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Klein KP, Guastaldi FPS, Pereira HSG, He Y, Lukas SE. Dronabinol inhibits alveolar bone remodeling in tooth movement of rats. Am J Orthod Dentofacial Orthop 2021; 161:e215-e222. [PMID: 34924285 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajodo.2021.07.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2020] [Revised: 04/20/2021] [Accepted: 07/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Orthodontic tooth movement is reliant on the process of bone remodeling, and a variety of medications impact the ability of teeth to move through bone. Marijuana is the most widely used recreational drug in the world, and early studies suggest the drug impacts bone remodeling as tetrahydrocannabinol binds to cannabinoid receptors which play a role in bone homeostasis. This study aimed to assess the impact of dronabinol on alveolar bone remodeling in rats with otherwise healthy tissue when subjected to orthodontic forces. METHODS Thirty male Sprague Dawley rats were equally allocated into 2 groups. Orthodontic appliances were placed in all animals, which consisted of a nickel-titanium coil ligated from the maxillary first molar to the central incisor. The appliance was activated to deliver a force to move teeth together. Over 21 days, daily injections of either dronabinol or the control (solvent) were given to the rats. Cephalometric analysis, histology, and bone remodeling profiles of both groups were analyzed and compared. RESULTS Teeth moved in both the dronabinol and control groups (P <0.05). Tooth movement in the control group followed the typical process of orthodontic tooth movement: periodontal width narrowing and bone resorption on the compression side of the tooth, with an overall decrease in the height of the alveolar bone. In contrast, the dronabinol group showed an abnormal response to tooth movement: no bone resorption on the compression side of the tooth, increased bone formation on the tension side, and the maintenance of the height of the alveolar crest. In the dronabinol group, there were also significantly more osteoclasts and osteoblasts in the alveolar bone than in the control group. CONCLUSIONS These results demonstrate that dronabinol attenuates orthodontic tooth movement by decreasing bone resorption, which could have implications for other bone-related recovery processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine P Klein
- Director of Orthodontics, Massachusetts General Hospital and Assistant Professor of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Harvard School of Dental Medicine, Boston, Mass.
| | - Fernando P S Guastaldi
- Skeletal Biology Research Center, Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard School of Dental Medicine, Boston, Mass
| | - Halissa S G Pereira
- Skeletal Biology Research Center, Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard School of Dental Medicine, Boston, Mass
| | - Yan He
- Skeletal Biology Research Center, Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard School of Dental Medicine, Boston, Mass
| | - Scott E Lukas
- Behavioral Psychopharmacology Research Laboratory, McLean Hospital, and McLean Imaging Center, McLean Hospital, Belmont, Mass; Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Mass
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Cliburn KD, Huestis MA, Wagner JR, Kemp PM. Cannabinoid distribution in fatally-injured pilots' postmortem fluids and tissues. Forensic Sci Int 2021; 329:111075. [PMID: 34749280 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2021.111075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2021] [Revised: 10/19/2021] [Accepted: 10/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The primary psychoactive component of cannabis, Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) impairs cognitive function and psychomotor performance, particularly for complex tasks like piloting an aircraft. The Federal Aviation Administration's (FAA) Forensic Sciences Section at the Civil Aerospace Medical Institute (Oklahoma City, OK) performs toxicological analyses on pilots fatally injured in general aviation incidents, permitting cannabinoids measurement in a broad array of postmortem biological specimens. Cannabinoid concentrations in postmortem fluids and tissues from 10 pilots involved in airplane crashes are presented. Median (range) THC blood concentration was 1.6 (1.0-13.7) ng/mL. Phase I metabolites, 11-hydroxy-THC (11-OH-THC) and 11-nor-9-carboxy-THC (THCCOOH) and phase II glucuronide metabolite, THCCOOH-glucuronide, had median (range) blood concentrations of 1.4 (0.5-1.8), 9.9 (2.2-72.6) and 36.6 (7.1-160) ng/mL, respectively. Urine analyses revealed positive results for THCCOOH, THC-glucuronide, THCCOOH-glucuronide and 11-nor-9-carboxy-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabivarin (THCVCOOH). THC was readily distributed to lung, brain, kidney, spleen and heart. The psychoactive metabolite, 11-OH-THC, was identified in liver and brain with median (range) concentrations 7.1 (3.5-10.5) and 2.4 (2.0-6.0) ng/g, respectively. Substantial THCCOOH and THCCOOH-glucuronide concentrations were observed in liver, lung, brain, kidney, spleen and heart. These cannabinoid concentrations from multiple types of postmortem specimens add to the limited postmortem cannabinoid research data and suggest useful biological matrices for investigating cannabinoid-related deaths.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kacey D Cliburn
- Civil Aerospace Medical Institute, Federal Aviation Administration, 6500 S MacArthur Blvd, Oklahoma City, OK 73169, USA.
