Spatial distribution of settlement of Diadema antillarum around Saba, Dutch Caribbean

The mass mortality event of the herbivorous sea urchin Diadema antillarum in 1983-1984 has been a major contributor to the diminished resilience of coral reefs throughout the Caribbean. The reduction in grazing pressure resulted in algae proliferation, which inhibited coral recruitment after disturbances such as disease, hurricanes, pollution and climatic change induced marine heat waves. Natural recovery of D. antillarum after the 1983-1984 die-off has been slow. However, the few locations with recovered populations exhibit signs of improvement in coral reef health, prompting interest in D. antillarum restoration. Current restoration strategies include translocation of wild individuals, the restocking of juveniles that are either cultured from gametes or collected as settlers and head-started in a nursery, and assisted natural recovery by providing suitable settlement substrate. Both the collection of wild settlers and assisted natural recovery necessitate an understanding of the local, spatiotemporal trends in settlement. In this study, which was carried out on the Dutch Caribbean Island of Saba, artificial turf settlement collectors were deployed at nine locations around the island and monitored from June 2019 till July 2020 (13 months). The primary objective was to identify trends in larval settlement in space and time, to be able to optimize restoration efforts. Additionally, the small size of Saba allowed us to deploy settlement collectors around the island and compare D. antillarum settlement between windward and leeward sides. Our study showed that on Saba, D. antillarum settlement peaked in June and July, following similar seasonal trends observed around other islands in the Northeastern Caribbean. By far the most settlement occurred at the leeward side of the island, suggesting that hydrodynamic forces entrained D. antillarum larvae in the lee of Saba and/or calmer waters facilitated settlement. Limited settlement occurred on the more exposed windward locations. The identified high settlement locations are candidates for settler collection and restoration attempts. Continued monitoring of D. antillarum settlement, especially in light of the 2022 D. antillarum die-off, holds significance as it can provide insights into the potential of natural recovery.

An Assessment of the Biological Significance of a Visual Clutch Staging Scheme for Ovigerous Female American Lobster (Homarus americanus)

Qualitative visual clutch staging is a useful tool for rapidly and non-invasively assessing the developmental stage of American lobster, Homarus americanus, embryos. While such a scheme has been used in fisheries monitoring strategies in Canada since the 1980s, the biological relevance of its four visually distinguishable stages is poorly understood. We conducted a laboratory experiment in which 10 ovigerous females were housed and the development of their embryos regularly assessed, both qualitatively and quantitatively, from November until hatching in July/August. We confirmed the biological relevance of the qualitative staging scheme by showing clear quantitative differences in the duration and rate of embryonic development of stages 2-4 (stage 1 was not assessed as the precise spawning date was unknown). Stage 2 represents winter-spring "dormancy". Stage 3 represents a shorter period of rapid development preceding hatch. Stage 4 represents hatching. We also recommend some improvements to the qualitative staging scheme, specifically (1) adding criteria related to the portion of eggs that are occupied by yolk to increase the accuracy of staging, (2) slightly redefining stage 3 to ensure it encompasses the full period of rapid embryonic development pre-hatch, and (3) adding the presence of pre-zoeae as a key indicator of hatching to avoid the misclassification of clutches in the early stages of hatching or those that are completely spent but still have adhesive substance.

Planktonic Duration of the Bryozoan Cyphonautes Larva and Limits on Growth Rate Imposed by Its Form-Limited Maximum Clearance Rate

AbstractThe form of the cyphonautes larva of bryozoans changes little during development. The ciliated band that generates the feeding current increases nearly in proportion to body length, so that the maximum rate of clearing planktonic food from a volume of water becomes increasingly low relative to body protein. This development is unlike the other larvae that produce a feeding current with bands of simple cilia. The cyphonautes' growth rate has therefore been predicted to be unusually low when food is scarce. As predicted, cyphonautes larvae of a species of Membranipora starved at concentrations of food that supported growth of pluteus larvae. Comparisons between the cyphonautes and plutei of a sand dollar were for growth from first feeding to metamorphosis, with a mix of two algal species. Another comparison was for growth of cyphonautes at an advanced stage and plutei of a regular sea urchin at an early stage, with food in seawater at a reduced concentration. The low maximum clearance rate did not prevent rapid growth and development of some cyphonautes from egg through metamorphosis when food was abundant. Twenty-nine days for development to metamorphosis in the laboratory with abundant food was close to Yoshioka's estimate of larval duration from the time lag between adult zooid density and larval abundance in a population in the Southern California Bight. Despite individual variation in growth rates and other physiological and environmental influences, simple measures of larval form predicted the differences in larval performance: scarce food extended larval duration for the cyphonautes more than for plutei.

