this knowledge is critical to understand the etiology and pathogenesis of these disorders. RECENT FINDINGS The vast majority of craniofacial disorders arise from abnormal development of the neural crest, a multipotent and migratory cell population. Therefore, defining the pathogenesis of these conditions starts with a deep understanding of the mechanisms that preside over neural crest formation and its role in craniofacial development. SUMMARY This review discusses several studies using Xenopus embryos to model human craniofacial conditions, and emphasizes the strength of this system to inform important biological processes as they relate to human craniofacial development and disease.
Collapse
|
15
|
Pereyra MO, Womack MC, Barrionuevo JS, Blotto BL, Baldo D, Targino M, Ospina-Sarria JJ, Guayasamin JM, Coloma LA, Hoke KL, Grant T, Faivovich J. The complex evolutionary history of the tympanic middle ear in frogs and toads (Anura). Sci Rep 2016; 6:34130. [PMID: 27677839 PMCID: PMC5039693 DOI: 10.1038/srep34130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2016] [Accepted: 08/30/2016] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Most anurans possess a tympanic middle ear (TME) that transmits sound waves to the inner ear; however, numerous species lack some or all TME components. To understand the evolution of these structures, we undertook a comprehensive assessment of their occurrence across anurans and performed ancestral character state reconstructions. Our analysis indicates that the TME was completely lost at least 38 independent times in Anura. The inferred evolutionary history of the TME is exceptionally complex in true toads (Bufonidae), where it was lost in the most recent common ancestor, preceding a radiation of >150 earless species. Following that initial loss, independent regains of some or all TME structures were inferred within two minor clades and in a radiation of >400 species. The reappearance of the TME in the latter clade was followed by at least 10 losses of the entire TME. The many losses and gains of the TME in anurans is unparalleled among tetrapods. Our results show that anurans, and especially bufonid toads, are an excellent model to study the behavioural correlates of earlessness, extratympanic sound pathways, and the genetic and developmental mechanisms that underlie the morphogenesis of TME structures.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Martín O. Pereyra
- Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales “Bernardino Rivadavia”-CONICET, Buenos Aires, C1405DJR, Argentina
| | - Molly C. Womack
- Department of Biology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA
| | - J. Sebastián Barrionuevo
- Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales “Bernardino Rivadavia”-CONICET, Buenos Aires, C1405DJR, Argentina
| | - Boris L. Blotto
- Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales “Bernardino Rivadavia”-CONICET, Buenos Aires, C1405DJR, Argentina
- Departamento de Zoologia, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP 05508-090, Brazil
| | - Diego Baldo
- Laboratorio de Genética Evolutiva, Instituto de Biología Subtropical (CONICET-UNaM), Facultad de Ciencias Exactas Químicas y Naturales, Universidad Nacional de Misiones, Posadas, N3300LQF, Argentina
| | - Mariane Targino
- Departamento de Zoologia, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP 05508-090, Brazil
| | - Jhon Jairo Ospina-Sarria
- Departamento de Zoologia, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP 05508-090, Brazil
| | - Juan M. Guayasamin
- Centro de Investigación de la Biodiversidad y Cambio Climático (BioCamb), Ingeniería en Biodiversidad y Cambio Climático, Facultad de Medio Ambiente, Universidad Tecnológica Indoamérica, Diego de Robles y Vía Interoceánica, 17-1200-841, Quito, EC170103, Ecuador
- Colegio de Ciencias Biológicas y Ambientales COCIBA, Laboratorio de Biología Evolutiva, Universidad San Francisco de Quito, Campus Cumbayá, Quito, 170901, Ecuador
| | - Luis A. Coloma
- Centro Jambatu de Investigación y Conservación de Anfibios, Fundación Otonga, Geovanni Farina 566 y Baltra, San Rafael, Quito, Ecuador
- Universidad Regional Amazónica Ikiam, Muyuna, Tena, Ecuador
| | - Kim L. Hoke
- Department of Biology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA
| | - Taran Grant
- Departamento de Zoologia, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP 05508-090, Brazil
| | - Julián Faivovich
- Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales “Bernardino Rivadavia”-CONICET, Buenos Aires, C1405DJR, Argentina
- Departamento de Biodiversidad y Biología Experimental, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, C1428EGA, Argentina