| | - Marilyn A Huestis
- Huestis and Smith Toxicology, LLC, 683 Shore Road, Severna Park, MD 21146, USA; School of Forensic Sciences, Oklahoma State University Center for Health Sciences, 1111 W. 17th St, Tulsa, OK 74107, USA
| | - Jarrad R Wagner
- School of Forensic Sciences, Oklahoma State University Center for Health Sciences, 1111 W. 17th St, Tulsa, OK 74107, USA
| | - Philip M Kemp
- Civil Aerospace Medical Institute, Federal Aviation Administration, 6500 S MacArthur Blvd, Oklahoma City, OK 73169, USA; School of Forensic Sciences, Oklahoma State University Center for Health Sciences, 1111 W. 17th St, Tulsa, OK 74107, USA
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Screening and confirmation methods for the qualitative identification of nine phytocannabinoids in urine by LC-MS/MS. Clin Biochem 2021; 98:54-62. [PMID: 34529995 DOI: 10.1016/j.clinbiochem.2021.09.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2021] [Revised: 08/09/2021] [Accepted: 09/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Qualitative liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) methods were developed and validated to screen and confirm the presence of nine phytocannabinoids in urine. The nine phytocannabinoids targeted in the methods included Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), 11-hydroxy-THC, 11-nor-9-carboxy-THC, cannabidiol, 7-carboxy cannabidiol, cannabinol, cannabigerol, Δ9-tetrahydrocannabivarin (THCV), and 11-nor-9-carboxy-THCV. The methods presented use a rapid, single-step enzymatic hydrolysis followed by solid-phase extraction and LC-MS/MS analysis. Limits of detection were established at 1 µg/L for non-carboxylated analytes and 5 µg/L for carboxylated analytes. The screening and confirmation methods were validated and implemented in the analysis of authentic case samples. These methods can assist forensic, medicolegal, or medical compliance investigations as the presence of phytocannabinoids, or lack there-of, may be used to help differentiate cannabis (hemp, marijuana) use from synthetic THC (dronabinol) exposure.
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Hill VA, Schaffer MI, Paulsen RB, Stowe GN. The Cannabinoids Tetrahydrocannabinol, Cannabinol, Cannabidiol, Tetrahydrocannabivarin, and 11-nor-9-carboxy-∆9-THC in Hair. J Anal Toxicol 2021; 46:487-493. [PMID: 34153110 DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkab068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2020] [Revised: 03/12/2021] [Accepted: 06/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The cannabinoids tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), tetrahydrocannabivarin (THCV), cannabidiol (CBD), cannabinol (CBN) and (-)-11-nor-9-carboxy-∆9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC-COOH) were determined in 4773 hair samples. Confirmation of THC-COOH was by GC-MS/MS. Confirmation of THC, THCV, CBN and CBD was by LC-MS/MS on an AB Sciex QTRAP 6500+ LC-MS/MS. The purpose of this work was not to utilize any analyte other than THC-COOH as indicative of ingestion, but to assess the absence or presence, and relative concentrations, of the other cannabinoid analytes in hair of marijuana users vs. primarily cannabidiol users. In this regard, ten percent of samples contained significantly higher concentrations of CBD relative to THC than the other 90%. A concentration of CBD that is five times greater than that of THC was proposed as good evidence of primarily CBD ingestion.THC concentrations in the samples ranged from < LOD (5 pg/mg) to 47,808 pg/mg hair, varying widely in the relationship between parent THC and the metabolite THC-COOH. CBN was present in most samples, but concentrations relative to THC decreased with increasing THC concentrations. Only 26% of the samples contained THCV detectable by the method. When present, THCV concentrations averaged 1.77% of THC. A limitation of the study is the lack of subject histories to determine types and amounts of products used and mode of ingestion. Also, not all THC from external contamination may have been removed. Nonetheless, the data provide a useful guide as to what cannabinoids may be found in hair, at what concentrations, under conditions of marijuana vs. likely primarily CBD use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Virginia A Hill
- Psychemedics Corporation, 5832 Uplander Way, Culver City, CA 90230
| | | | - Ryan B Paulsen
- Psychemedics Corporation, 5832 Uplander Way, Culver City, CA 90230
| | - G Neil Stowe
- Psychemedics Corporation, 5832 Uplander Way, Culver City, CA 90230
