Zyvox® Annual Appraisal of Potency and Spectrum (ZAAPS) program: report of linezolid activity over 9 years (2004-12)

In-vitro antimicrobial activity of new antimicrobial agents against Streptococcus pneumoniae and potential resistance mechanisms: a multicenter study

BACKGROUND

Streptococcus pneumoniae is a major cause of invasive and non-invasive diseases, particularly in children and immunocompromised individuals, with an annual mortality of approximately 800,000 children worldwide. The rise of antibiotic-resistant strains complicates treatment, especially with increasing resistance to penicillin, macrolides, and fluoroquinolones. The study on the resistance of newly developed antimicrobial agents against S. pneumoniae was rarely reported. Furthermore, understanding the relationship between serotypes, resistance mechanisms, and virulence in S. pneumoniae is essential for disease management and vaccine development.

METHODS

A total of 208 S. pneumoniae isolates were collected across nine hospitals in seven Chinese cities/provinces from January 2023 to June 2024. Molecular characteristics were analyzed using whole-genome sequencing to identify serotypes, sequence types, virulence genes, and potential resistance mechanisms. Antibiotic susceptibility test (AST) was performed against 14 agents, involving new antibiotics (eravacycline, omadacycline, nemonoxacin, and contezolid).

RESULTS

Serotypes 19 F (24.6%) and 23 F (11.1%) predominated, with vaccine coverage rates of PCV13 at 66.8%. High resistance rates in S. pneumoniae were observed for erythromycin (208/208, 100%), clindamycin (197/208, 94.7%), and tetracycline (192/208, 92.3%). 13.5% (28/208) and 2.9% (6/208) strains were intermediate and resistant to penicillin, respectively. The new antibiotics showed low resistance, namely, 1.9% (4/208), 0.5% (1/208), 1.9% (4/208), and 7.2% (15/208) resistant to eravacycline, omadacycline, contezolid, and nemonoxacin, respectively. Resistance mechanisms included mutations in 23S rRNA for oxazolidinones, tet genes for tetracyclines, and gyrA/parC for fluoroquinolones.

CONCLUSIONS

S. pneumoniae in China exhibits high genetic diversity and significant antibiotic resistance, underscoring the need for continuous surveillance and updated vaccines. New antibiotics remain effective against multidrug-resistant strains, offering potential treatment options in clinical settings.

Population pharmacokinetics and dosage optimization of linezolid in Chinese older patients

PURPOSE

To assess the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of linezolid in a retrospective cohort of hospitalized Chinese older patients.

METHODS

Patients > 60 years of age, who received intravenous linezolid (600 mg), were included. A population pharmacokinetics (PPK) model was established using nonlinear mixed-effects modeling. The predictive performance of the final model was assessed using goodness-of-fit plots, bootstrap analyses, and visual predictive checks. Monte Carlo simulations were used to evaluate the achievement of a pharmacodynamics target for the area under the serum concentration-time curve/minimum inhibitory concentration (AUC0-24/MIC).

RESULTS

A total of 210 samples were collected from 120 patients. A one-compartment PPK model with linear elimination best predicted the linezolid plasma concentrations. Linezolid clearance (CL) was 4.22 L h-1 and volume of distribution (Vd) was 45.80 L; serum uric acid (SUA) was a significant covariate of CL.

CONCLUSION

The results of this study indicated that the standard dose was associated with a risk of overexposure in older patients, particularly those with high SUA values; these patients would benefit from a lower dose (300 mg every 12 h).

Clinical Characteristics and Drug Resistance Mechanisms of Linezolid-Non-Susceptible Enterococcus in a Tertiary Hospital in Northwest China

Purpose

To understand the detection rate and distribution characteristics of Linezolid-nonsusceptible Enterococcus (LNSE) and analyze the molecular typing and main drug resistance mechanisms of LNSE, providing a theoretical basis for the precision prevention and control of LNSE hospital infections.

Methods

A total of 40 LNSE strains isolated from clinical specimens between January 1, 2012, and December 31, 2022, were collected. The LNSE isolates identified by instrument detection were confirmed using a microbroth dilution method. The WHONET 5.0 software was used for statistical analysis of LNSE detection rate, and the LNSE judgment was based on the 2022 CLSI criteria. PCR methods were used to detect 23S rRNA, cfr, optrA, and L3, L4 ribosomal RNA sites for linezolid resistance genes, and gene sequencing was used to verify the amplified PCR products. Multiple locus sequence typing (MLST) was performed to analyze the homology of LNSE strains.

Results

A total of 6924 Enterococcus isolates were separated and identified from January 1, 2012, to December 31, 2022, of which 40 were LNSE strains (26 Enterococcus faecalis, 14 Enterococcus faecium), with a detection rate of 0.58% (40/6924). Among them, 28 Linezolid-intermediated Enterococcus(LIE) were detected, accounting for 0.4% (28/6924), and 12 Linezolid-resistant Enterococcus(LRE) were detected, with a detection rate of 0.17% (12/6924). Among the LNSE strains, 23 were resistant to genes. The 40 LNSE strains could be divided into 20 different ST types, with ST16 being the main type, accounting for 12.5% (5/40).

Conclusion

The detection of LNSE strains was dominated by Enterococcus faecalis, and the main resistance mechanism of LRE strains was carrying the optrA gene, with 23S rRNA gene mutations also contributing to resistance. New resistance gene phenotypes (optrA +/23S rRNA+) emerged. Most LRE cases were sporadic, and clonal dissemination was observed in some strains.

Cyclic carbamates in medicine: A clinical perspective

Carbamate group is mainly used for designing prodrugs to achieve first-pass and systemic stability against enzyme hydrolysis as the carbamate functionality is recognized by esterase enzymes. As compared to the ester functionality, the carbamate group shows a lesser lability towards enzyme hydrolysis, but a higher susceptibility than amides. Cyclic carbamates present a unique motif in the contemporary drug discovery and development owing to the presence of a polar, and sterically small, constrained Hydrogen-bonding acceptor atom. The metabolic stability of 5/6-membered cyclic carbamates are higher as compared to their acyclic counterparts as the former do not undergo metabolic ring opening under physiological conditions. Besides, the metabolic lability of acyclic carbamates is determined by the degree of substitution at the endocyclic/exocyclic "N" atom, which further enables the design and development of various carbamate drugs or prodrugs. As such, the metabolic stability of carbamates follows the order: Cyclic carbamates > Alkyl-OCO-NH₂  » Alkyl-OCO-NHAcyl ∼ Alkyl-OCO-NHAryl ≥ Aryl-OCO-N(endocyclic) ∼ Aryl-OCO-N(Alkyl)₂  ≥ Alkyl-OCO-N(endocyclic) ≥ Alkyl-OCO-N(Alkyl)₂  ∼ Alkyl-OCO-NHAlkyl » Aryl-OCO-NHAlkyl.

Emergence of optrA-Mediated Linezolid Resistance in Enterococcus faecium: A Molecular Investigation in a Tertiary Hospital of Southwest China from 2014-2018

Purpose

To investigate the potential mechanism and molecular characteristics of linezolid-non-sensitive Enterococcus faecium from a tertiary hospital in southwest China and characterize the relevant plasmids.

Patients and Methods

Linezolid-non-sensitive Enterococcus faecium (LNSEFM) isolates collected from January 2014 to December 2018 were screened for resistant genes 23s rRNA, rplC, rplD, rplV, optrA, cfr, poxtA, by PCR. Molecular epidemiological analysis was performed by multilocus sequence typing (MLST). The optrA-and-poxtA co-harboring strain EFM_7150 was subjected to the whole genome sequencing (WGS) by Illumina HiSeq and Oxford Nanopore MinION.