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Maddin HC, Piekarski N, Sefton EM, Hanken J. Homology of the cranial vault in birds: new insights based on embryonic fate-mapping and character analysis. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2016; 3:160356. [PMID: 27853617 PMCID: PMC5108967 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.160356] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2016] [Accepted: 07/12/2016] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Bones of the cranial vault appear to be highly conserved among tetrapod vertebrates. Moreover, bones identified with the same name are assumed to be evolutionarily homologous. However, recent developmental studies reveal a key difference in the embryonic origin of cranial vault bones between representatives of two amniote lineages, mammals and birds, thereby challenging this view. In the mouse, the frontal is derived from cranial neural crest (CNC) but the parietal is derived from mesoderm, placing the CNC-mesoderm boundary at the suture between these bones. In the chicken, this boundary is located within the frontal. This difference and related data have led several recent authors to suggest that bones of the avian cranial vault are misidentified and should be renamed. To elucidate this apparent conflict, we fate-mapped CNC and mesoderm in axolotl to reveal the contributions of these two embryonic cell populations to the cranial vault in a urodele amphibian. The CNC-mesoderm boundary in axolotl is located between the frontal and parietal bones, as in the mouse but unlike the chicken. If, however, the avian frontal is regarded instead as a fused frontal and parietal (i.e. frontoparietal) and the parietal as a postparietal, then the cranial vault of birds becomes developmentally and topologically congruent with those of urodeles and mammals. This alternative hypothesis of cranial vault homology is also phylogenetically consistent with data from the tetrapod fossil record, where frontal, parietal and postparietal bones are present in stem lineages of all extant taxa, including birds. It further implies that a postparietal may be present in most non-avian archosaurs, but fused to the parietal or supraoccipital as in many extant mammals.
Collapse
|
17
|
Miyashita T, Diogo R. Evolution of Serial Patterns in the Vertebrate Pharyngeal Apparatus and Paired Appendages via Assimilation of Dissimilar Units. Front Ecol Evol 2016. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2016.00071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
|
18
|
McCarthy N, Sidik A, Bertrand JY, Eberhart JK. An Fgf-Shh signaling hierarchy regulates early specification of the zebrafish skull. Dev Biol 2016; 415:261-277. [PMID: 27060628 PMCID: PMC4967541 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2016.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2015] [Revised: 03/30/2016] [Accepted: 04/05/2016] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
The neurocranium generates most of the craniofacial skeleton and consists of prechordal and postchordal regions. Although development of the prechordal is well studied, little is known of the postchordal region. Here we characterize a signaling hierarchy necessary for postchordal neurocranial development involving Fibroblast growth factor (Fgf) signaling for early specification of mesodermally-derived progenitor cells. The expression of hyaluron synthetase 2 (has2) in the cephalic mesoderm requires Fgf signaling and Has2 function, in turn, is required for postchordal neurocranial development. While Hedgehog (Hh)-deficient embryos also lack a postchordal neurocranium, this appears primarily due to a later defect in chondrocyte differentiation. Inhibitor studies demonstrate that postchordal neurocranial development requires early Fgf and later Hh signaling. Collectively, our results provide a mechanistic understanding of early postchordal neurocranial development and demonstrate a hierarchy of signaling between Fgf and Hh in the development of this structure.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Neil McCarthy
- Department of Molecular Biosciences; Institute of Cell and Molecular Biology, Waggoner Center for Alcohol and Alcohol Addiction Research, University of Texas, Austin, TX, United States
| | - Alfire Sidik
- Department of Molecular Biosciences; Institute of Cell and Molecular Biology, Waggoner Center for Alcohol and Alcohol Addiction Research, University of Texas, Austin, TX, United States
| | - Julien Y Bertrand
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, University of Geneva Medical School, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Johann K Eberhart
- Department of Molecular Biosciences; Institute of Cell and Molecular Biology, Waggoner Center for Alcohol and Alcohol Addiction Research, University of Texas, Austin, TX, United States; Department of Molecular Biosciences; Institute of Neurobiology, University of Texas, Austin, TX, United States.
