Effects on nitrogen balance and metabolism of branched-chain amino acids by growing pigs of supplementing isoleucine and valine to diets with adequate or excess concentrations of dietary leucine

Exploring the Effects of Gracilaria lemaneiformis Polysaccharides on the Fecal Microbiota and Fecal Metabolites of Fattening Pigs Based on 16S rDNA and Metabolome Sequencing

Sixty Duroc × (Landrace × Yorkshire) castrated male finishing pigs were randomly divided into negative control (NC) and gracilaria lemaneiformis polysaccharides (GLP) groups to study the effects of GLP on the fecal microbiota and fecal metabolites of fattening pigs. The NC group was fed a basic diet, and the GLP group was fed a basic diet supplemented with 0.1% GLP. The diversity of the species and the fecal metabolites were analyzed using 16S rDNA sequencing and metabolome sequencing, respectively. The serum immune and antioxidant indices were analyzed using the ELISA assay. The abundances of hazardous bacteria such as Proteobacteria at the phylum level and Shigella at the genus level were extremely significantly decreased (p < 0.01) and those of beneficial bacteria such as Firmicutes at the phylum level (p < 0.01), Clostridium at the genus level (p < 0.01), and Lactobacillus at the genus level (p < 0.05) were significantly increased in the GLP group compared with the NC group. A total of 41 differentially expressed metabolites were identified. The expression of anti-inflammatory and antioxidant active substances, such as methyl cinnamate, protopanaxatriol, and isovanillic acid, was elevated in the GLP group. The ELISA assay showed increased GSH-Px activity (p < 0.01), T-AOC (p < 0.01), IgG (p < 0.01), IgA (p < 0.05), and IgM (p < 0.05) in the GLP group. These results indicate that dietary GLP supplementation can improve the antioxidant ability, anti-inflammatory ability, and immune level of fattening pigs by regulating fecal flora and metabolites and could be used as a functional feed additive.

An Estimation of the Requirements of the Standardized Ileal Digestible Tryptophan, Valine, Isoleucine and Methionine on Young Pigs' (Up to 50 kg) Feed Efficiency: A Meta-Regression Analysis

Currently, the NRC amino acid (AA) requirements for pigs published in 2012 are used as a reference in variable swine industries. However, recent results in several articles suggest that the standardized ileal digestible (SID) AA-lysine (Lys) ratio significantly evolved over the last two decades, while some publications report inconsistent outcomes. Therefore, the present study used a meta-regression analysis to assess the relative ratio to lysine to maximize the feed efficiency of four essential amino acids (tryptophan, valine, isoleucine, and methionine) in pig diets. According to the PRISMA guidelines, articles examining the target AA requirement using a basal diet supplemented with varying levels of crystalline AA (tryptophan, valine, isoleucine, or methionine) were identified across Scopus, PubMed, and Science Direct. As a result, 23, 22, 16, and 9 articles using tryptophan, valine, isoleucine, and methionine were selected and categorized into experiments for inclusion in our meta-analysis. The results suggested that the requirements of tryptophan, valine, isoleucine, and methionine in our meta-regression analysis were superior to NRC recommendations, regardless of the regression models and the growth phases with significant RSQ values (RSQ ≈ 1). Also, the QUAD and CLP regression models emphasized higher requirements than the LP model for the great majority of amino acids and growth phases. The results of the QUAD and CLP models were selected as estimations of the amino acid requirements for pigs under challenged conditions, whereas the LP model was chosen to estimate the amino acid requirements of genetically improved pigs under a modern housing system. The results of this meta-regression analysis could be used to refresh the information on the NRC amino acids (AA) requirements for swine.