Results

A total of 15 LNSEFM with linezolid MICs ranging from 4 to 16 mg/L were identified. About 66.7% (10/15) of isolates were linezolid-resistant. About 46.7% (7/15) of strains were positive for optrA. Two types of optrA variants (P and EYDNDM) were identified. About 13.3% (2/15) of isolates had poxtA. 1 harbored a L22 protein alteration (Ser77Thr). One isolate coharbored optrA (EYDNDM variant) and poxtA. There was no mutation in the gene that encoded the ribosomal protein L3/L4 or the domain V of 23S rRNA. No cfr gene was detected. Based on WGS data, optrA was associated with Tn558 inserted to radC gene and poxtA was flanked by IS1216E.

Conclusion

OptrA is primary mechanism in linezolid-resistant Enterococcus faecium. This is the first report ofoptrA variants P and EYDNDM identified in Enterococcus faecium and optrA-and-poxtA co-harboring Enterococcus faecium clinically in southwest China. Besides, Tn558 and IS1216Es may play an important role in the dissemination of optrA and poxtA, respectively. The findings revealed the potential threat to nosocomial infection by optrA and coexistence of optrA and poxtA in Enterococcus faecium. Thus, clinical surveillance of linezolid-resistant Enterococcus is urgently needed.

Optimization of Linezolid Dosing Regimens for Treatment of Vancomycin-Resistant Enterococci Infection

BACKGROUND

Linezolid, an oxazolidinone antibiotic, is recommended for vancomycin-resistant enterococci (VRE). However, 100% free-drug concentration above the minimum inhibitory concentration (fT>MIC) and an area under the curve of free drug to MIC ratio (fAUC24/MIC) >100 were associated with favorable clinical outcome with less emerging resistance. A plasma trough concentration (C_trough) of linezolid ≥9 μg/mL was also related to hematologic toxicity. Thus, linezolid dose optimization is needed for VRE treatment. The study aimed to determine the in vitro linezolid activity against clinical VRE isolates and linezolid dosing regimens in critically ill patients who met the target pharmacokinetics/pharmacodynamics (PK/PD) for VRE treatment.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Enterococcal isolates from enterococcal-infected patients were obtained between 2014 and 2018 at Phramongkutklao Hospital. We used Monte Carlo simulation to calculate the probability of target attainment, and the cumulative fraction of response (CFR) of the free area under the curve to MIC ratio (fAUIC₂₄) was used to calculate the fAUC24/MIC 80 - 100 and fT/MIC >85 - 100% of the interval time of administration for clinical response and microbiological eradication as well as the C_trough ≥9 μg/mL for the probability of hematologic toxicity.

RESULTS

For linezolid MIC determination, the MIC median (MIC₅₀), MIC for 90% growth (MIC₉₀), and range for linezolid were 1.5 μg/mL, 2 μg/mL, and 0.72 - 2 μg/mL, respectively. A dosing regimen of 1,200 mg either once daily or as a divided dose every 12 h gave target attainments of fAUC24/MICs >80 and >100, which exceeded 90% for MICs ≤1 and ≤1 μg/mL, respectively, with a rate of hematologic toxicity <15%. If the expected fT>MICs were >85% and 100%, a 1,200-mg divided dose every 12 h could cover VRE isolates having linezolid MICs ≤1 μg/mL and ≤0.75 μg/mL. Even 600 mg every 8 h and 1,200 mg as a continuous infusion gave a higher target attainment of fAUC24/MIC and a fT>MIC and the target CFR, but those regimens gave C_trough ≥9 μg/mL rates of 40.7% and 99.6%.

CONCLUSION

The current dosing of 1,200 mg/day might be optimal treatment for infection by VRE isolates with documented MICs ≤1 μg/mL. For treatment of VRE with a MIC of 2 μg/mL or to achieve the target CFR, the use of linezolid with other antibiotic combinations might help achieve the PK/PD target, provide better clinical outcome, and prevent resistance.

Mobile Oxazolidinone Resistance Genes in Gram-Positive and Gram-Negative Bacteria

Seven mobile oxazolidinone resistance genes, including cfr, cfr(B), cfr(C), cfr(D), cfr(E), optrA, and poxtA, have been identified to date. The cfr genes code for 23S rRNA methylases, which confer a multiresistance phenotype that includes resistance to phenicols, lincosamides, oxazolidinones, pleuromutilins, and streptogramin A compounds. The optrA and poxtA genes code for ABC-F proteins that protect the bacterial ribosomes from the inhibitory effects of oxazolidinones. The optrA gene confers resistance to oxazolidinones and phenicols, while the poxtA gene confers elevated MICs or resistance to oxazolidinones, phenicols, and tetracycline. These oxazolidinone resistance genes are most frequently found on plasmids, but they are also located on transposons, integrative and conjugative elements (ICEs), genomic islands, and prophages. In these mobile genetic elements (MGEs), insertion sequences (IS) most often flanked the cfr, optrA, and poxtA genes and were able to generate translocatable units (TUs) that comprise the oxazolidinone resistance genes and occasionally also other genes. MGEs and TUs play an important role in the dissemination of oxazolidinone resistance genes across strain, species, and genus boundaries. Most frequently, these MGEs also harbor genes that mediate resistance not only to antimicrobial agents of other classes, but also to metals and biocides. Direct selection pressure by the use of antimicrobial agents to which the oxazolidinone resistance genes confer resistance, but also indirect selection pressure by the use of antimicrobial agents, metals, or biocides (the respective resistance genes against which are colocated on cfr-, optrA-, or poxtA-carrying MGEs) may play a role in the coselection and persistence of oxazolidinone resistance genes.

Population Pharmacokinetics and Dosage Optimization of Linezolid in Critically Ill Pediatric Patients

Linezolid is an oxazolidinone antibiotic exhibiting efficacy against multidrug-resistant (MDR) Gram-positive-related infections. However, its population pharmacokinetic (PopPK) profile in Chinese critically ill children has not been characterized. Optimal dosing regimens should be established according to the PopPK/pharmacodynamic(PD) properties of linezolid in the specific population. This work aims to describe the pharmacokinetic (PK) properties of linezolid, assess the factors affecting interpatient variability, and establish an optimized regimen for children in pediatric intensive care unit (PICU). A single-center, prospective, open-labeled PK study was performed. Ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) was applied to measure the plasma levels during linezolid treatment. PopPK analysis was conducted using Phoenix NLME software. Sixty-three critically ill pediatric patients were included. The data showed good fit for a two-compartment model with linear elimination. Body weight and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) were the most significant covariates explaining variabilities in linezolid PK for the pediatric population. Therapeutic target was defined as the ratio of the area under drug plasma concentration-time curve over 24 h to minimum inhibitory concentration (AUC/MIC) of >80. Different dosing regimens were evaluated using Monte Carlo simulation to determine the optimal dosage strategy for linezolid. Although the probability of target attainment (PTA) was high (>96%) for 10 mg/kg every 8 h at MIC≤1 mg/L, it was lower than 70% at MIC>1 mg/L. Thus, the dosing regimen required adjustment. When the dosing regimen was adjusted to 15 mg/kg every 6 h, the PTA increased from 63.6% to 94.6% at MIC=2 mg/L, thereby indicating higher treatment success. Children with AST of >40 U/L had significant higher AUC than those with AST of ≤40 U/L (205.45 vs. 159.96). Therefore, dosage adjustment was required according to the AST levels. The PopPK characteristics of linezolid in critically ill children were evaluated, and an optimal dosage regimen was constructed based on developmental PopPK/PD model and simulation. (This study has been registered in the Chinese Clinical Trial Registry under no. ChiCTR1900021386.).