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Miyashita T. Fishing for jaws in early vertebrate evolution: a new hypothesis of mandibular confinement. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2015; 91:611-57. [DOI: 10.1111/brv.12187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2014] [Revised: 03/18/2015] [Accepted: 03/19/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Tetsuto Miyashita
- Department of Biological Sciences; University of Alberta; Edmonton Alberta T6G 2E9 Canada
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Hirasawa T, Kuratani S. Evolution of the vertebrate skeleton: morphology, embryology, and development. ZOOLOGICAL LETTERS 2015; 1:2. [PMID: 26605047 PMCID: PMC4604106 DOI: 10.1186/s40851-014-0007-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2014] [Accepted: 02/19/2014] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Two major skeletal systems-the endoskeleton and exoskeleton-are recognized in vertebrate evolution. Here, we propose that these two systems are distinguished primarily by their relative positions, not by differences in embryonic histogenesis or cell lineage of origin. Comparative embryologic analyses have shown that both types of skeleton have changed their mode of histogenesis during evolution. Although exoskeletons were thought to arise exclusively from the neural crest, recent experiments in teleosts have shown that exoskeletons in the trunk are mesodermal in origin. The enameloid and dentine-coated postcranial exoskeleton seen in many vertebrates does not appear to represent an ancestral condition, as previously hypothesized, but rather a derived condition, in which the enameloid and dentine tissues became accreted to bones. Recent data from placoderm fossils are compatible with this scenario. In contrast, the skull contains neural crest-derived bones in its rostral part. Recent developmental studies suggest that the boundary between neural crest- and mesoderm-derived bones may not be consistent throughout evolution. Rather, the relative positions of bony elements may be conserved, and homologies of bony elements have been retained, with opportunistic changes in the mechanisms and cell lineages of development.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tatsuya Hirasawa
- Evolutionary Morphology Laboratory, RIKEN, 2-2-3 Minatojima-minami, Chuo-ku, Kobe, Hyogo 650-0047 Japan
| | - Shigeru Kuratani
- Evolutionary Morphology Laboratory, RIKEN, 2-2-3 Minatojima-minami, Chuo-ku, Kobe, Hyogo 650-0047 Japan
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Duran I, Ruiz-Sánchez J, Santamaría JA, Marí-Beffa M. Holmgren's principle of delamination during fin skeletogenesis. Mech Dev 2014; 135:16-30. [PMID: 25460362 DOI: 10.1016/j.mod.2014.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2014] [Revised: 11/12/2014] [Accepted: 11/14/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
During fin morphogenesis, several mesenchyme condensations occur to give rise to the dermal skeleton. Although each of them seems to create distinctive and unique structures, they all follow the premises of the same morphogenetic principle. Holmgren's principle of delamination was first proposed to describe the morphogenesis of skeletal elements of the cranium, but Jarvik extended it to the development of the fin exoskeleton. Since then, some cellular or molecular explanations, such as the "flypaper" model (Thorogood et al.), or the evolutionary description by Moss, have tried to clarify this topic. In this article, we review new data from zebrafish studies to meet these criteria described by Holmgren and other authors. The variety of cell lineages involved in these skeletogenic condensations sheds light on an open discussion of the contributions of mesoderm- versus neural crest-derived cell lineages to the development of the head and trunk skeleton. Moreover, we discuss emerging molecular studies that are disclosing conserved regulatory mechanisms for dermal skeletogenesis and similarities during fin development and regeneration, which may have important implications in the potential use of the zebrafish fin as a model for regenerative medicine.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- I Duran
- Laboratory of Bioengineering and Tissue Regeneration (LABRET), Department of Cell Biology, Genetics and Physiology, Biomedical Research Institute of Málaga (IBIMA), Faculty of Sciences, University of Málaga, 29071 Málaga, Spain; Department of Orthopedic Surgery, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA; Networking Research Center on Bioengineering, Biomaterials and Nanomedicine (CIBER-BBN), 29071 Málaga, Spain.