Growth performance, serum parameters, inflammatory responses, intestinal morphology and microbiota of weaned piglets fed 18% crude protein diets with different ratios of standardized ileal digestible isoleucine to lysine

The present study was to explore the Ile requirement of piglets fed 18% crude protein (CP) diets. Two hundred and fifty 28-day-old Duroc × Landrace × Yorkshire piglets (8.37 ± 1.92 kg) were randomly divided into 5 dietary treatments (10 piglets per replicate, 5 barrows and 5 gilts per replicate) with 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65% standardized ileal digestible (SID) Ile-to-Lys ratios, and the SID Lys was formulated to 1.19%. The experimental design consisted of two phases (d 1 to 14 and d 15 to 28). Results showed that average daily gain (ADG) had a tendency to quadratically increase as the SID Ile-to-Lys ratio increased (P = 0.09), and the optimum SID Ile-to-Lys ratios required to maximize ADG were 48.33% and 54.63% for broken-line linear model and quadratic polynomial model, respectively. Different SID Ile-to-Lys ratios had no significant effects on average daily feed intake and gain-to-feed ratio. Dry matter (P < 0.01), CP (P = 0.01), ether extract (P = 0.04), gross energy (P < 0.01) and organic matter (P < 0.01) digestibility increased quadratically. Serum total cholesterol levels decreased linearly (P = 0.01) and quadratically (P < 0.01); aspartate aminotransferase (P < 0.01), interleukin-1β (P = 0.01), and tumor necrosis factor-α (P < 0.01) levels decreased quadratically; immunoglobulin G (P = 0.03) and immunoglobulin M (P = 0.01) concentrations increased quadratically. Serum Ser levels decreased linearly (P < 0.01) and quadratically (P = 0.01); Glu (P = 0.02), Arg (P = 0.05), and Thr (P = 0.03) levels decreased quadratically; Gly (P < 0.01) and Leu (P = 0.01) levels decreased linearly; Ile (P < 0.01) concentration increased linearly. Duodenal villus height (P < 0.01) and villus height to crypt depth ratio (P < 0.01) increased quadratically. The deficiency or excess of Ile decreased short chain fatty acid-producing bacteria abundance and increased pathogenic bacteria abundance. Overall, taking ADG as the effect index, the optimum SID Ile-to-Lys ratios of piglets offered 18% CP diets were 48.33% and 54.63% based on two different statistical models, respectively, and the deficiency or excess of lle negatively affected piglet growth rates and health status.

Dietary Isoleucine and Valine: Effects on Lipid Metabolism and Ureagenesis in Pigs Fed with Protein Restricted Diets

A mixture of valine (Val) and isoleucine (Ile) not only decreases the negative impact of very low protein (VLP) diets on the growth of pigs, but also influences the nitrogen (N) balance and lipid metabolism; however, the underlying pathways are not well understood. This study aimed to investigate the effect of dietary Val and Ile on lipogenesis, lipolysis, and ureagenesis under protein restriction. After one week of acclimation, forty three-week-old pigs were randomly assigned to following dietary treatments (n = 8/group) for 5 weeks: positive control (PC): normal protein diet; negative control (NC): VLP diet; HV: NC supplemented with Val; HI: NC supplemented with Ile; and HVI: NC supplemented with both Val and Ile. HVI partially improved the body weight and completely recovered the feed intake (FI) of pigs fed with NC. HVI increased thermal radiation and improved the glucose clearance. HVI had a lower blood triglyceride than PC and blood urea N than NC. NC and HV promoted lipogenesis by increasing the transcript of fatty acid synthase (FAS) in the liver and lipoprotein lipase (LPL) in adipose tissue but reducing hormone-sensitive lipase (HSL) in the liver. HVI reduced the increased rate of lipogenesis induced by the NC group through normalizing the mRNA abundance of hepatic FAS, sterol regulatory element binding transcription factor 1, and HSL and LPL in adipose tissue. NC, HV, HI, and HVI reduced the ureagenesis by decreasing the protein abundance of carbamoyl phosphate synthetase I, ornithine transcarboxylase, and arginosuccinate lyase in the liver. Overall, HVI improved the growth, FI, and glucose clearance, and decreased the rate of lipogenesis induced by VLP diets.