Molecular characteristics of optrA-carrying Enterococcus faecalis from chicken meat in South Korea

The purpose of this study was to identify the genetic environment of optrA gene in linezolid (LZD)-resistant Enterococcus faecalis from chicken meat and to describe the probable mechanism of dissemination of the optrA gene through plasmid or chromosomal integration. Whole genome sequencing and analysis revealed that all 3 E. faecalis isolates confirmed as LZD- and chloramphenicol-resistant carried fexA adjacent to the optrA gene as well as a variety of resistance genes for macrolides, tetracyclines, and aminoglycosides, simultaneously. But, the other genes conferring LZD resistance, cfr and poxtA, were not detected in those strains. Two isolates harboring the optrA gene in their chromosomal DNA showed >99% similarity in arrangement to the transposon Tn6674 and the transposase genes, tnpA, tnpB, and tnpC and were located in the first open reading frame for transposase. One isolate harboring an optrA-carrying plasmid also showed >99% similarity with the previously reported pE439 plasmid but had 2 amino acid changes (Thr96Lys and Tyr160Asp) and a higher minimum inhibitory concentration against LZD of 16 mg/L than that of pE439 (8 mg/L). Mobile genetic elements such as transposons or plasmids flanking the optrA gene conduct a crucial role in the dissemination of antimicrobial resistance genes. Further investigations are required to identify the way by which optrA is integrated into chromosomal DNA and plasmids.

Characteristics of linezolid-resistant Enterococcus faecalis isolates from broiler breeder farms

Linezolid is an oxazolidinone class antibiotic used for treatment infections caused by various multidrug-resistant gram-positive pathogens including enterococci. However, recently, linezolid-resistant isolates in animals are considered as a human health hazard. In a broiler operation system, antimicrobial resistance can be transferred to the environment and commercial broiler via the fecal-oral route. Therefore, this study was conducted to investigate the prevalence and characteristics of linezolid-resistant Enterococcus faecalis (E. faecalis) from broiler parent stock in a broiler operation system. Among 297 E. faecalis isolates from 85 flocks in 8 broiler breeder farms, the prevalence of chloramphenicol- and linezolid-resistant isolates was 0 to 12.1% and 0 to 8.0%, respectively; however, there were no significant differences between farms. Therefore, a total of 14 (4.7%) chloramphenicol- and/or linezolid-resistant E. faecalis showed resistance to 7 or more antimicrobial classes. The drug-resistance gene optrA, which can confer resistance to linezolid, tedizolid, and phenicols, was found in 8 (2.69%) isolates, and 7 (2.36%) of the 8 optrA-positive isolates co-carried the phenicol exporter gene fexA. However, E. faecalis isolates from 3 of 8 broiler breeder farms only carried the optrA and/or fexA genes. As linezolid is one of the last antimicrobial treatments of choice for multidrug-resistant gram-positive pathogens including E. faecalis, the presence of antibiotic-resistant E. faecalis in broiler breeder farms should be monitored to prevent the introduction of linezolid-resistant strains to the food chain.

Coexistence of the Oxazolidinone Resistance-Associated Genes cfr and optrA in Enterococcus faecalis From a Healthy Piglet in Brazil

Oxazolidinones are one of the most important antimicrobials potentially active against glycopeptide- and β-lactam-resistant Gram-positive pathogens. Linezolid—the first oxazolidinone to be approved for clinical use in 2000 by the US Food and Drug Administration—and the newer molecule in the class, tedizolid, inhibit protein synthesis by suppressing the formation of the 70S ribosomal complex in bacteria. Over the past two decades, transferable oxazolidinone resistance genes, in particular cfr and optrA, have been identified in Firmicutes isolated from healthcare-related infections, livestock, and the environment. Our goals in this study were to investigate the genetic contexts and the transferability of the cfr and optrA genes and examine genomic features, such as antimicrobial resistance genes, plasmid incompatibility types, and CRISPR-Cas defenses of a linezolid-resistant Enterococcus faecalis isolated in feces from a healthy pig during an antimicrobial surveillance program for animal production in Brazil. The cfr gene was found to be integrated into a transposon-like structure of 7,759 nt flanked by IS1216E and capable of excising and circularizing, distinguishing it from known genetic contexts for cfr in Enterococcus spp., while optrA was inserted into an Inc18 broad host-range plasmid of >58 kb. Conjugal transfer of cfr and optrA was shown by filter mating. The coexistence of cfr and optrA in an E. faecalis isolated from a healthy nursery pig highlights the need for monitoring the use of antibiotics in the Brazilian swine production system for controlling spread and proliferation of antibiotic resistance.

Detection of vancomycin-resistant enterococci in samples from broiler flocks and houses in Turkey

Vancomycin-resistant enterococcus (VRE) is a global threat to public health. Knowledge about the occurrence of vanA-carrying enterococci in broiler and environmental samples is important as antibiotic resistance can be transferred to human bacteria. The aim of this study was to investigate the presence of VRE in broiler cloacal and environmental (house) samples and to genotype the isolates. In this study, 350 swabs were collected from broiler farms. All samples were plated onto enterococcus selective agar containing 6 mg/L vancomycin and 64 mg/L ceftazidime. Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values were determined for vancomycin and teicoplanin. Vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium (VREfm) was isolated from 6 out of 300 (2%) broiler cloacal samples and 13 out of 50 (26%) house samples. All E. faecium isolates had vanA genes. All VREfm isolates (19 isolates) were confirmed to be 95% similar to each other. In conclusion, although 20 years have passed since the ban on avoparcin in Turkey, the present study shows that VREfm isolates are still present in broiler production and especially in broiler houses, and most importantly, a major VREfm clone was isolated from broiler cloacal and house samples.

Synergy of Linezolid with Several Antimicrobial Agents against Linezolid-Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcal Strains

Linezolid is a synthetic oxazolydinone active against multi-resistant Gram-positive cocci that inhibits proteins synthesis by interacting with the 50S ribosomal subunit. Although linezolid-resistant strains are infrequent, several outbreaks have been recently described, associated with prolonged treatment with the antibiotic. As an alternative to monotherapy, the combination of different antibiotics is a commonly used option to prevent the selection of resistant strains. In this work, we evaluated combinations of linezolid with classic and new aminoglycosides (amikacin, gentamicin and plazomicin), carbapenems (doripenem, imipenem and meropenem) and fosfomycin on several linezolid- and methicillin-resistant strains of Staphylococcus aureus and S. epidermidis, isolated in a hospital intensive care unit in Madrid, Spain. Using checkerboard and time-kill assays, interesting synergistic effects were encountered for the combination of linezolid with imipenem in all the staphylococcal strains, and for linezolid-doripenem in S.epidermidis isolates. The combination of plazomicin seemed to also have a good synergistic or partially synergistic activity against most of the isolates. None of the combinations assayed showed an antagonistic effect.