| | - J Ruiz-Sánchez
- Laboratory of Bioengineering and Tissue Regeneration (LABRET), Department of Cell Biology, Genetics and Physiology, Biomedical Research Institute of Málaga (IBIMA), Faculty of Sciences, University of Málaga, 29071 Málaga, Spain; Networking Research Center on Bioengineering, Biomaterials and Nanomedicine (CIBER-BBN), 29071 Málaga, Spain
| | - J A Santamaría
- Laboratory of Bioengineering and Tissue Regeneration (LABRET), Department of Cell Biology, Genetics and Physiology, Biomedical Research Institute of Málaga (IBIMA), Faculty of Sciences, University of Málaga, 29071 Málaga, Spain; Networking Research Center on Bioengineering, Biomaterials and Nanomedicine (CIBER-BBN), 29071 Málaga, Spain
| | - M Marí-Beffa
- Laboratory of Bioengineering and Tissue Regeneration (LABRET), Department of Cell Biology, Genetics and Physiology, Biomedical Research Institute of Málaga (IBIMA), Faculty of Sciences, University of Málaga, 29071 Málaga, Spain; Networking Research Center on Bioengineering, Biomaterials and Nanomedicine (CIBER-BBN), 29071 Málaga, Spain.
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Evolutionary innovation and conservation in the embryonic derivation of the vertebrate skull. Nat Commun 2014; 5:5661. [PMID: 25434971 PMCID: PMC4251486 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms6661] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2014] [Accepted: 10/24/2014] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Development of the vertebrate skull has been studied intensively for more than 150 years, yet many essential features remain unresolved. One such feature is the extent to which embryonic derivation of individual bones is evolutionarily conserved or labile. We perform long-term fate mapping using GFP-transgenic axolotl and Xenopus laevis to document the contribution of individual cranial neural crest streams to the osteocranium in these amphibians. Here we show that the axolotl pattern is strikingly similar to that in amniotes; it likely represents the ancestral condition for tetrapods. Unexpectedly, the pattern in Xenopus is much different; it may constitute a unique condition that evolved after anurans diverged from other amphibians. Such changes reveal an unappreciated relation between life history evolution and cranial development and exemplify ‘developmental system drift’, in which interspecific divergence in developmental processes that underlie homologous characters occurs with little or no concomitant change in the adult phenotype. It is unclear whether the embryonic origin of skull bones is evolutionarily conserved. Here, the authors show that the pattern of cranial development of the Mexican axolotl is similar to that reported for other vertebrates, but the pattern in the African clawed frog, another amphibian, is unique.
Collapse
|
23
|
Akiyama R, Kawakami H, Taketo MM, Evans SM, Wada N, Petryk A, Kawakami Y. Distinct populations within Isl1 lineages contribute to appendicular and facial skeletogenesis through the β-catenin pathway. Dev Biol 2014; 387:37-48. [PMID: 24424161 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2014.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2013] [Revised: 12/27/2013] [Accepted: 01/03/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Isl1 expression marks progenitor populations in developing embryos. In this study, we investigated the contribution of Isl1-expressing cells that utilize the β-catenin pathway to skeletal development. Inactivation of β-catenin in Isl1-expressing cells caused agenesis of the hindlimb skeleton and absence of the lower jaw (agnathia). In the hindlimb, Isl1-lineages broadly contributed to the mesenchyme; however, deletion of β-catenin in the Isl1-lineage caused cell death only in a discrete posterior domain of nascent hindlimb bud mesenchyme. We found that the loss of posterior mesenchyme, which gives rise to Shh-expressing posterior organizer tissue, caused loss of posterior gene expression and failure to expand chondrogenic precursor cells, leading to severe truncation of the hindlimb. In facial tissues, Isl1-expressing cells broadly contributed to facial epithelium. We found reduced nuclear β-catenin accumulation and loss of Fgf8 expression in mandibular epithelium of Isl1(-/-) embryos. Inactivating β-catenin in Isl1-expressing epithelium caused both loss of epithelial Fgf8 expression and death of mesenchymal cells in the mandibular arch without affecting epithelial proliferation and survival. These results suggest a Isl1→β-catenin→Fgf8 pathway that regulates mesenchymal survival and development of the lower jaw in the mandibular epithelium. By contrast, activating β-catenin signaling in Isl1-lineages caused activation of Fgf8 broadly in facial epithelium. Our results provide evidence that, despite its broad contribution to hindlimb mesenchyme and facial epithelium, the Isl1-β-catenin pathway regulates skeletal development of the hindlimb and lower jaw through discrete populations of cells that give rise to Shh-expressing posterior hindlimb mesenchyme and Fgf8-expressing mandibular epithelium.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ryutaro Akiyama