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Cliburn KD, Huestis MA, Wagner JR, Kemp PM. Identification and quantification of cannabinoids in postmortem fluids and tissues by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr A 2021; 1652:462345. [PMID: 34198104 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2021.462345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2021] [Revised: 06/05/2021] [Accepted: 06/08/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Cannabis sativa is commonly used worldwide and is frequently detected by forensic laboratories working with biological specimens from potentially impaired drivers or pilots. To address the problem of limited published methods for cannabinoids quantification in postmortem specimens, a liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method was developed and validated to quantify Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), 11-hydroxy-THC (11-OH-THC), 11-nor-9-carboxy-THC (THCCOOH), 8β,11-dihydroxy-THC (8β-diOH-THC), 8β-hydroxy-THC (8β-OH-THC), THC-glucuronide (THC-g), THCCOOH-glucuronide (THCCOOH-g), cannabidiol (CBD), cannabinol (CBN), cannabigerol (CBG), Δ9-tetrahydrocannabivarin (THCV), and 11-nor-9-carboxy-THCV (THCVCOOH). Solid phase extraction concentrated analytes prior to analysis on a biphenyl column coupled to a mass spectrometer in electrospray positive ionization mode using multiple reaction monitoring. Linearity ranged from 0.25-50 ng/mL (THC-g), 0.5-100 ng/mL (CBN), 0.5-250 ng/mL (THC, 11-OH-THC, THCCOOH, CBD, and CBG), 1-100 ng/mL (8β-diOH-THC, THCVCOOH, 8β-OH-THC, and THCV) and 1-250 ng/mL (THCCOOH-g). Within-run imprecision was <11.2% CV, between-run imprecision <18.1% CV, and bias was less than ±15.1% of target concentration in blood for all cannabinoids at three concentrations. No carryover or interferences were observed. All cannabinoids were stable in blood at room temperature for 24 h, refrigerated (4°C) for 96 h, and following three freeze/thaw cycles. Matrix effects greater than 25% were observed for most analytes in tissues. The proof of concept for method applicability involved measurement of cannabinoids in a pilot fatally injured in an aviation crash. This new analytical method is robust and sensitive, enabling collection of additional cannabinoid postmortem distribution data to improve interpretation of postmortem cannabinoid results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kacey D Cliburn
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Oklahoma State University, 205 McElroy Hall, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA.
| | - Marilyn A Huestis
- Huestis and Smith Toxicology, LLC, 683 Shore Road, Severna, MD 21146, USA; School of Forensic Sciences, Oklahoma State University Center for Health Sciences, 1111 W. 17th St, Tulsa, OK 74107, USA
| | - Jarrad R Wagner
- School of Forensic Sciences, Oklahoma State University Center for Health Sciences, 1111 W. 17th St, Tulsa, OK 74107, USA
| | - Philip M Kemp
- School of Forensic Sciences, Oklahoma State University Center for Health Sciences, 1111 W. 17th St, Tulsa, OK 74107, USA; Civil Aerospace Medical Institute, Federal Aviation Administration, 6500 S MacArthur Blvd, Oklahoma City, OK 73169, USA
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Phytocannabinoid drug-drug interactions and their clinical implications. Pharmacol Ther 2020; 215:107621. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2020.107621] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2020] [Accepted: 06/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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7
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Urinary cannabinoid mass spectrometry profiles differentiate dronabinol from cannabis use. Clin Chim Acta 2020; 510:515-521. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cca.2020.08.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2020] [Revised: 07/29/2020] [Accepted: 08/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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8
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Karschner EL, Swortwood-Gates MJ, Huestis MA. Identifying and Quantifying Cannabinoids in Biological Matrices in the Medical and Legal Cannabis Era. Clin Chem 2020; 66:888-914. [DOI: 10.1093/clinchem/hvaa113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2020] [Accepted: 05/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
AbstractBackgroundCannabinoid analyses generally included, until recently, the primary psychoactive cannabis compound, Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), and/or its inactive metabolite, 11-nor-9-carboxy-THC, in blood, plasma, and urine. Technological advances revolutionized the analyses of major and minor phytocannabinoids in diverse biological fluids and tissues. An extensive literature search was conducted in PubMed for articles on cannabinoid analyses from 2000 through 2019. References in acquired manuscripts were also searched for additional articles.ContentThis article summarizes analytical methodologies for identification and quantification of multiple phytocannabinoids (including THC, cannabidiol, cannabigerol, and cannabichromene) and their precursors and/or metabolites in blood, plasma, serum, urine, oral fluid, hair, breath, sweat, dried blood spots, postmortem matrices, breast milk, meconium, and umbilical cord since the year 2000. Tables of nearly 200 studies outline parameters including analytes, specimen volume, instrumentation, and limits of quantification. Important diagnostic and interpretative challenges of cannabinoid analyses are also described. Medicalization and legalization of cannabis and the 2018 Agricultural Improvement Act increased demand for cannabinoid analyses for therapeutic drug monitoring, emergency toxicology, workplace and pain-management drug testing programs, and clinical and forensic toxicology applications. This demand is expected to intensify in the near future, with advances in instrumentation performance, increasing LC-MS/MS availability in clinical and forensic toxicology laboratories, and the ever-expanding knowledge of the potential therapeutic use and toxicity of phytocannabinoids.SummaryCannabinoid analyses and data interpretation are complex; however, major and minor phytocannabinoid detection windows and expected concentration ranges in diverse biological matrices improve the interpretation of cannabinoid test results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erin L Karschner