The epidemiology and molecular characteristics of linezolid-resistant Staphylococcus capitis in Huashan Hospital, Shanghai

Introduction. Linezolid-resistant (LZR) Staphylococcus capitis has recently emerged in our hospital, and its potential resistance mechanisms are still not clear.Aim. This study aimed to investigate the epidemiology, clinical and genetic characteristics, resistance mechanisms and biofilm formation capacity of LZR S. capitis isolated from patients at Huashan Hospital, Shanghai, PR China between 2012 and 2018.Methodology. Strains were subjected to antimicrobial susceptibility testing (AST) with antibiotics using the broth microdilution method according to the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI) guidelines. The presence of cfr, optrA and poxtA, as well as mutations in the 23S ribosomal (r)RNA and ribosomal proteins, was investigated using PCR and sequencing techniques. The genetic relationship between isolates was analysed using pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) and whole-genome sequencing (WGS). Biofilm biomasses were detected by using crystal violet staining.Results. Twenty-one LZR S. capitis strains displayed MICs of 32-512 μg ml^-1. All LZR strains showed G2576T and C2104T mutations in the 23S rRNA V region. Besides G2576T and C2104T, no base mutations were detected in the V region. The cfr was detected in 12 strains, while optrA and poxtA were not amplified in 21 S. capitis strains. PFGE showed that the LZR S. capitis strains belonged to a single clone. The phylogenetic tree showed that 20 LZR S. capitis strains were highly similar to LNZR-1, isolated from Harbin (located in the north of China) in 2013, which showed resistance to linezolid.Conclusions. In this research, cfr-negative strains displayed linezolid MICs of 32 μg ml^-1. In comparison, cfr-positive strains exhibited linezolid MICs of 128-512 μg ml^-1, indicating that high levels of linezolid resistance appear to be related to the presence of cfr. The outbreak of LZR S. capitis in our hospital needs to be monitored closely.

Population Pharmacokinetics and Dosage Optimization of Linezolid in Patients with Liver Dysfunction

Linezolid is the first synthetic oxazolidone agent to treat infections caused by Gram-positive pathogens. Infected patients with liver dysfunction (LD) are more likely to suffer from adverse reactions, such as thrombocytopenia, when standard-dose linezolid is used than patients with LD who did not use linezolid. Currently, pharmacokinetics data of linezolid in patients with LD are limited. This study aimed to characterize pharmacokinetics parameters of linezolid in patients with LD, identify the factors influencing the pharmacokinetics, and propose an optimal dosage regimen. We conducted a prospective study and established a population pharmacokinetics model with the Phoenix NLME software. The final model was evaluated by goodness-of-fit plots, bootstrap analysis, and prediction corrected-visual predictive check. A total of 163 concentration samples from 45 patients with LD were adequately described by a one-compartment model with first-order elimination along with prothrombin activity (PTA) and creatinine clearance as significant covariates. Linezolid clearance (CL) was 2.68 liters/h (95% confidence interval [CI], 2.34 to 3.03 liters/h); the volume of distribution (V) was 58.34 liters (95% CI, 48.00 to 68.68 liters). Model-based simulation indicated that the conventional dose was at risk for overexposure in patients with LD or severe renal dysfunction; reduced dosage (300 mg/12 h) would be appropriate to achieve safe (minimum steady-state concentration [C _min,ss] at 2 to 8 μg/ml) and effective targets (the ratio of area under the concentration-time curve from 0 to 24 h [AUC_0-24] at steady state to MIC, 80 to 100). In addition, for patients with severe LD (PTA, ≤20%), the dosage (400 mg/24 h) was sufficient at an MIC of ≤2 μg/ml. This study recommended therapeutic drug monitoring for patients with LD. (This study has been registered in the Chinese Clinical Trial Registry under no. ChiCTR1900022118.).

Solar-mediated degradation of linezolid and tedizolid under simulated environmental conditions: Kinetics, transformation and toxicity

Linezolid (LIN) and Tedizolid (TED) are representatives of oxazolidinone antibiotics of last resort with a strong efficacy against gram-positive bacteria. This study focused on their solar-mediated degradation to understand better their fate in aquatic environment, for the realistic concentrations in the range of 1 μg/L. Results showed that both antibiotics (ABs) are degradable by simulated sunlight (1 kW/m²), with half-lives of 32 and 93 h in ultrapure water, for LIN and TED, respectively. LIN showed similar photolytic behaviour in pure solution and in surface water, whereas sunlight enhanced the degradation of LIN in pure solutions, but not in surface water. Structure elucidation by liquid chromatography coupled to high resolution mass spectrometry provided information about seven transformation products for LIN and five for TED. The morpholinyl-ring was identified as the target site for most transformation reactions of LIN. TED was prone to oxidation and cleavage of the oxazolidinone ring. Results of a growth inhibition test on Bacillus subtilis exposed to UV light showed antibacterial efficacy of transformation products of LIN and no significant efficacy of degradation products of TED for the concentration range of 100 μg/L-10 mg/L of parent compounds. Photolytically treated solutions of the ABs maintained their inhibitory effect on the bioluminescence of Aliivibrio fischeri.

In Vitro Pharmacodynamic Analyses Help Guide the Treatment of Multidrug-Resistant Enterococcus faecium and Carbapenem-Resistant Enterobacter cloacae Bacteremia in a Liver Transplant Patient

Background

Infections due to multidrug-resistant pathogens are particularly deadly and difficult to treat in immunocompromised patients, where few data exist to guide optimal antimicrobial therapy. In the absence of adequate clinical data, in vitro pharmacokinetic (PK)/pharmacodynamic (PD) analyses can help to design treatment regimens that are bactericidal and may be clinically effective.

Methods

We report a case in which in vitro pharmacodynamic analyses were utilized to guide the treatment of complex, recurrent bacteremias due to vancomycin-, daptomycin-, and linezolid-resistant Enterococcus faecium and carbapenem-resistant Enterobacter cloacae complex in a liver transplant patient.

Results

Whole-genome sequencing revealed unique underlying resistance mechanisms and explained the rapid evolution of phenotypic resistance and complicated intrahost genomic dynamics observed in vivo. Performing this comprehensive genotypic and phenotypic testing and time-kill analyses, along with knowledge of institution and patient-specific factors, allowed us to use precision medicine to design a treatment regimen that maximized PK/PD.

Conclusions

This work provides a motivating example of clinicians and scientists uniting to optimize care in the era of escalating antimicrobial resistance.

Phenotypic and genetic characteristics of vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium

This study was based on 43 vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium (VREfm) strains collected from clinical specimens. Susceptibility testing and resistance gene amplification revealed that these strains had multidrug resistance and all belonged to the VanA phenotype. Furthermore, there were seven ST types, and all belonged to the clonal complex (CC17); ST17 and ST78 were the main ST types. In particular, ST1392 and ST1394 are novel ST types first identified in this research. Genome analysis of SY1, LY19 and LY22 showed that tet(O)and tet(K) were the genes responsible for tetracycline resistance; acc(6')-Ie-aph(2')-Ia and aad(6) led to high-level gentamicin and high-level streptomycin resistance. At the same time, the genomic variation among the strains was large, which is of great significance for the prevention and control of the bacteria.

Population Pharmacokinetics of Intravenous Linezolid in Premature Infants

BACKGROUND

The emergence of coagulase-negative staphylococci with reduced vancomycin susceptibility in some neonatal intensive care units has resulted in an increase of linezolid use. Linezolid pharmacokinetics (PK) and safety in premature infants still need to be better established.

METHODS

This was a retrospective PK study. All infants who received intravenous linezolid and had linezolid plasma concentrations per standard of care were included. Linezolid concentrations were measured by high performance liquid chromatography. A population PK model was developed using nonlinear mixed effects modeling. Optimal dosing was determined based on achievement of the surrogate pharmacodynamics target for efficacy: a ratio of the area under the concentration-time curve to minimum inhibitory concentration >80. We assessed the occurrence of thrombocytopenia and lactic acidosis in relation with drug exposure.