- Department of Genetics, Cell Biology and Development, University of Minnesota, 321 Church Street SE, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA; Stem Cell Institute, University of Minnesota, 2001 Sixth Street SE, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
| | - Hiroko Kawakami
- Department of Genetics, Cell Biology and Development, University of Minnesota, 321 Church Street SE, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA; Stem Cell Institute, University of Minnesota, 2001 Sixth Street SE, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
| | - M Mark Taketo
- Department of Pharmacology, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Kyoto 606-8051, Japan
| | - Sylvia M Evans
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy, and Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Naoyuki Wada
- Applied Biological Science, Faculty of Science and Technology, Tokyo University of Science, 2641 Yamazaki, Noda, Chiba 278-8510, Japan
| | - Anna Petryk
- Department of Genetics, Cell Biology and Development, University of Minnesota, 321 Church Street SE, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA; Department of Pediatrics, University of Minnesota, 2450 Riverside Avenue, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA; Developmental Biology Center, University of Minnesota, 321 Church Street SE, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
| | - Yasuhiko Kawakami
- Department of Genetics, Cell Biology and Development, University of Minnesota, 321 Church Street SE, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA; Stem Cell Institute, University of Minnesota, 2001 Sixth Street SE, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA; Developmental Biology Center, University of Minnesota, 321 Church Street SE, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA; Lillehei Heart Institute, University of Minnesota, 312 Church Street SE, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Mongera A, Singh AP, Levesque MP, Chen YY, Konstantinidis P, Nüsslein-Volhard C. Genetic lineage labeling in zebrafish uncovers novel neural crest contributions to the head, including gill pillar cells. Development 2013; 140:916-25. [PMID: 23362350 DOI: 10.1242/dev.091066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
At the protochordate-vertebrate transition, a new predatory lifestyle and increased body size coincided with the appearance of a true head. Characteristic innovations of this head are a skull protecting and accommodating a centralized nervous system, a jaw for prey capture and gills as respiratory organs. The neural crest (NC) is a major ontogenetic source for the 'new head' of vertebrates and its contribution to the cranial skeleton has been intensively studied in different model organisms. However, the role of NC in the expansion of the respiratory surface of the gills has been neglected. Here, we use genetic lineage labeling to address the contribution of NC to specific head structures, in particular to the gills of adult zebrafish. We generated a sox10:ER(T2)-Cre line and labeled NC cells by inducing Cre/loxP recombination with tamoxifen at embryonic stages. In juvenile and adult fish, we identified numerous established NC derivatives and, in the cranium, we precisely defined the crest/mesoderm interface of the skull roof. We show the NC origin of the opercular bones and of multiple cell types contributing to the barbels, chemosensory organs located in the mouth region. In the gills, we observed labeled primary and secondary lamellae. Clonal analysis reveals that pillar cells, a craniate innovation that mechanically supports the filaments and forms gill-specific capillaries, have a NC origin. Our data point to a crucial role for the NC in enabling more efficient gas exchange, thus uncovering a novel, direct involvement of this embryonic tissue in the evolution of respiratory systems at the protochordate-vertebrate transition.