- Armed Forces Medical Examiner System, Division of Forensic Toxicology, Dover Air Force Base, Dover, DE
| | | | - Marilyn A Huestis
- Institute of Emerging Health Professions, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA
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9
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Abd-Elsalam WH, Alsherbiny MA, Kung JY, Pate DW, Löbenberg R. LC–MS/MS quantitation of phytocannabinoids and their metabolites in biological matrices. Talanta 2019; 204:846-867. [PMID: 31357374 DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2019.06.053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2019] [Revised: 06/09/2019] [Accepted: 06/11/2019] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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10
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Fabresse N, Becam J, Carrara L, Descoeur J, Di Mario M, Drevin G, Duval T, Hannas N, Lanot T, Marillier M, Palayer M, Senechal H, Salle S. Cannabinoïdes et thérapeutique. TOXICOLOGIE ANALYTIQUE ET CLINIQUE 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxac.2019.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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11
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Scheidweiler KB, Barnes AJ. Quantification of Eight Cannabinoids Including Cannabidiol in Human Urine Via Liquid Chromatography Tandem Mass Spectrometry. Methods Mol Biol 2019; 1872:11-22. [PMID: 30350275 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-8823-5_2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Medical and recreational cannabis legalization has highlighted the importance of being able to identify recent cannabis use and impairment. Monitoring minor plant cannabinoids has been proposed to assist in identifying recent cannabis use. Additionally, cannabidiol (CBD) has been proposed for epilepsy, pain, inflammatory disorder, anxiety, and addiction treatment; therefore, monitoring CBD is of increasing clinical importance. However, few methods exist capable of monitoring extensive panels of traditional cannabinoid analytes and minor cannabinoids (including CBD). This chapter details a liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry method capable of measuring Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), 11-hydroxy-THC, 11-nor-9-carboxy-THC, cannabinol, cannabigerol, tetrahydrocannabivarin (THCV), and its metabolite, 11-nor-9-carboxy-THCV, in urine.
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Schlienz NJ, Cone EJ, Herrmann ES, Lembeck NA, Mitchell JM, Bigelow GE, Flegel R, LoDico CP, Hayes ED, Vandrey R. Pharmacokinetic Characterization of 11-nor-9-carboxy-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol in Urine Following Acute Oral Cannabis Ingestion in Healthy Adults. J Anal Toxicol 2018; 42:232-247. [PMID: 29300962 DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkx102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2017] [Accepted: 11/29/2017] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Understanding the urine excretion profile for Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) metabolites is important for accurate detection and interpretation of toxicological testing for cannabis use. Prior literature has primarily evaluated the urinary pharmacokinetics of the non-psychoactive THC metabolite 11-nor-9-carboxy-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THCCOOH) following smoked cannabis administration. The present study examined the urine THCCOOH excretion profile following oral cannabis administration in 18 healthy adults. Following ingestion of a cannabis-containing brownie with 10, 25 or 50 mg of THC (N = 6 per dose), urine specimens were collected on a closed residential research unit for 6 days, followed by three outpatient visits on Days 7-9. Average maximum concentrations (Cmax) of THCCOOH were 107, 335 and 713 ng/mL, and average times to maximum concentration (Tmax) were 8, 6 and 9 h for the 10, 25 and 50 mg THC doses, respectively. Detection windows to first positive and last positive varied as a function of dose; higher doses had shorter time to first positive and longer time to last positive. Considerable inter-subject variability was observed on study outcomes. Gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS; 15 ng/mL cutoff) was used as the criterion to assess sensitivity, specificity and agreement for THCCOOH qualitative immunoassay tests using 20, 50 and 100 ng/mL cutoffs. The 50 ng/mL cutoff displayed good sensitivity (92.5%), specificity (92.4%) and overall agreement (92.4%), whereas the 20 ng/mL cutoff demonstrated poor specificity (58.4%), and the 100 ng/mL cutoff exhibited reduced sensitivity (70.9%). Ingestion of cannabis brownies containing the 10 and 25 mg THC doses yielded THCCOOH concentrations that differed in magnitude and time course from those previously reported for the smoked route of administration of comparable doses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolas J Schlienz