Predators Induce Phenotypic Plasticity in Echinoderms across Life History Stages

AbstractMarine invertebrates with biphasic life cycles feature life history transitions that coincide with habitat changes from benthic adults to planktonic embryos and larvae, then a return to the benthos as a juvenile at metamorphosis. The metamorphic transition exposes animals to a new suite of benthic predators, and high mortality often occurs in the hours and days following settlement. Juvenile invertebrates may produce phenotypically plastic morphological defenses when predator cues are detected. However, time lags inherent to phenotypic plasticity may delay the production of defenses until after the period of highest vulnerability. It should, therefore, be beneficial for planktonic larvae approaching settlement to detect waterborne cues from benthic predators and produce juvenile phenotypes appropriate for postmetamorphic survival. Echinoderms are useful models for testing transhabitat and trans-life history stage phenotypic plasticity because many species have larvae that construct their juvenile phenotype while still in the water column. In this study, we tested whether planktonic echinoderm larvae exposed to cues from benthic predators modified their juvenile phenotypes at settlement. Green urchin (Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis) and Pacific sand dollar (Dendraster excentricus) larvae were exposed to predatory green crab (Carcinus maenus) or red rock crab (Cancer productus) cues, respectively, from their early-stage juvenile rudiment formation through settlement. Green urchin larvae exposed to predator cues settled with significantly more juvenile spines compared to unexposed controls. Sand dollars exhibited earlier settlement, larger disk area, fewer spines, and shorter spines when exposed to benthic predator cues. Sand dollar larvae were also exposed to cues from planktonic crab larvae and in response settled sooner and larger, with even fewer and shorter spines than those exposed to benthic predator cues. These results suggest that echinoderm larvae alter their juvenile phenotype in response to predator cues, but the response varies between species, and responses to planktonic threats may be prioritized over benthic ones.

Biological traits of marine benthic invertebrates in Northwest Europe

Biological traits analysis (BTA) provides insight into causes and consequences of biodiversity change that cannot be achieved using traditional taxonomic approaches. However, acquiring information on biological traits (i.e., the behavioural, morphological, and reproductive characteristics of taxa) can be extremely time-consuming, especially for large community datasets, thus hindering the successful application of BTA. Here, we present information on ten key biological traits for over a thousand marine benthic invertebrate taxa surveyed in Northwest Europe (mainly the UK shelf). Scores of 0 to 3 are provided to indicate our confidence that taxa exhibit each possible mode of trait expression. The information was acquired over a decade through an extensive appraisal of relevant sources, including peer-reviewed papers, books, online material and, where necessary, professional judgement. These data may be inspected, used, and augmented by fellow researchers, thus assisting in the wider application of BTA in marine benthic ecology.

Measurement(s)	body size • body morphology • lifespan • egg development location • larva development location • living habit • sediment position • feeding mode • mobility • bioturbation mode
Technology Type(s)	literature review • professional judgement
Sample Characteristic - Organism	benthic invertebrates
Sample Characteristic - Environment	marine environment
Sample Characteristic - Location	Northwest Europe

Potentially handicapped but otherwise functional: Malformations in prey capture tools show no impacts on octopus life

Larval mortality is a keystone ecological factor for many benthic octopus since it mostly occurs before their settlement in the sea bottom as benthic juveniles. The literature had revealed that records of adult animals with morphological abnormalities (teratologies) are fewer in species with complex life cycle than in those with direct development. This is a direct consequence of the morphological, physiological, and development challenges that the transition from the larval to the adult morphology represents. During a routine fishing sample, we found an immature female horned octopus with additional buccal structures in two suckers of its ventral arms, likely rendering these suckers as inefficient. Based on the literature about the natural history of octopus, we provide evidence that these abnormalities were present at the moment of hatch. We evaluated the impact of the teratologies by comparing the shape of the buccal beaks and the trophic niche of the individual with five normal conspecifics. Although the beaks showed a different shape than normal individuals, the trophic niche was similar. Surprisingly, the teratological condition of the individual likely had no severe impacts on its life, even though it likely represents a handicap for its survival during its planktonic life. We also comment on other previous records from the literature of teratological adult octopus to highlight the amazing adaptive capacity of octopus to deal with challenging morphologies.