RESULTS

A total of 78 plasma concentrations were collected from 26 infants, with a median postnatal age (PNA) of 24 days (8-88) and weight of 1423 g (810-3256). A 1-compartment model described linezolid data well. The final model included PNA and weight on clearance and weight on volume of distribution. Considering an MIC90 of 1 mg/L, all infants reached an area under the concentration-time curve/minimum inhibitory concentration > 80. Although thrombocytopenia and hyperlactatemia occurred frequently, they were not sustained and were not considered related to linezolid.

CONCLUSION

and was well tolerated in critically ill premature infants. PNA was the main determinant of clearance.

The clinical impact of patients with bloodstream infection with different groups of Viridans group streptococci by using matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS)

The accuracy of matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) for identifying viridans group streptococcus (VGS) was improving. However, the clinical impact of identifying VGS had not been well recognized. Our study had comprehensively studied the clinical manifestations and outcome of VGS blood stream infection by using MALDI-TOF MS for identification.This retrospective study enrolled 312 adult patients with a monomicrobial blood culture positive for VGS. Blood culture was examined through MALDI-TOF MS.The most common VGS species were the Streptococcus anginosus group (38.8%) and Streptococcus mitis group (22.8%). Most species showed resistance to erythromycin (35.6%), followed by clindamycin (25.3%) and penicillin (12.5%). Skin and soft tissue infection and biliary tract infection were significantly related to S. anginosus group bacteremia (P = .001 and P = .005, respectively). S. mitis group bacteremia was related to infective endocarditis and bacteremia with febrile neutropenia (P = .005 and P < .001, respectively). Infective endocarditis was also more likely associated with S. sanguinis group bacteremia (P = .009). S. anginosus group had less resistance rate to ampicillin, erythromycin, clindamycin, and ceftriaxone (P = .019, <.001, .001, and .046, respectively). A more staying in intensive care unit, underlying solid organ malignancy, and a shorter treatment duration were independent risk factors for 30-day mortality. This study comprehensively evaluated different VGS group and their clinical manifestations, infection sources, concomitant diseases, treatments, and outcomes. Categorizing VGS into different groups by MALDI-TOF MS could help clinical physicians well understand their clinical presentations.

Genetic Basis of Emerging Vancomycin, Linezolid, and Daptomycin Heteroresistance in a Case of Persistent Enterococcus faecium Bacteremia

Whole-genome sequencing was used to examine a persistent Enterococcus faecium bacteremia that acquired heteroresistance to three antibiotics in response to prolonged multidrug therapy. A comparison of the complete genomes before and after each change revealed the emergence of known resistance determinants for vancomycin and linezolid and suggested that a novel mutation in fabF, encoding a fatty acid synthase, was responsible for daptomycin nonsusceptibility. Plasmid recombination contributed to the progressive loss of vancomycin resistance after withdrawal of the drug.

Resistance mechanisms of linezolid-nonsusceptible enterococci in Korea: low rate of 23S rRNA mutations in Enterococcus faecium

PURPOSE

To investigate linezolid-resistance mechanisms in linezolid-nonsusceptible enterococci (LNSE) isolated from a tertiary hospital in Korea.

METHODOLOGY

Enterococcal isolates exhibiting linezolid MICs ≥4 mg l^-1 that were isolated between December 2011 and May 2016 were investigated by PCR and sequencing for mutations in 23S rRNA or ribosomal proteins (L3, L4 and L22) and for the presence of cfr, cfr(B) and optrA genes.Results/Key findings. Among 135 LNSE (87 Enterococcus faecium and 48 Enterococcus faecalis isolates), 39.1 % (34/87) of E. faecium and 18.8 % (9/48) of E. faecalis isolates were linezolid-resistant. The optrA carriage was the dominant mechanism in E. faecalis: 13 isolates, including 10 E. faecalis [70 % (7/10) linezolid-resistant and 30 % (3/10) linezolid-intermediate] and three E. faecium [33.3 % (1/3) linezolid-resistant and 66.7 % (2/3) linezolid-intermediate], contained the optrA gene. G2576T mutations in the 23S rRNA gene were detected only in E. faecium [14 isolates; 71.4 % (10/14) linezolid-resistant and 28.6 % (4/14) linezolid-intermediate]. One linezolid-intermediate E. faecium harboured a L22 protein alteration (Ser77Thr). No isolates contained cfr or cfr(B) genes and any L3 or L4 protein alterations. No genetic mechanism of resistance was identified for 67.6 % (23/34) of linezolid-resistant E. faecium.

CONCLUSION

A low rate of 23S rRNA mutations and the absence of known linezolid-resistance mechanisms in the majority of E. faecium isolates suggest regional differences in the mechanisms of linezolid resistance and the possibility of additional mechanisms.

The emerging problem of linezolid-resistant enterococci

Enterococcus is a significant pathogen in numerous infections, particularly in nosocomial infections, and is thus a great challenge to clinicians. Linezolid (LNZ), an oxazolidinone antibiotic, is an important therapeutic option for infections caused by Gram-positive bacterial pathogens, especially vancomycin-resistant enterococci. A systematic review was performed of the available literature on LNZ-resistant enterococci (LRE) to characterise these infections with respect to epidemiological, microbiological and clinical features. The results validated the potency of LNZ against enterococcal infections, with a sustained susceptibility rate of 99.8% in ZAAPS and 99.2% in LEADER surveillance programmes. Patients with LRE had been predominantly exposed to LNZ prior to isolation of LRE, with a mean treatment duration of 29.8±48.8days for Enterococcus faecalis and 23.1±21.4days for Enterococcus faecium. Paradoxically, LRE could also develop in patients without prior LNZ exposure. LNZ resistance was attributed to 23S rRNA (G2576T) mutations (51.2% of E. faecalis and 80.5% of E. faecium) as well as presence of the cfr gene (4.7% and 4.8%, respectively), which could transfer horizontally among the strains. In addition to the cfr gene, 32 cases of optrA-positive LRE were identified. Further study is required to determine the prevalence of novel resistance genes. The emergence of LRE thus hampers the treatment of such infections, which warrants worldwide surveillance.

Susceptibility testing and reporting of new antibiotics with a focus on tedizolid: an international working group report

Inappropriate use and overuse of antibiotics are among the most important factors in resistance development, and effective antibiotic stewardship measures are needed to optimize outcomes. Selection of appropriate antimicrobials relies on accurate and timely antimicrobial susceptibility testing. However, the availability of clinical breakpoints and in vitro susceptibility testing often lags behind regulatory approval by several years for new antimicrobials. A Working Group of clinical/medical microbiologists from Brazil, Canada, Mexico, Saudi Arabia, Russia and the UK recently examined issues surrounding antimicrobial susceptibility testing for novel antibiotics. While commercially available tests are being developed, potential surrogate antibiotics may be used as marker of susceptibility. Using tedizolid as an example of a new antibiotic, this special report makes recommendations to optimize routine susceptibility reporting.