- Behavioral Pharmacology Research Unit, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 5510 Nathan Shock Drive, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
| | - Edward J Cone
- Behavioral Pharmacology Research Unit, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 5510 Nathan Shock Drive, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
| | - Evan S Herrmann
- Battelle Memorial Institute, 6115 Falls Road, Suite 200, Baltimore, MD 21209, USA
| | - Natalie A Lembeck
- Behavioral Pharmacology Research Unit, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 5510 Nathan Shock Drive, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
| | - John M Mitchell
- RTI International, 3040 East Cornwallis Road, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
| | - George E Bigelow
- Behavioral Pharmacology Research Unit, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 5510 Nathan Shock Drive, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
| | - Ronald Flegel
- Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA), Division of Workplace Programs (DWP), 5600 Fishers Lane, Rockville, MD 20857, USA
| | - Charles P LoDico
- Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA), Division of Workplace Programs (DWP), 5600 Fishers Lane, Rockville, MD 20857, USA
| | - Eugene D Hayes
- Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA), Division of Workplace Programs (DWP), 5600 Fishers Lane, Rockville, MD 20857, USA
| | - Ryan Vandrey
- Behavioral Pharmacology Research Unit, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 5510 Nathan Shock Drive, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
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Huestis MA, Smith ML. Cannabinoid Markers in Biological Fluids and Tissues: Revealing Intake. Trends Mol Med 2018; 24:156-172. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molmed.2017.12.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2017] [Revised: 12/13/2017] [Accepted: 12/13/2017] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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14
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Sempio C, Scheidweiler KB, Barnes AJ, Huestis MA. Optimization of recombinant β-glucuronidase hydrolysis and quantification of eight urinary cannabinoids and metabolites by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. Drug Test Anal 2017; 10:518-529. [PMID: 28815938 DOI: 10.1002/dta.2230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2017] [Revised: 05/21/2017] [Accepted: 06/12/2017] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Prolonged urinary cannabinoid excretion in chronic frequent cannabis users confounds identification of recent cannabis intake that may be important in treatment, workplace, clinical, and forensic testing programs. In addition, differentiation of synthetic Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) intake from cannabis plant products might be an important interpretive issue. THC, 11-hydroxy-THC (11-OH-THC) and 11-nor-9-carboxy-THC (THCCOOH) urine concentrations were evaluated during previous controlled cannabis administration studies following tandem alkaline/E. coli β-glucuronidase hydrolysis. We optimized recombinant β-glucuronidase enzymatic urinary hydrolysis before simultaneous liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) quantification of THC, 11-OH-THC, THCCOOH, cannabidiol (CBD), cannabinol (CBN), cannabigerol (CBG), tetrahydrocannabivarin (THCV) and 11-nor-9-carboxy-THCV (THCVCOOH) in urine. Enzyme amount, incubation time and temperature, buffer molarity and pH were optimized using pooled urine samples collected during a National Institute on Drug Abuse, Institutional Review Board-approved clinical study. Optimized cannabinoid hydrolysis with recombinant β-glucuronidase was achieved with 2000 IU enzyme, 2 M pH 6.8 sodium phosphate buffer, and 0.2 mL urine at 37°C for 16 h. The LC-MS/MS quantification method for hydrolyzed urinary cannabinoids was validated per the Scientific Working Group on Toxicology guidelines. Linear ranges were 1-250 μg/L for THC and CBG, 2-250 μg/L for 11-OH-THC, CBD, CBN, THCV and THCVCOOH, and 1-500 μg/L for THCCOOH. Inter-batch analytical bias was 92.4-112.4%, imprecision 4.4-9.3% CV (n = 25), extraction efficiency 44.3-97.1% and matrix effect -29.6 to 1.8% (n = 10). The method was utilized to analyze urine specimens collected during our controlled smoked, vaporized, and edible cannabis administration study to improve interpretation of urine cannabinoid test results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristina Sempio
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism Section, IRP, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD, 21224, USA
| | - Karl B Scheidweiler
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism Section, IRP, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD, 21224, USA
| | - Allan J Barnes
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism Section, IRP, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD, 21224, USA
| | - Marilyn A Huestis