Developmental Consequences of Temperature and Salinity Stress in the Sand Dollar Dendraster excentricus

Animals that reside, reproduce, and develop in nearshore habitats are often exposed to strong fluctuations in abiotic conditions, including temperature and salinity. We studied the developmental response of the sand dollar Dendraster excentricus to increased temperature and reduced salinity at levels comparable to those induced by summer freshwater input into the San Juan Archipelago, Washington. We observed that embryos exposed to temperature and salinity stress exhibited polyembryony (the splitting of one embryo into multiple independent individuals), and we subsequently tested the competency of twin and normal embryos to reach metamorphosis. We found that twin embryos generated from a single egg are each capable of reaching metamorphosis. To begin investigating the mechanisms underlying polyembryony, we tested whether osmotic stress caused swelling of the fertilization envelope, thus allowing embryos the physical space to produce multiples within a single envelope. We also tested whether reduced calcium levels in low-salinity seawater reduced cell-cell adhesion and allowed cells to separate and develop as multiple embryos within a fertilization envelope. However, neither osmotic stress nor reduced calcium levels alone appear sufficient to induce polyembryony. We hypothesize that changes in the properties of the hyaline layer that lies beneath the fertilization envelope facilitate polyembryony.

Synergistic negative effects of thermal stress and altered food resources on echinoid larvae

Multiple changes to the marine environment under climate change can have additive or interactive (antagonistic or synergistic) effects on marine organisms. Prompted by observations of anomalously warm sea temperatures and low chlorophyll concentrations during the 2013-2016 warm "Blob" event in the Northeast Pacific Ocean, we examined the combined effects of thermal stress and a shift in food resources on the development of a larval echinoid (Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis) in the laboratory. A high concentration of phytoplankton yielded faster echinus rudiment development at warm versus historical temperature, indicating a mitigating effect of abundant food on thermal stress; however, low phytoplankton concentration or a shift in diet to suspended kelp detritus, yielded slow development and high mortality at warm temperature. The results indicate a synergistic negative effect of thermal stress and altered food resources on larvae of a keystone marine species.

An ancient FMRFamide-related peptide-receptor pair induces defence behaviour in a brachiopod larva

Animal behaviour often comprises spatially separated sub-reactions and even ciliated larvae are able to coordinate sub-reactions of complex behaviours (metamorphosis, feeding). How these sub-reactions are coordinated is currently not well understood. Neuropeptides are potential candidates for triggering larval behaviour. However, although their immunoreactivity has been widely analysed, their function in trochozoan larvae has only been studied for a few cases. Here, we investigate the role of neuropeptides in the defence behaviour of brachiopod larvae. When mechanically disturbed, the planktonic larvae of Terebratalia transversa protrude their stiff chaetae and sink down slowly. We identified endogenous FLRFamide-type neuropeptides (AFLRFamide and DFLRFamide) in T. transversa larvae and show that the protrusion of the chaetae as well as the sinking reaction can both be induced by each of these peptides. This also correlates with the presence of FLRFamidergic neurons in the apical lobe and adjacent to the trunk musculature. We deorphanized the AFLRFamide/DFLRFamide receptor and detected its expression in the same tissues. Furthermore, the ability of native and modified FLRFamide-type peptides to activate this receptor was found to correspond with their ability to trigger behavioural responses. Our results show how FLRFamide-type neuropeptides can induce two coherent sub-reactions in a larva with a simple nervous system.

Applying Movement Ecology to Marine Animals with Complex Life Cycles

Marine animals with complex life cycles may move passively or actively for fertilization, dispersal, predator avoidance, resource acquisition, and migration, and over scales from micrometers to thousands of kilometers. This diversity has catalyzed idiosyncratic and unfocused research, creating unsound paradigms regarding the role of movement in ecology and evolution. The emerging movement ecology paradigm offers a framework to consolidate movement research independent of taxon, life-history stage, scale, or discipline. This review applies the framework to movement among life-history stages in marine animals with complex life cycles to consolidate marine movement research and offer insights for scientists working in aquatic and terrestrial realms. Irrespective of data collection or simulation strategy, breaking each life-history stage down into the fundamental units of movement allows each unit to be studied independently or interactively with other units. Understanding these underlying mechanisms of movement within each life-history stage can then be used to construct lifetime movement paths. These paths can allow further investigation of the relative contributions and interdependencies of steps and phases across a lifetime and how these paths influence larger research topics, such as population-level movements.