Collapse
|
25
|
Kerney RR, Brittain AL, Hall BK, Buchholz DR. Cartilage on the move: cartilage lineage tracing during tadpole metamorphosis. Dev Growth Differ 2012; 54:739-52. [PMID: 23036161 DOI: 10.1111/dgd.12002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2012] [Revised: 08/27/2012] [Accepted: 08/28/2012] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The reorganization of cranial cartilages during tadpole metamorphosis is a set of complex processes. The fates of larval cartilage-forming cells (chondrocytes) and sources of adult chondrocytes are largely unknown. Individual larval cranial cartilages may either degenerate or remodel, while many adult cartilages appear to form de novo during metamorphosis. Determining the extent to which adult chondrocytes/cartilages are derived from larval chondrocytes during metamorphosis requires new techniques in chondrocyte lineage tracing. We have developed two transgenic systems to label cartilage cells throughout the body with fluorescent proteins. One system strongly labels early tadpole cartilages only. The other system inducibly labels forming cartilages at any developmental stage. We examined cartilages of the skull (viscero- and neurocranium), and identified larval cartilages that either resorb or remodel into adult cartilages. Our data show that the adult otic capsules, tecti anterius and posterius, hyale, and portions of Meckel's cartilage are derived from larval chondrocytes. Our data also suggest that most adult cartilages form de novo, though we cannot rule out the potential for extreme larval chondrocyte proliferation or de- and re-differentiation, which could dilute our fluorescent protein signal. The transgenic lineage tracing strategies developed here are the first examples of inducible, skeleton-specific, lineage tracing in Xenopus.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ryan R Kerney
- Department of Biology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
26
|
Schmidt J, Piekarski N, Olsson L. Cranial muscles in amphibians: development, novelties and the role of cranial neural crest cells. J Anat 2012; 222:134-46. [PMID: 22780231 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-7580.2012.01541.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Our research on the evolution of the vertebrate head focuses on understanding the developmental origins of morphological novelties. Using a broad comparative approach in amphibians, and comparisons with the well-studied quail-chicken system, we investigate how evolutionarily conserved or variable different aspects of head development are. Here we review research on the often overlooked development of cranial muscles, and on its dependence on cranial cartilage development. In general, cranial muscle cell migration and the spatiotemporal pattern of cranial muscle formation appears to be very conserved among the few species of vertebrates that have been studied. However, fate-mapping of somites in the Mexican axolotl revealed differences in the specific formation of hypobranchial muscles (tongue muscles) in comparison to the chicken. The proper development of cranial muscles has been shown to be strongly dependent on the mostly neural crest-derived cartilage elements in the larval head of amphibians. For example, a morpholino-based knock-down of the transcription factor FoxN3 in Xenopus laevis has drastic indirect effects on cranial muscle patterning, although the direct function of the gene is mostly connected to neural crest development. Furthermore, extirpation of single migratory streams of cranial neural crest cells in combination with fate-mapping in a frog shows that individual cranial muscles and their neural crest-derived connective tissue attachments originate from the same visceral arch, even when the muscles attach to skeletal components that are derived from a different arch. The same pattern has also been found in the chicken embryo, the only other species that has been thoroughly investigated, and thus might be a conserved pattern in vertebrates that reflects the fundamental nature of a mechanism that keeps the segmental order of the head in place despite drastic changes in adult anatomy. There is a need for detailed comparative fate-mapping of pre-otic paraxial mesoderm in amphibians, to determine developmental causes underlying the complicated changes in cranial muscle development and architecture within amphibians, and in particular how the novel mouth apparatus in frog tadpoles evolved. This will also form a foundation for further research into the molecular mechanisms that regulate rostral head morphogenesis. Our empirical studies are discussed within a theoretical framework concerned with the evolutionary origin and developmental basis of novel anatomical structures in general. We argue that a common developmental origin is not a fool-proof guide to homology, and that a view that sees only structures without homologs as novel is too restricted, because novelties must be produced by changes in the same framework of developmental processes. At the level of developmental processes and mechanisms, novel structures are therefore likely to have homologs, and we need to develop a hierarchical concept of novelty that takes this into account.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer Schmidt
- Institut für Spezielle Zoologie und Evolutionsbiologie mit Phyletischem Museum, Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena, Jena, Germany
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
27