Performance response of increasing the standardized ileal digestible tryptophan:lysine ratio in diets containing 40% dried distiller grains with solubles

A total of 1,170 pigs (PIC 800 × PIC, initially 38.6 kg) were used in a 98-d grow-finish study to determine the performance response of pigs fed increasing levels standardized ileal digestible (SID) Trp:Lys ratio in diets containing 40% dried distillers grains with solubles (DDGS). Five dietary treatments were fed and consisted of a corn-soybean meal (SBM) diet or diets containing 40% DDGS with SID Trp:Lys ratios of 15%, 18%, 21%, or 24%. Each treatment was replicated 9 times and pens contained 26 pigs with the equal number of gilts and barrows. Data was analyzed as a randomized complete block design with previous nursery treatment as a random blocking factor. Pair-wise comparisons were used to evaluate the impact of diets on performance and carcass traits; specifically to compare the corn-SBM dietary treatment against other dietary treatments. Single degree of freedom orthogonal polynomials were used to evaluate the dose-response of increasing the SID Trp:Lys ratio in 40% DDGS diets. Increasing the SID Trp:Lys ratio in diets containing 40% DDGS increased (linear, P ≤ 0.02) average daily gain (ADG), average daily feed intake (ADFI), final body weight (BW), hot carcass weight (HCW), carcass gain, and daily carcass gain. Increasing the SID Trp:Lys ratio in 40% DDGS diets did not impact (P ≥ 0.65) gain to feed (G:F) for the cumulative period. Pigs fed the corn-SBM diet had greater (P ≤ 0.01) ADG and a heavier (P ≤ 0.01) final BW compared to pigs fed 40% DDGS diets, regardless of the SID Trp:Lys ratio. Diets that contained 40% DDGS with a SID Trp:Lys ratio of 24% had no difference (P|t| = 0.25) in ADFI compared to the corn-SBM dietary treatment. The cumulative G:F of pigs did not differ (P = 0.32) between pigs fed corn-SBM diets and diets containing 40% DDGS regardless of the SID Trp:Lys ratio. However, pigs receiving the corn-SBM diets had heavier HCW, greater carcass yields, total carcass gain, and daily carcass gain (P < 0.01) compared to pigs fed the 40% DDGS diets regardless of SID Trp:Lys ratio. In conclusion, increasing the SID Trp:Lys ratio in 40% DDGS diets improved ADG and ADFI for the overall grow-finish period. However, when compared to a corn-SBM diet, increasing the SID Trp:Lys ratio in 40% DDGS diets did not correct the growth performance or carcass characteristics of pigs.

Effects of branched-chain amino acids to lysine ratios in corn distillers dried grains with solubles containing diets on growth performance, plasma nitrogen profile, carcass traits, and economic analysis in growing-finishing pigs

A study was conducted to identify the effects of standardized ileal digestible (SID) branched-chain amino acids (BCAA):lysine (Lys) ratios on the growth performance, plasma nitrogen (N) profile, carcass traits, and economic analysis of growing-finishing pigs fed diets with high corn distillers dried grains with solubles (cDDGS) inclusions. A total of 1,140 pigs (initial body weight [BW] = 28.7 ± 2.0 kg) were housed in 45 pens of 25 or 26 pigs and fed one of five diets in a randomized complete block design. Experimental diets were fed in four phases based on BW. Dietary treatments were a corn-soybean meal (SBM) based diet (PC), a corn-SBM-cDDGS-based diet (NC) with SID BCAA:Lys ratio of PIC (2020) recommendation and NC diets with SID BCAA:Lys ratios targeted for the 73% SID Val:Lys, 60% SID Ile:Lys, and 144% SID Leu:Lys during the growing phases (25 to 80 kg, Grow), targeted for the 78% SID Val:Lys, 70% SID Ile:Lys, and 160% to 170% SID Leu:Lys during the finishing phases (80 to 120 kg, finish), and both during the growing and finishing phases (Grow-Finish). One pig from each pen was bled at the end of 7 and 13 wk. After the 11-wk-feeding trial, pigs were sent to a commercial abattoir to investigate carcass traits. Pigs fed the Finish diet had a greater overall average daily gain (P < 0.05) than pigs fed the other cDDGS diets. Dietary treatments did not affect the hot carcass weight. However, feeding the Finish diet increased (P < 0.05) the iodine value of pork belly samples and decreased (P < 0.05) carcass yield. The plasma urea nitrogen (PUN) concentration at the end of the growing phase and plasma concentrations of Leu and Val were greater (P < 0.05) in pigs fed the Finish diet compared to the other cDDGS diets. Feeding pigs the cDDGS diets with different BCAA:Lys ratios had no difference in income over feed cost and income over feed and facility costs compared to the corn-SBM diet. Therefore, feeding pigs cDDGS diets with SID BCAA:Lys ratios adjusted for the previously determined finishing phase (from 80 to 120 kg of BW) recommendations by SBM inclusion supported growth performance and economic benefits equal to the corn-SBM diet.