Patterns and Drivers of Egg Pigment Intensity and Colour Diversity in the Ocean: A Meta-Analysis of Phylum Echinodermata

Egg pigmentation is proposed to serve numerous ecological, physiological, and adaptive functions in egg-laying animals. Despite the predominance and taxonomic diversity of egg layers, syntheses reviewing the putative functions and drivers of egg pigmentation have been relatively narrow in scope, centring almost exclusively on birds. Nonvertebrate and aquatic species are essentially overlooked, yet many of them produce maternally provisioned eggs in strikingly varied colours, from pale yellow to bright red or green. We explore the ways in which these colour patterns correlate with behavioural, morphological, geographic and phylogenetic variables in extant classes of Echinodermata, a phylum that has close phylogenetic ties with chordates and representatives in nearly all marine environments. Results of multivariate analyses show that intensely pigmented eggs are characteristic of pelagic or external development whereas pale eggs are commonly brooded internally. Of the five egg colours catalogued, orange and yellow are the most common. Yellow eggs are a primitive character, associated with all types of development (predominant in internal brooders), whereas green eggs are always pelagic, occur in the most derived orders of each class and are restricted to the Indo-Pacific Ocean. Orange eggs are geographically ubiquitous and may represent a 'universal' egg pigment that functions well under a diversity of environmental conditions. Finally, green occurs chiefly in the classes Holothuroidea and Ophiuroidea, orange in Asteroidea, yellow in Echinoidea, and brown in Holothuroidea. By examining an unprecedented combination of egg colours/intensities and reproductive strategies, this phylum-wide study sheds new light on the role and drivers of egg pigmentation, drawing parallels with theories developed from the study of more derived vertebrate taxa. The primary use of pigments (of any colour) to protect externally developing eggs from oxidative damage and predation is supported by the comparatively pale colour of equally large, internally brooded eggs. Secondarily, geographic location drives the evolution of egg colour diversity, presumably through the selection of better-adapted, more costly pigments in response to ecological pressure.

Larval Biology and Environmental Tolerances of the King Crab Parasite Briarosaccus regalis

Rhizocephalan barnacles in the genus Briarosaccus parasitize and castrate king crab hosts, thereby preventing host reproduction and potentially altering host abundance. To better understand how environmental factors in Alaska may influence Briarosaccus prevalence, we studied the effects of temperature and salinity on the larvae of Briarosaccus regalis (previously Briarosaccus callosus). Nauplius larvae were reared at 7 temperatures (2 to 16 C) and 8 salinities (19 to 40) to determine larval survival and development rates. Maximum survival occurred from 4 to 12 C and at salinities between 25 and 34. In the Gulf of Alaska and Bering Sea, ocean temperatures and salinities are often within these ranges; thus current conditions appear favorable for high B. regalis larval survival. In addition, temperature was negatively correlated with larval development time; thus warmer waters can reduce the time larvae are exposed to the dangers of the planktonic environment. Since only female B. regalis larvae can infect crabs, we investigated the sex ratios of B. regalis broods at different temperatures and how size and morphological traits can be used to sex cyprid larvae. Larval rearing temperature did not affect brood sex ratio (F_0.947, P = 0.369), but sex ratio varied among broods (F_221.9; P < 0.001). Male larvae (424.5 ± 24.3 μm [mean ± 1 SD]) were significantly larger than female larvae (387.6 ± 22.7 μm [mean ± 1 SD]; F_1,221.4; P < 0.001), consistent with other rhizocephalan cyprids, but sizes overlapped between the sexes such that morphological traits were also necessary for determining sex. Overall, this study provides new information on the larval biology, larval morphology, and environmental tolerances of B. regalis , an important king crab parasite.