Assessment of linezolid prescriptions in three French hospitals

The use of linezolid to treat gram-positive cocci infections is increasing in France. Linezolid is approved in pneumonia and complicated skin and soft tissue infections. Overuse and misuse of linezolid can favor the emergence and spreading of linezolid-resistant strains. We aimed to assess the appropriateness of linezolid use in French hospitals. This is a multicenter, retrospective study conducted in three tertiary care hospitals. Appropriateness of linezolid indications and adequacy (composite score concerning dosage, route of administration and blood monitoring) were assessed. Over a three-month period, all prescriptions of linezolid were extracted and analyzed by two independent infectious disease experts. Among the 81 initial prescriptions that were evaluated, indication was appropriate in 48% of cases. Among those, 51% complied with international guidelines. Fifty-seven percent of the prescriptions were adequate regarding dosage, route of administration and blood monitoring. Overall, 23% of prescriptions combined both appropriateness and adequacy. The most frequent reasons for inappropriateness were the possibility of choosing narrower-spectrum antibiotics and the empirical use of linezolid in severe sepsis or septic shock. Initial treatment was the most frequently appropriate in bone and joint infection cases (p = 0.001). Our study shows that even if modalities of use were mostly correct, appropriateness of linezolid indications is low. Educational programs are mandatory to improve practices, as well as clinical studies to better assess the efficacy and safety of linezolid in clinical situations other than pneumonia or complicated skin and soft tissue infections.

Pleuromutilins: Potent Drugs for Resistant Bugs-Mode of Action and Resistance

Pleuromutilins are antibiotics that selectively inhibit bacterial translation and are semisynthetic derivatives of the naturally occurring tricyclic diterpenoid pleuromutilin, which received its name from the pleuromutilin-producing fungus Pleurotus mutilus Tiamulin and valnemulin are two established derivatives in veterinary medicine for oral and intramuscular administration. As these early pleuromutilin drugs were developed at a time when companies focused on major antibacterial classes, such as the β-lactams, and resistance was not regarded as an issue, interest in antibiotic research including pleuromutilins was limited. Over the last decade or so, there has been a resurgence in interest to develop this class for human use. This has resulted in a topical derivative, retapamulin, and additional derivatives in clinical development. The most advanced compound is lefamulin, which is in late-stage development for the intravenous and oral treatment of community-acquired bacterial pneumonia and acute bacterial skin infections. Overall, pleuromutilins and, in particular, lefamulin are characterized by potent activity against Gram-positive and fastidious Gram-negative pathogens as well as against mycoplasmas and intracellular organisms, such as Chlamydia spp. and Legionella pneumophila Pleuromutilins are unaffected by resistance to other major antibiotic classes, such as macrolides, fluoroquinolones, tetracyclines, β-lactam antibiotics, and others. Furthermore, pleuromutilins display very low spontaneous mutation frequencies and slow, stepwise resistance development at sub-MIC in vitro. The potential for resistance development in clinic is predicted to be slow as confirmed by extremely low resistance rates to this class despite the use of pleuromutilins in veterinary medicine for >30 years. Although rare, resistant strains have been identified in human- and livestock-associated environments and as with any antibiotic class, require close monitoring as well as prudent use in veterinary medicine. This review focuses on the structural characteristics, mode of action, antibacterial activity, and resistance development of this potent and novel antibacterial class for systemic use in humans.

Linezolid: a promising option in the treatment of Gram-positives

Linezolid, an oxazolidinone antimicrobial agent that acts by inhibiting protein synthesis in a unique fashion, is used in the treatment of community-acquired pneumonia, skin and soft-tissue infections and other infections caused by Gram-positive bacteria including VRE and methicillin-resistant staphylococci. Currently, linezolid resistance among these pathogens remains low, commonly <1.0%, although the prevalence of antibiotic resistance is increasing in many countries. Therefore, the development of resistance by clinical isolates should prompt increased attention of clinical laboratories to routinely perform linezolid susceptibility testing for this important agent and should be taken into account when considering its therapeutic use. Considering the importance of linezolid in the treatment of infections caused by Gram-positive bacteria, this review was undertaken to optimize the clinical use of this antibiotic.

Optimization of linezolid treatment regimens for Gram-positive bacterial infections based on pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic analysis

AIM

To optimize linezolid treatment regimens for Gram-positive bacterial infections based on pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic analysis.

MATERIALS & METHODS

The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) distribution of 572 Gram-positive strains from patients with clinically confirmed infections was analyzed. Using the Monte Carlo simulation method, the cumulative fraction of response and probability of target attainment were determined for linezolid regimens of 600 mg q.12h and q.8h Results: Linezolid dosage of 600 mg q.12h yielded >90% cumulative fraction of response and probability of target attainment for staphylococcal infections with an MIC of ≤1 mg/l, enterococcal infections with higher MIC values required 600 mg q.8h.

CONCLUSION

Linezolid 600 mg q.12h is still the clinically recommended empirical dosage for Gram-positive bacterial infections. However, as bacterial MICs increase, 600 mg q.8h may be required to achieve better efficacy.

cfr-mediated linezolid-resistant clinical isolates of methicillin-resistant coagulase-negative staphylococci from China

Three linezolid-resistant coagulase-negative staphylococci (LR-CoNS), including two Staphylococcus cohnii and one Staphylococcus capitis, were isolated from 1104 clinical staphylococcal isolates across China in 2013-2014. Antibiotic susceptibilities of the bacteria were determined by the agar dilution method. PCR and DNA sequencing were performed to determine the potential molecular mechanism of linezolid resistance. The two linezolid-resistant S. cohnii isolates were subjected to pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) to investigate their genetic relatedness. Primer walking, S1 nuclease PFGE and Southern blot hybridisation were conducted to ascertain the location and environment of the cfr gene. All three isolates were positive for the cfr gene. Amino acid mutations S158F and S158Y in the ribosomal protein L3 were identified in S. cohnii 13B289 and 13L105, respectively, both of which also had an additional substitution (D159Y) in L3. PFGE indicated that the two S. cohnii isolates belonged to diverse clonal strains. S1 nuclease PFGE and Southern blotting experiments indicated that the cfr gene of the three isolates resided on plasmids of similar size (ca. 35.4kb). The cfr-harbouring segments of S. capitis 13G350 and S. cohnii 13L105 were identical to plasmid pSS-01 reported previously. The cfr-carrying fragment of S. cohnii 13B289 was indistinguishable from the formerly described plasmid pSS-02. In conclusion, the presence of the cfr gene located on a plasmid was the main mechanism contributing to resistance to linezolid in the three staphylococcal isolates. Hence, timely detection and judicious use of antibiotics are essential to prevent further transmission of this resistance mechanism.

Antimicrobial activity against a global collection of skin and skin structure pathogens: results from the Tigecycline Evaluation and Surveillance Trial (T.E.S.T.), 2010-2014

BACKGROUND

As part of the Tigecycline Evaluation and Surveillance Trial (T.E.S.T.) we report antimicrobial resistance among Gram-positive and Gram-negative isolates collected globally from integumentary sources between 2010 and 2014.

METHODS

Minimum inhibitory concentrations and antimicrobial resistance were determined according to Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute guidelines (US Food and Drug Administration breakpoints against tigecycline). The Cochran-Armitage trend test was used to identify statistically significant changes in resistance.

RESULTS

Global rates of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and multidrug-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii were 38% and 43%, respectively. No S. aureus isolates were resistant to linezolid or vancomycin; all isolates were susceptible to tigecycline. Two percent of Enterococcus faecalis and 28% of Enterococcus faecium were vancomycin-resistant. Extended-spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL) producers accounted for 22% of Klebsiella pneumoniae and 16% of Escherichia coli. Resistance to minocycline among E. faecalis, E. faecium, K. pneumoniae, and E. coli decreased significantly (p<0.0001). There were significant increases (p<0.0001) in A. baumannii resistance to cefepime, ceftazidime, ceftriaxone, levofloxacin, meropenem, and piperacillin-tazobactam.