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism Section, IRP, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD, 21224, USA.,University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21224, USA
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Berthet A, De Cesare M, Favrat B, Sporkert F, Augsburger M, Thomas A, Giroud C. A systematic review of passive exposure to cannabis. Forensic Sci Int 2016; 269:97-112. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2016.11.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2016] [Revised: 11/08/2016] [Accepted: 11/10/2016] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
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16
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Newmeyer MN, Swortwood MJ, Barnes AJ, Abulseoud OA, Scheidweiler KB, Huestis MA. Free and Glucuronide Whole Blood Cannabinoids' Pharmacokinetics after Controlled Smoked, Vaporized, and Oral Cannabis Administration in Frequent and Occasional Cannabis Users: Identification of Recent Cannabis Intake. Clin Chem 2016; 62:1579-1592. [DOI: 10.1373/clinchem.2016.263475] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2016] [Accepted: 09/06/2016] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
BACKGROUND
There is increasing interest in markers of recent cannabis use because following frequent cannabis intake, Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) may be detected in blood for up to 30 days. The minor cannabinoids cannabidiol, cannabinol (CBN), and THC-glucuronide were previously detected for ≤2.1 h in frequent and occasional smokers' blood after cannabis smoking. Cannabigerol (CBG), Δ9-tetrahydrocannabivarin (THCV), and 11-nor-9-carboxy-THCV might also be recent use markers, but their blood pharmacokinetics have not been investigated. Additionally, while smoking is the most common administration route, vaporization and edibles are frequently used.
METHODS
We characterized blood pharmacokinetics of THC, its phase I and phase II glucuronide metabolites, and minor cannabinoids in occasional and frequent cannabis smokers for 54 (occasional) and 72 (frequent) hours after controlled smoked, vaporized, and oral cannabis administration.
RESULTS
Few differences were observed between smoked and vaporized blood cannabinoid pharmacokinetics, while significantly greater 11-nor-9-carboxy-THC (THCCOOH) and THCCOOH-glucuronide concentrations occurred following oral cannabis. CBG and CBN were frequently identified after inhalation routes with short detection windows, but not detected following oral dosing. Implementation of a combined THC ≥5 μg/L plus THCCOOH/11-hydroxy-THC ratio <20 cutoff produced detection windows <8 h after all routes for frequent smokers; no occasional smoker was positive 1.5 h or 12 h following inhaled or oral cannabis, respectively.
CONCLUSIONS
Vaporization and smoking provide comparable cannabinoid delivery. CBG and CBN are recent-use cannabis markers after cannabis inhalation, but their absence does not exclude recent use. Multiple, complimentary criteria should be implemented in conjunction with impairment observations to improve interpretation of cannabinoid tests. Clinicaltrials.gov Identifier: NCT02177513
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew N Newmeyer
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism Section, IRP, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD
- Program in Toxicology, University of Maryland, Baltimore, Baltimore, MD
| | - Madeleine J Swortwood
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism Section, IRP, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD
| | - Allan J Barnes
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism Section, IRP, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD
| | - Osama A Abulseoud
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism Section, IRP, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD
| | - Karl B Scheidweiler
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism Section, IRP, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD
| | - Marilyn A Huestis
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism Section, IRP, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD
- University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD
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17
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Interpretation of Workplace Tests for Cannabinoids. J Med Toxicol 2016; 13:106-110. [PMID: 27686239 DOI: 10.1007/s13181-016-0587-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2016] [Revised: 08/16/2016] [Accepted: 09/06/2016] [Indexed: 10/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Workplace urine drug testing for an inactive THC metabolite is common in both federally regulated and non-regulated drug testing. A positive result does not document impairment, or even recent use, when impairment is likely the most important parameter being searched for by the drug testing procedure. Most cannabinoid testing does not detect imported synthetics. Currently, urine is the most widely tested matrix, but blood, plasma, oral fluid, and hair may also be accepted in federally regulated testing in the future. This article will discuss the history, the status quo, and the possible near term future of workplace testing for marijuana in employees.