Zachsia zenkewitschi (Teredinidae), a Rare and Unusual Seagrass Boring Bivalve Revisited and Redescribed

The sea-grass borer Zachsia zenkewitschi belongs to a group of economically and ecologically important bivalves, commonly referred to as shipworms. The sole recognized representative of the genus Zachsia, this species displays an unusual life history and reproductive strategy that is now understood to include: environmental sex determination of free swimming larvae, extreme sexual and size dimorphism between males and females, internal fertilization, maintenance of often large harems of male dwarfs within a specialized cavity of the female mantle, and complex maternal care of larvae in specialized brood pouches within the gill. It is also the only shipworm species known to burrow in sea grass rhizomes rather than terrestrial wood. Although Z. zenkewitschi is rare and little studied, understanding of its biology and anatomy has evolved substantially, rendering some aspects of its original description inaccurate. Moreover, no existing type specimens are known for this species. In light of these facts, we designate a neotype from among specimens recently collected at the type location, and undertake a re-description of this species, accounting for recent reinterpretation of its life history and functional anatomy.

Planning Marine Reserve Networks for Both Feature Representation and Demographic Persistence Using Connectivity Patterns

Marine reserve networks must ensure the representation of important conservation features, and also guarantee the persistence of key populations. For many species, designing reserve networks is complicated by the absence or limited availability of spatial and life-history data. This is particularly true for data on larval dispersal, which has only recently become available. However, systematic conservation planning methods currently incorporate demographic processes through unsatisfactory surrogates. There are therefore two key challenges to designing marine reserve networks that achieve feature representation and demographic persistence constraints. First, constructing a method that efficiently incorporates persistence as well as complementary feature representation. Second, incorporating persistence using a mechanistic description of population viability, rather than a proxy such as size or distance. Here we construct a novel systematic conservation planning method that addresses both challenges, and parameterise it to design a hypothetical marine reserve network for fringing coral reefs in the Keppel Islands, Great Barrier Reef, Australia. For this application, we describe how demographic persistence goals can be constructed for an important reef fish species in the region, the bar-cheeked trout (Plectropomus maculatus). We compare reserve networks that are optimally designed for either feature representation or demographic persistence, with a reserve network that achieves both goals simultaneously. As well as being practically applicable, our analyses also provide general insights into marine reserve planning for both representation and demographic persistence. First, persistence constraints for dispersive organisms are likely to be much harder to achieve than representation targets, due to their greater complexity. Second, persistence and representation constraints pull the reserve network design process in divergent directions, making it difficult to efficiently achieve both constraints. Although our method can be readily applied to the data-rich Keppel Islands case study, we finally consider the factors that limit the method's utility in information-poor contexts common in marine conservation.

Acidification reduced growth rate but not swimming speed of larval sea urchins

Swimming behaviors of planktonic larvae impact dispersal and population dynamics of many benthic marine invertebrates. This key ecological function is modulated by larval development dynamics, biomechanics of the resulting morphology, and behavioral choices. Studies on ocean acidification effects on larval stages have yet to address this important interaction between development and swimming under environmentally-relevant flow conditions. Our video motion analysis revealed that pH covering present and future natural variability (pH 8.0, 7.6 and 7.2) did not affect age-specific swimming of larval green urchin Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis in still water nor in shear, despite acidified individuals being significantly smaller in size (reduced growth rate). This maintenance of speed and stability in shear was accompanied by an overall change in size-corrected shape, implying changes in swimming biomechanics. Our observations highlight strong evolutionary pressure to maintain swimming in a varying environment and the plasticity in larval responses to environmental change.

Carryover effects of predation risk on postembryonic life-history stages in a freshwater shrimp

For organisms with complex life histories it is well known that risk experienced early in life, as embryos or larvae, may have effects throughout the life cycle. Although carryover effects have been well documented in invertebrates with different levels of parental care, there are few examples of predator-induced responses in externally brooded embryos. Here, we studied the effects of nonlethal predation risk throughout the embryonic development of newly spawned eggs carried by female shrimp on the timing of egg hatching, hatchling morphology, larval development and juvenile morphology. We also determined maternal body mass at the end of the embryonic period. Exposure to predation risk cues during embryonic development led to larger larvae which also had longer rostra but reached the juvenile stage sooner, at a smaller size and with shorter rostra. There was no difference in hatching timing, but changes in larval morphology and developmental timing showed that the embryos had perceived waterborne substances indicative of predation risk. In addition to carryover effects on larval and juvenile stages, predation threat provoked a decrease of body mass in mothers exposed to predator cues while brooding. Our results suggest that risk-exposed embryos were able to recognize the same infochemicals as their mothers, manifesting a response in the free-living larval stage. Thus, future studies assessing anti-predator phenotypes should include embryonic development, which seems to determine the morphology and developmental time of subsequent life-history stages according to perceived environmental conditions.