Environmental impacts of eco-nutrition swine feeding programs in spatially explicit geographic regions of the United States

This study was conducted to determine greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, water consumption, land use, as well as nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and carbon (C) balance of five diet formulation strategies and feeding programs for growing-finishing pigs (25-130 kg body weight) in the three spatially explicit geographic regions where the majority of U.S. pork production occurs. Feeding programs evaluated consisted of 1) standard corn-soybean meal (CSBM) diets, 2) CSBM containing 15% corn distillers dried grains with solubles (DDGS), 3) CSBM with 8.6% thermally processed supermarket food waste (FW), 4) low crude protein CSBM diets supplemented with synthetic amino acids (SAA), and 5) CSBM with phytase enzyme (PHY) added at 600 FTU (phytase units)/kg of diet. An attributional Life Cycle Assessment approach using a highly specialized, spatially explicit Food System Supply-Chain Sustainability (FoodS3) model was used to quantify GHG emissions, water consumption, and land use of corn, soybean meal, and DDGS based on county level sourcing. The DDGS, FW, and SAA feeding programs had less estimated N and P intake and excretion than CSBM, and the PHY feeding program provided the greatest reduction in P excretion. The FW feeding program had the least overall GHG emissions (319.9 vs. 324.6 to 354.1 kg CO2 equiv./market hog), land use (331.5 vs. 346.5 to 385.2 m2/market hog), and water consumption (7.64 vs. 7.70 to 8.30 m3/market hog) among the alternatives. The DDGS feeding program had the greatest GHG emissions (354.1 kg CO2 equiv./market hog) among all programs but had less impacts on water consumption (7.70 m3) and land use (346.5 m2) per market hog than CSBM and PHY. The SAA feeding program provided a 6.5-7.4% reduction in land use impacts compared with CSBM and PHY, respectively. Regardless of feeding program, the Midwest had the least contributions to GHG emissions and land use attributed to feed and manure among regions. Water consumption per market hog associated with feeding programs was much greater in the Southwest (59.66-63.58 m3) than in the Midwest (4.45-4.88 m3) and Mid-Atlantic (1.85-2.14 m3) regions. Results show that diet composition and U.S. geographic region significantly affect GHG emissions, water consumption, and land use of pork production systems, and the potential use of thermally processed supermarket food waste at relatively low diet inclusion rates (<10%) can reduce environmental impacts compared with other common feeding strategies.

Effect of Isoleucine and Added Valine on Performance, Nutrients Digestibility and Gut Microbiota Composition of Pigs Fed with Very Low Protein Diets

Little is known whether a combination Ile and added Val improves the growth of pigs offered very low protein (VLP) diets through changes in nutrients digestibility and gut microbiota. The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of a mixture of Val above and Ile at NRC levels on growth, nutrient digestibility and gut microbiota in pigs fed with VLP diets. Forty, weaned piglets were assigned to: positive control: normal-protein-diet; negative control (NC): VLP diet supplemented with first four limiting amino acids; VA: NC with Val above NRC; IL: NC with Ile at NRC level; VAIL: NC with Val above and Ile at NRC levels. While both VAIL and VA groups completely recovered the inhibitory effects of VLP diets on feed intake, only VAIL partially recovered the negative effects of VLP diets on growth performance. VAIL and VA increased the thermal radiation and decreased the digestibility of nitrogen. NC increased the relative abundance of Pasteurellaceae and Enterobacteriaceae in the colon. VAIL had a higher abundance of colonic Actinobacteria, Enterococcus, and Brevibacillus and the colon content of VA was more enriched with Mogibacterium. Overall, VAIL partially improved the growth performance which is likely linked with alterations in gut microbiota composition.