CONCLUSIONS

Among isolates from integumentary sources, rates of MRSA and ESBL-producing Enterobacteriaceae are stabilizing. Carbapenems and tigecycline have retained their in vitro activity against Gram-positive and Gram-negative organisms. Few agents were active against A. baumannii; its increasing resistance is cause for concern.

Evolving resistance among Gram-positive pathogens

Antimicrobial therapy is a key component of modern medical practice and a cornerstone for the development of complex clinical interventions in critically ill patients. Unfortunately, the increasing problem of antimicrobial resistance is now recognized as a major public health threat jeopardizing the care of thousands of patients worldwide. Gram-positive pathogens exhibit an immense genetic repertoire to adapt and develop resistance to virtually all antimicrobials clinically available. As more molecules become available to treat resistant gram-positive infections, resistance emerges as an evolutionary response. Thus, antimicrobial resistance has to be envisaged as an evolving phenomenon that demands constant surveillance and continuous efforts to identify emerging mechanisms of resistance to optimize the use of antibiotics and create strategies to circumvent this problem. Here, we will provide a broad perspective on the clinical aspects of antibiotic resistance in relevant gram-positive pathogens with emphasis on the mechanistic strategies used by these organisms to avoid being killed by commonly used antimicrobial agents.

Impact of the PROVAUR stewardship programme on linezolid resistance in a tertiary university hospital: a before-and-after interventional study

BACKGROUND

There is little evidence of the impact of antimicrobial stewardship programmes on antimicrobial resistance.

OBJECTIVES

To study the efficacy and safety of a package of educational and interventional measures to optimize linezolid use and its impact on bacterial resistance.

METHODS

A quasi-experimental study was designed and carried out before and after implementation of a stewardship programme in hospitalized patients with Gram-positive infections treated with linezolid.

RESULTS

The intervention reduced linezolid consumption by 76%. The risk of linezolid-resistant CoNS isolates (OR = 0.37; 95% CI = 0.27-0.49; P < 0.001) and Enterococcus faecalis (OR = 0.44; 95% CI = 0.21-0.90; P = 0.03) during the intervention period was lower than in the pre-intervention period.

CONCLUSIONS

A programme to optimize linezolid use can contribute to reducing the resistance rate of CoNS and E. faecalis to this antibiotic.

First Report of cfr-Carrying Plasmids in the Pandemic Sequence Type 22 Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus Staphylococcal Cassette Chromosome mec Type IV Clone

Linezolid is often the drug of last resort for serious methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infections. Linezolid resistance is mediated by mutations in 23S rRNA and genes for ribosomal proteins; cfr, encoding phenicol, lincosamide, oxazolidinone, pleuromutilin, and streptogramin A (PhLOPS_A) resistance; its homologue cfr(B); or optrA, conferring oxazolidinone and phenicol resistance. Linezolid resistance is rare in S. aureus, and cfr is even rarer. This study investigated the clonality and linezolid resistance mechanisms of two MRSA isolates from patients in separate Irish hospitals. Isolates were subjected to cfr PCR, PhLOPS_A susceptibility testing, 23S rRNA PCR and sequencing, DNA microarray profiling, spa typing, pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE), plasmid curing, and conjugative transfer. Whole-genome sequencing was used for single-nucleotide variant (SNV) analysis, multilocus sequence typing, L protein mutation identification, cfr plasmid sequence analysis, and optrA and cfr(B) detection. Isolates M12/0145 and M13/0401 exhibited linezolid MICs of 64 and 16 mg/liter, respectively, and harbored identical 23S rRNA and L22 mutations, but M12/0145 exhibited the mutation in 2/6 23S rRNA alleles, compared to 1/5 in M13/0401. Both isolates were sequence type 22 MRSA staphylococcal cassette chromosome mec type IV (ST22-MRSA-IV)/spa type t032 isolates, harbored cfr, exhibited the PhLOPS_A phenotype, and lacked optrA and cfr(B). They differed by five PFGE bands and 603 SNVs. Isolate M12/0145 harbored cfr and fexA on a 41-kb conjugative pSCFS3-type plasmid, whereas M13/0401 harbored cfr and lsa(B) on a novel 27-kb plasmid. This is the first report of cfr in the pandemic ST22-MRSA-IV clone. Different cfr plasmids and mutations associated with linezolid resistance in genotypically distinct ST22-MRSA-IV isolates highlight that prudent management of linezolid use is essential.

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus nosocomial pneumonia: role of linezolid in the People's Republic of China

The burden of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) nosocomial pneumonia in the People’s Republic of China is high, with methicillin-resistance rates greater than 80% reported for patients with S. aureus pneumonia treated in intensive care units. Historically, vancomycin was the treatment of choice for patients with hospital-acquired MRSA infections. Recent evidence suggests that the minimum inhibitory concentration for vancomycin is increasing. Additionally, patients treated with vancomycin require monitoring of vancomycin trough concentrations and can develop nephrotoxicity. Linezolid is a treatment option for patients with hospital-acquired MRSA infections that can be administered either intravenously or orally. Analysis of data from a worldwide linezolid surveillance program initiated in the year 2004 shows no evidence of increasing linezolid minimum inhibitory concentrations. The clinical efficacy of linezolid for patients with gram-positive, including MRSA, nosocomial pneumonia, was evaluated in numerous studies. In general, results from these studies show higher or similar clinical success with no mortality difference for linezolid compared to vancomycin treated patients. Results from a Phase IV study enrolling patients with MRSA-confirmed nosocomial pneumonia suggest higher clinical cure rates for linezolid compared to vancomycin treated patients. Although acquisition costs are higher for linezolid compared to vancomycin therapy, evidence suggests similar overall medical costs. Cost-analysis results from a Chinese perspective show that linezolid dominated vancomycin therapy for MRSA nosocomial pneumonia in ∼35% of bootstrap simulations whereas vancomycin dominated linezolid in less than 2% of bootstrap simulations. In summary, results from both clinical and economic studies, including studies conducted from a Chinese perspective, support the use of linezolid for the treatment of patients with MRSA nosocomial pneumonia.

Worldwide Epidemiology and Antibiotic Resistance of Staphylococcus aureus

Staphylococcus aureus is an important human pathogen, responsible for infections in the community and the healthcare setting. Although much of the attention is focused on the methicillin-resistant "variant" MRSA, the methicillin-susceptible counterpart (MSSA) remains a prime species in infections. The epidemiology of S. aureus, especially of MRSA, showed a rapid evolution in the last years. After representing a typical nosocomial multidrug-resistant pathogen, MRSA has recently emerged in the community and among farmed animals thanks to its ability to evolve and adapt to different settings. Global surveillance has shown that MRSA represents a problem in all continents and countries where studies have been carried out, determining an increase in mortality and the need to use last-resource expensive antibiotics. S. aureus can easily acquire resistance to antibiotics and MRSA is characteristically multidrug resistant. Resistance to vancomycin, the principal anti-MRSA antibiotic is rare, although isolates with decreased susceptibility are recovered in many areas. Resistance to the more recently introduced antibiotics, linezolid and daptomycin, has emerged; however, they remain substantially active against the large majority of MSSA and MRSA. Newer antistaphylococcal drugs have been developed, but since their clinical use has been very limited so far, little is known about the emergence of resistance. Molecular typing techniques have allowed to identify the major successful clones and lineages of MSSA and MRSA, including high-risk clones, and to trace their diffusion. In the face of a continuously evolving scenario, this review depicts the most common clones circulating in different geographical areas and in different settings at present. Since the evolution of S. aureus will continue, it is important to maintain the attention on the epidemiology of S. aureus in the future with a global view.