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18
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Scheidweiler KB, Andersson M, Swortwood MJ, Sempio C, Huestis MA. Long-term stability of cannabinoids in oral fluid after controlled cannabis administration. Drug Test Anal 2016; 9:143-147. [PMID: 27539096 DOI: 10.1002/dta.2056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2016] [Revised: 08/15/2016] [Accepted: 08/17/2016] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Cannabinoid stability in oral fluid (OF) is important for assuring accurate results since OF has become a valid alternative matrix of choice for drug testing. We previously published OF cannabinoid stability studies using Quantisal™, Oral-Eze®, and StatSure™ devices stored at room temperature for 1 week, 4 °C for up to 4 weeks, and at -20 °C up to 24 weeks. Extending refrigerated stability up to 3 months would be helpful for clinical and forensic testing, for re-analysis of OF samples and for batching research analyses. Individual authentic OF pools were prepared after controlled smoking of a 6.9% ∆9 -tetrahydracannabinol cannabis cigarette; the Quantisal™ device was utilized for OF collection. Fifteen healthy volunteers participated in the Institutional Review Board-approved study. Stability for THC, 11-nor-9-carboxy-THC (THCCOOH), ∆9 -tetrahydrocannabivarin (THCV), cannabidiol (CBD), and cannabigerol (CBG) were determined after storage at 4 °C for 1, 2, and 3 months. Results within ±20% of baseline concentrations were considered stable. All analytes were stable for up to 2 months at 4 °C for all participants with positive baseline concentrations. Baseline concentrations were highly variable. In total, THC, THCCOOH, THCV, CBD, and CBG were stable for 3 months at 4 °C for pooled positive specimens from 14 of 15, 8 of 9, 7 of 8, 8 of 9, and 9 of 10 participants, respectively. In conclusion, Quantisal™-collected OF specimens should be stored at 4 °C for no more than two months to assure accurate THC, THCCOOH, THCV, CBD, and CBG quantitative results; only one participant's OF was unstable at three months. Published 2016. This article is a U.S. Government work and is in the public domain in the USA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karl B Scheidweiler
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism Section, Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics Research Branch, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
| | - Maria Andersson
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism Section, Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics Research Branch, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
| | - Madeleine J Swortwood
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism Section, Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics Research Branch, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
| | - Cristina Sempio
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism Section, Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics Research Branch, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
| | - Marilyn A Huestis
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism Section, Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics Research Branch, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA.,University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21201
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19
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Simultaneous quantification of 11 cannabinoids and metabolites in human urine by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry using WAX-S tips. Anal Bioanal Chem 2016; 408:6461-71. [PMID: 27422645 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-016-9765-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2016] [Revised: 06/23/2016] [Accepted: 07/04/2016] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
A comprehensive cannabinoid urine quantification method may improve clinical and forensic result interpretation and is necessary to support our clinical research. A liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry quantification method for ∆(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), 11-hydroxy-THC (11-OH-THC), 11-nor-9-carboxy-THC (THCCOOH), ∆(9)-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (THCAA), cannabinol (CBN), cannabidiol (CBD), cannabigerol (CBG), ∆(9)-tetrahydrocannabivarin (THCV), 11-nor-9-carboxy-THCV (THCVCOOH), THC-glucuronide (THC-gluc), and THCCOOH-glucuronide (THCCOOH-gluc) in urine was developed and validated according to the Scientific Working Group on Toxicology guidelines. Sample preparation consisted of disposable pipette extraction (WAX-S) of 200 μL urine. Separation was achieved on a Kinetex C18 column using gradient elution with flow rate 0.5 mL/min, mobile phase A (10 mM ammonium acetate in water), and mobile phase B (15 % methanol in acetonitrile). Total run time was 14 min. Analytes were monitored in both positive and negative ionization modes by scheduled multiple reaction monitoring. Linear ranges were 0.5-100 μg/L for THC and THCCOOH; 0.5-50 μg/L for 11-OH-THC, CBD, CBN, THCAA, and THC-gluc; 1-100 μg/L for CBG, THCV, and THCVCOOH; and 5-500 μg/L for THCCOOH-gluc (R (2) > 0.99). Analytical biases were 88.3-113.7 %, imprecisions 3.3-14.3 %, extraction efficiencies 42.4-81.5 %, and matrix effect -10 to 32.5 %. We developed and validated a comprehensive, simple, and rapid LC-MS/MS cannabinoid urine method for quantification of 11 cannabinoids and metabolites. This method is being used in a controlled cannabis administration study, investigating urine cannabinoid markers documenting recent cannabis use, chronic frequent smoking, or route of drug administration and potentially improving urine cannabinoid result interpretation.