Impact of increasing standardized ileal digestible valine: lysine in diets containing 30% dried distiller grains with solubles on growing pig performance

A total of 2,430 pigs (DNA 600 × Topigs Norsvin 70, initially 39.4 kg) were used in a 28-d trial to determine the standardized ileal digestible (SID) Val:Lys requirement for pigs fed with diets containing 30% DDGS. Treatments included five diets containing 30% DDGS with SID Val:Lys ratios of 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, and 80%, plus a corn soybean meal (SBM) diet, for a total of six dietary treatments. Diets were formulated to be isocaloric through the inclusion of fat and to contain equal amounts of SID Lys within phase. Pens were assigned to dietary treatment in a randomized complete block design with initial body weight (BW) as the random blocking factor. Each dietary treatment was replicated 15 times and pens contained 27 pigs, balanced for sex. Increasing the SID Val:Lys ratio in diets containing 30% DDGS increased (Quadratic; P ≤ 0.007) 14-d BW, final BW, average daily gain (ADG), average daily feed intake (ADFI), and gain:feed (G:F) for all periods. Providing an SID Val:Lys ratio of 75% resulted in the heaviest 14-d BW and final BW as well as greater ADG and ADFI of pigs fed with 30% DDGS for all periods. The G:F response was maximized when an SID Val:Lys ratio of 70% was provided from day 0 to 14 while an SID Val:Lys ratio of 75% maximized G:F from day 14 to 28 and for the cumulative period. The SID Val:Lys requirement was estimated at 66.6% (95% CI [65.9, 67.4]), 65.7 (95% CI: [64.8, 66.5]), and 68.4% (95% CI [66.0, 70.8]) for ADG, ADFI, and G:F, respectively, using the straight broken line (SBL) method and 69.9% (95% CI [68.2, 71.5]), 67.6 (95% CI [65.4, 69.8]), and 72.8% (95% CI [69.8, 75.8]) for the quadratic broken line (QBL) method. Pigs fed the corn-SBM diet had heavier 14-d BW, final BW, and greater ADG, ADFI, G:F (P ≤ 0.032) compared to pigs fed diets containing 30% DDGS, except for cumulative ADFI compared to pigs receiving 75% SID Val:Lys (P = 0.167). In conclusion, these results suggest that when feeding 30% DDGS during the growing period, an SID Val:Lys ratio of 68% would yield more than 99% and 97% of the maximum ADG and G:F response for the 39 to 68 kg pigs. However, growth performance of pigs fed diets containing 30% DDGS did not equate to pigs consuming the corn-SBM diet regardless of the SID Val:Lys ratio.

A Mixture of Valine and Isoleucine Restores the Growth of Protein-Restricted Pigs Likely through Improved Gut Development, Hepatic IGF-1 Pathway, and Plasma Metabolomic Profile

Valine (Val) alone or in combination with isoleucine (Ile) improves the growth under severe protein restriction; however, the underlying mechanisms remain unknown. In this study, we assessed whether Val/Ile-induced growth in protein-restricted pigs is associated with changes in gut development, hepatic insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) production, and blood metabolomics. Forty piglets were assigned to five dietary groups: positive control (PC) with standard protein content; low protein (LP) with very low protein content; and LP supplemented with Val (LPV), Ile (LPI), and Val and Ile (LPVI). LPVI reversed the negative effects of VLP diets on growth and gut morphology. Both LPV and LPVI restored the reduced transcript of IGF-1 while decreasing the transcript of insulin-like growth factor binding protein 1 (IGFBP1) in the liver. LPV and LPVI recovered the reduced plasma Val, glycine, and leucine concentrations, which were positively correlated with improved gut morphology and the hepatic IGF-1 gene expression and negatively correlated with hepatic IGFBP1 mRNA abundance. In conclusion, supplementation with a combination of Val and Ile into the VLP diets restored the decreased growth performance of pigs fed with these diets likely through improved gut development, hepatic IGF-1 expression and bioavailability, and plasma metabolomics profile.