|
Lee YH, Saint-Jeannet JP. Sox9 function in craniofacial development and disease. Genesis 2011; 49:200-8. [PMID: 21309066 DOI: 10.1002/dvg.20717] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2010] [Revised: 01/03/2011] [Accepted: 01/06/2011] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
The Sox family of transcriptional regulators has been implicated in the control of a broad array of developmental processes. One member of this family SOX9 was first identified as a candidate gene for campomelic dysplasia (CD), a human syndrome affecting skeletal, and testis development. In these patients most endochondral bones of the face fail to develop resulting in multiple defects such as micrognathia, cleft palate, and facial dysmorphia. In this review we describe Sox9 expression during embryonic development and summarize loss of function experiments in frog, fish, and mouse embryos highlighting the role of Sox9 in regulating morphogenesis of the face. We also discuss the mutations in and around SOX9 responsible for craniofacial defects in CD patients.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Young-Hoon Lee
- Department of Oral Anatomy, School of Dentistry and Institute of Oral Biosciences, Chonbuk National University, Jeonju, South Korea
| | | |
Collapse
|
28
|
Schmidt J, Schuff M, Olsson L. A role for FoxN3 in the development of cranial cartilages and muscles in Xenopus laevis (Amphibia: Anura: Pipidae) with special emphasis on the novel rostral cartilages. J Anat 2011; 218:226-42. [PMID: 21050205 PMCID: PMC3042756 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-7580.2010.01315.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/01/2010] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The origin of morphological novelties is a controversial topic in evolutionary developmental biology. The heads of anuran larvae have several unique structures, including the supra- and infrarostral cartilages, the specialised structure of the gill basket (used for filtration), and novel cranial muscle arrangements. FoxN3, a member of the forkhead/winged helix family of transcription factors, has been implicated as important for normal craniofacial development in the pipid anuran Xenopus laevis. We have investigated the effects of functional knockdown of FoxN3 (using antisense oligonucleotide morpholino) on the development of the larval head skeleton and the associated cranial muscles in X. laevis. Our data complement earlier studies and provide a more complete account of the requirement of FoxN3 in chondrocranium development. In addition, we analyse the effects of FoxN3 knockdown on cranial muscle development. We show that FoxN3 knockdown primarily affects the novel skeletal structures unique to anuran larvae, i.e. the rostralia or the fine structure of the gill apparatus. The articulation between the infrarostral and Meckel's cartilage is malformed and the filigreed processes of the gill basket do not develop. Because these features do not develop after FoxN3 knockdown, the head morphology resembles that in the less specialised larvae of salamanders. Furthermore, the development of all cartilages derived from the neural crest is delayed and cranial muscle fibre development incomplete. The cartilage precursors initially condense in their proper position but later differentiate incompletely; several visceral arch muscles start to differentiate at their origin but fail to extend toward their insertion. Our findings indicate that FoxN3 is essential for the development of novel cartilages such as the infrarostral and other cranial tissues derived from the neural crest and, indirectly, also for muscle morphogenesis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer Schmidt
- Institut für Spezielle Zoologie und Evolutionsbiologie mit Phyletischem Museum, Friedrich-Schiller-Universität, Jena, Germany.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
29
|
Kerney R, Wassersug R, Hall BK. Skeletal advance and arrest in giant non-metamorphosing African clawed frog tadpoles (Xenopus laevis: Daudin). J Anat 2010; 216:132-43. [PMID: 20402828 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-7580.2009.01176.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
This study examines the skeletons of giant non-metamorphosing (GNM) Xenopus laevis tadpoles, which arrest their development indefinitely before metamorphosis, and grow to excessively large sizes in the absence of detectable thyroid glands. Cartilage growth is isometric; however, chondrocyte size is smaller in GNM tadpoles than in controls. Most cartilages stain weakly with alcian blue, and several cartilages are calcified (unlike controls). However, cartilages subjacent to periosteum-derived bone retain strong affinities for alcian blue, indicating a role for periosteum-derived bone in the retention of glycosaminoglycans during protracted larval growth. Bone formation in the head, limb, and axial skeletons is advanced in comparison with stage-matched controls, but arrests at various mid-metamorphic states. Both dermal and periosteum-derived bones grow to disproportionately large sizes in comparison to controls. Additionally, mature monocuspid teeth form in several GNM tadpoles. Advances in skeletal development are attributable to the old ages and large sizes of these tadpoles, and reveal unexpected developmental potentials of the pre-metamorphic skeleton.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ryan Kerney
- Biology Department, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|