Emergence of linezolid-resistant coagulase-negative staphylococci in an intensive care unit

BACKGROUND

The aim of this study was to report the emergence of linezolid-resistant coagulase-negative staphylococci (CoNS) in an intensive care unit.

METHODS

An observational study was conducted in critically ill patients with colonization or infection by linezolid-resistant CoNS between January 2010 and December 2014. We analyzed the epidemiological and clinical features, and the mechanism of resistance to linezolid. We also evaluated the association between the incidence of linezolid-resistant CoNS strains and the consumption of linezolid in the study period.

RESULTS

During the study period 49 patients had a linezolid-resistant CoNS strain isolated from clinical samples (blood in 42 cases, urine in 6, peritoneal fluid in 1). Molecular study showed a combination of mechanisms of resistance. Most patients were critically ill (APACHE II score = 21.9 ± 8.3) and nearly all had undergone surgery and invasive procedures, and had prior exposure to antibiotics. Linezolid-resistant CoNS were considered to be contaminants in 42 patients and associated with infection in 7 patients, comprising bacteremia and septic shock in most of them. They were successfully treated with glycopeptides or daptomycin. A modest significant correlation was observed between the decrease in linezolid consumption and the lower incidence of resistant isolates.

CONCLUSIONS

Linezolid-resistant CoNS had emerged in critically ill patients with severe underlying diseases and prior antibiotic exposure. Most isolates represented colonization; however, linezolid-resistant CoNS can produce serious infections in critically ill patients. Glycopeptides and daptomycin seem to provide useful alternatives for therapy of these infections. A relationship was found between linezolid consumption and the incidence of linezolid-resistant CoNS strains.

Retrospective analysis of hospital-acquired linezolid-nonsusceptible enterococci infection in Chongqing, China, 2011-2014

BACKGROUND

Linezolid-nonsusceptible enterococci (LNSE) is an increasingly emerging multidrug-resistant pathogen, and the caused nosocomial infections are difficult to manage. However, data on the host-related risk factors and clinical outcomes for LNSE infection are poorly characterized.

METHODS

A retrospective case-case-control study of risk factors and clinical outcomes of hospitalized patients with LNSE infection during the period 2011-2014 was conducted in a teaching hospital in Chongqing, China. Case patients with LNSE and those with linezolid-susceptible enterococci (LSE) and controls with no enterococcal infection were compared at a ratio of 1:1:4. Two parallel multivariate logistic regression models were used to evaluate independent predictors for acquiring LNSE and LSE, respectively.

RESULTS

Forty-four LNSE cases, 44 LSE cases, and 176 uninfected controls were analyzed. Multivariable analysis indicated that transferring from another hospital (odds ratio [OR], 3.57; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.58-8.09), peripheral vascular disease (OR, 4.36; 95% CI, 1.64-11.60), and exposure to cephalosporins (OR, 4.24; 95% CI, 1.85-9.71) were unique independent predictors for acquiring LNSE. Gallbladder disease (OR, 3.64; 95% CI, 1.36-9.74) was independently associated with LSE acquisition. Polymicrobial infection was the only factor identified in both LNSE and LSE groups compared with controls; however, no statistical significance was observed in in-hospital mortality.

CONCLUSION

Timely control efforts and appropriate antibiotic stewardship programs are necessary to effectively reduce the burden of LNSE infections among high-risk patients.

Staphylococcus haemolyticus - an emerging threat in the twilight of the antibiotics age

Staphylococcus haemolyticus is one of the most frequent aetiological factors of staphylococcal infections. This species seems to lack the important virulence attributes described in other staphylococci. However, studies have shown that the presence of various enzymes, cytolysins and surface substances affects the virulence of S. haemolyticus. Nevertheless, none of them has been identified as crucial and determinative. Despite this, S. haemolyticus is, after Staphylococcus epidermidis, the second most frequently isolated coagulase-negative staphylococcus from clinical cases, notably from blood infections, including sepsis. This raises the question of what is the reason for the increasing clinical significance of S. haemolyticus? The most important factor might be the ability to acquire multiresistance against available antimicrobial agents, even glycopeptides. The unusual genome plasticity of S. haemolyticus strains manifested by a large number of insertion sequences and identified SNPs might contribute to its acquisition of antibiotic resistance. Interspecies transfer of SCCmec cassettes suggests that S. haemolyticus might also be the reservoir of resistance genes for other staphylococci, including Staphylococcus aureus. Taking into consideration the great adaptability and the ability to survive in the hospital environment, especially on medical devices, S. haemolyticus becomes a crucial factor in nosocomial infections caused by multiresistant staphylococci.

Detection of a New cfr-Like Gene, cfr(B), in Enterococcus faecium Isolates Recovered from Human Specimens in the United States as Part of the SENTRY Antimicrobial Surveillance Program

Two linezolid-resistant Enterococcus faecium isolates (MICs, 8 μg/ml) from unique patients of a medical center in New Orleans were included in this study. Isolates were initially investigated for the presence of mutations in the V domain of 23S rRNA genes and L3, L4, and L22 ribosomal proteins, as well as cfr. Isolates were subjected to pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (just one band difference), and one representative strain was submitted to whole-genome sequencing. Gene location was also determined by hybridization, and cfr genes were cloned and expressed in a Staphylococcus aureus background. The two isolates had one out of six 23S rRNA alleles mutated (G2576T), had wild-type L3, L4, and L22 sequences, and were positive for a cfr-like gene. The sequence of the protein encoded by the cfr-like gene was most similar (99.7%) to that found in Peptoclostridium difficile, which shared only 74.9% amino acid identity with the proteins encoded by genes previously identified in staphylococci and non-faecium enterococci and was, therefore, denominated Cfr(B). When expressed in S. aureus, the protein conferred a resistance profile similar to that of Cfr. Two copies of cfr(B) were chromosomally located and embedded in a Tn6218 similar to the cfr-carrying transposon described in P. difficile. This study reports the first detection of cfr genes in E. faecium clinical isolates in the United States and characterization of a new cfr variant, cfr(B). cfr(B) has been observed in mobile genetic elements in E. faecium and P. difficile, suggesting potential for dissemination. However, further analysis is necessary to access the resistance levels conferred by cfr(B) when expressed in enterococci.

New Insight on Epidemiology and Management of Bacterial Bloodstream Infection in Patients with Hematological Malignancies

Bloodstream infections (BSI) are a significant cause of morbidity and mortality in onco-hematologic patients. The Gram-negative bacteria were the main responsible for the febrile neutropenia in the sixties; their impact declined due to the use of fluoroquinolone prophylaxis. This situation was followed by the gradual emergence of Gram-positive bacteria also following the increased use of intravascular devices and the introduction of new chemotherapeutic strategies. In the last decade, the Gram-negative etiology is raising again because of the emergence of resistant strains that make questionable the usefulness of current strategies for prophylaxis and empirical treatment. Gram-negative BSI attributable mortality is relevant, and the appropriate empirical treatment significantly improves the prognosis; on the other hand the adequate delayed treatment of Gram-positive BSI does not seem to have a high impact on survival. The clinician has to be aware of the epidemiology of his institution and colonizations of his patients to choose the most appropriate empiric therapy. In a setting of high endemicity of multidrug-resistant infections also the choice of targeted therapy can be a challenge, often requiring strategies based on off-label prescriptions and low grade evidence.

In this review, we summarize the current evidence for the best targeted therapies for difficult to treat bacteria BSIs and future perspectives in this topic. We also provide a flow chart for a rational approach to the empirical treatment of febrile neutropenia in a multidrug resistant, high prevalence setting.