Effects of dietary leucine and tryptophan on serotonin metabolism and growth performance of growing pigs

An experiment was conducted to test the hypothesis that increased dietary Trp is needed in high-Leu diets for growing pigs to prevent a drop in plasma serotonin and hypothalamic serotonin concentrations and to maintain growth performance of animals. A total of 144 growing pigs (initial weight: 28.2 ± 1.9 kg) were assigned to 9 treatments in a randomized complete block design with 2 blocks, 2 pigs per pen, and 8 replicate pens per treatment. The 9 diets were formulated in a 3 × 3 factorial with 3 levels of dietary Leu (101, 200, or 299% standardized ileal digestible [SID] Leu:Lys), and 3 levels of dietary Trp (18, 23, or 28% SID Trp:Lys). A basal diet that met requirements for SID Leu and SID Trp was formulated and 8 additional diets were formulated by adding crystalline L-Leu and (or) L-Trp to the basal diet. Individual pig weights were recorded at the beginning of the experiment and at the conclusion of the 21-d experiment. On the last day of the experiment, one pig per pen was sacrificed, and blood and hypothalamus samples were collected to measure plasma urea N, plasma serotonin, and hypothalamic serotonin concentrations. Results indicated that increasing dietary Trp increased (P < 0.05) hypothalamic serotonin, whereas increases (P < 0.05) in average daily gain (ADG) and average daily feed intake (ADFI) were observed only in pigs fed diets containing excess Leu. Increasing dietary Leu reduced (P < 0.05) ADG, ADFI, and hypothalamic serotonin. However, the increase in ADG and ADFI caused by dietary Trp was greater if 299% SID Leu:Lys was provided than if 101% SID Leu:Lys was provided (interaction, P < 0.05). Plasma Leu concentration was positively affected by dietary Leu and negatively affected by dietary Trp, but the negative effect of Trp was greater if 299% SID Leu:Lys was provided than if 101% SID Leu:Lys was provided (interaction, P < 0.05). Plasma concentration of Trp was positively affected by increased dietary Trp and increased dietary Leu, but the increase in plasma concentration of Trp was greater if Leu level was at 101 % SID Leu:Lys ratio than at 299% SID Leu:Lys ratio (interaction, P < 0.05). In conclusion, increased dietary Leu reduced ADG, ADFI, and hypothalamic serotonin concentration, and influenced metabolism of several indispensable amino acids, but Trp supplementation partly overcame the negative effect of excess Leu. This demonstrates the importance of Trp in regulation of hypothalamic serotonin, and therefore, feed intake of pigs.

Flash dietary methionine supply over growth requirements in pigs: Multi-facetted effects on skeletal muscle metabolism

Dietary methionine affects protein metabolism, lean gain and growth performance and acts in the control of oxidative stress. When supplied in large excess relative to growth requirements in diets for pigs, positive effects on pork quality traits have been recently reported. This study aimed to decipher the molecular and biochemical mechanisms affected by a dietary methionine supply above growth requirements in the loin muscle of finishing pigs. During the last 14 days before slaughter, crossbred female pigs (n = 15 pigs/diet) were fed a diet supplemented with hydroxy-methionine (Met5; 1.1% of methionine) or not (CONT, 0.22% of methionine). Blood was sampled at slaughter to assess key metabolites. At the same time, free amino acid concentrations and expression or activity levels of genes involved in protein or energy metabolism were measured in the longissimus lumborum muscle (LM). The Met5 pigs exhibited a greater activity of creatine kinase in plasma when compared with CONT pigs. The concentrations of free methionine, alpha-aminobutyric acid, anserine, 3-methyl-histidine, lysine, and proline were greater in the LM of Met5 pigs than in CONT pigs. Expression levels of genes involved in protein synthesis, protein breakdown or autophagy were only scarcely affected by the diet. Among ubiquitin ligases, MURF1, a gene known to target creatine kinase and muscle contractile proteins, and OTUD1 coding for a deubiquitinase protease, were up-regulated in the LM of Met5 pigs. A lower activity of citrate synthase, a reduced expression level of ME1 acting in lipogenesis but a higher expression of PPARD regulating energy metabolism, were also observed in the LM of Met5 pigs compared with CONT pigs. Principal component analysis revealed that expression levels of many studied genes involved in protein and energy metabolism were correlated with meat quality traits across dietary treatments, suggesting that subtle modifications in expression of those genes had cumulative effects on the regulation of processes leading to the muscle transformation into meat. In conclusion, dietary methionine supplementation beyond nutritional requirements in pigs during the last days before slaughter modified the free amino acid profile in muscle and its redox capacities, and slightly affected molecular pathways related to protein breakdown and energy metabolism. These modifications were associated with benefits on pork quality traits.