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20
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Scheidweiler KB, Newmeyer MN, Barnes AJ, Huestis MA. Quantification of cannabinoids and their free and glucuronide metabolites in whole blood by disposable pipette extraction and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr A 2016; 1453:34-42. [PMID: 27236483 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2016.05.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2015] [Revised: 04/28/2016] [Accepted: 05/04/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Identifying recent cannabis intake is confounded by prolonged cannabinoid excretion in chronic frequent cannabis users. We previously observed detection times ≤2.1h for cannabidiol (CBD) and cannabinol (CBN) and Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)-glucuronide in whole blood after smoking, suggesting their applicability for identifying recent intake. However, whole blood collection may not occur for up to 4h during driving under the influence of drugs investigations, making a recent-use marker with a 6-8h detection window helpful for improving whole blood cannabinoid interpretation. Other minor cannabinoids cannabigerol (CBG), Δ9-tetrahydrocannabivarin (THCV), and its metabolite 11-nor-9-carboxy-THCV (THCVCOOH) might also be useful. We developed and validated a sensitive and specific liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry method for quantification of THC, its phase I and glucuronide phase II metabolites, and 5 five minor cannabinoids. Cannabinoids were extracted from 200μL whole blood via disposable pipette extraction, separated on a C18 column, and detected via electrospray ionization in negative mode with scheduled multiple reaction mass spectrometric monitoring. Linear ranges were 0.5-100μg/L for THC and 11-nor-9-carboxy-THC (THCCOOH); 0.5-50μg/L for 11-hydroxy-THC (11-OH-THC), CBD, CBN, and THC-glucuronide; 1-50μg/L for CBG, THCV, and THCVCOOH; and 5-500μg/L for THCCOOH-glucuronide. Inter-day accuracy and precision at low, mid and high quality control (QC) concentrations were 95.1-113% and 2.4-8.5%, respectively (n=25). Extraction recoveries and matrix effects at low and high QC concentrations were 54.0-84.4% and -25.8-30.6%, respectively. By simultaneously monitoring multiple cannabinoids and metabolites, identification of recent cannabis administration or discrimination between licit medicinal and illicit recreational cannabis use can be improved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karl B Scheidweiler
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism Section, IRP, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD, USA.
| | - Matthew N Newmeyer
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism Section, IRP, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD, USA; Program in Toxicology, University of Maryland, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Allan J Barnes
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism Section, IRP, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Marilyn A Huestis
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism Section, IRP, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD, USA
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21
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Simon L, Song K, Vande Stouwe C, Hollenbach A, Amedee A, Mohan M, Winsauer P, Molina P. Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC) Promotes Neuroimmune-Modulatory MicroRNA Profile in Striatum of Simian Immunodeficiency Virus (SIV)-Infected Macaques. J Neuroimmune Pharmacol 2015; 11:192-213. [PMID: 26607731 DOI: 10.1007/s11481-015-9645-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2015] [Accepted: 11/12/2015] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Cannabinoid administration before and after simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV)-inoculation ameliorated disease progression and decreased inflammation in male rhesus macaques. Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC) did not increase viral load in brain tissue or produce additive neuropsychological impairment in SIV-infected macaques. To determine if the neuroimmunomodulation of Δ9-THC involved differential microRNA (miR) expression, miR expression in the striatum of uninfected macaques receiving vehicle (VEH) or Δ9-THC (THC) and SIV-infected macaques administered either vehicle (VEH/SIV) or Δ9-THC (THC/SIV) was profiled using next generation deep sequencing. Among the 24 miRs that were differentially expressed among the four groups, 16 miRs were modulated by THC in the presence of SIV. These 16 miRs were classified into four categories and the biological processes enriched by the target genes determined. Our results indicate that Δ9-THC modulates miRs that regulate mRNAs of proteins involved in 1) neurotrophin signaling, 2) MAPK signaling, and 3) cell cycle and immune response thus promoting an overall neuroprotective environment in the striatum of SIV-infected macaques. This is also reflected by increased Brain Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF) and decreased proinflammatory cytokine expression compared to the VEH/SIV group. Whether Δ9-THC-mediated modulation of epigenetic mechanisms provides neuroprotection in other regions of the brain and during chronic SIV-infection remains to be determined.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liz Simon
- Department of Physiology, Alcohol and Drug Abuse Center of Excellence, Louisiana State University Health Sciences, 1901 Perdido Street, Medical Education Building 7205, P7-3, New Orleans, LA, 70112, USA
| | - Keijing Song
- Department of Physiology, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, 1901 Perdido Street, New Orleans, LA, 70112, USA
| | - Curtis Vande Stouwe
- Department of Physiology, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, 1901 Perdido Street, New Orleans, LA, 70112, USA
| | - Andrew Hollenbach
- Department of Genetics, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, 1901 Perdido Street, New Orleans, LA, 70112, USA
| | - Angela Amedee
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, & Parasitology; Alcohol and Drug Abuse Center of Excellence, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, 1901 Perdido Street, New Orleans, LA, 70112, USA
| | - Mahesh Mohan
- Department of Comparative Pathology, Tulane National Primate Research Center, 18703 3 Rivers Rd, Covington, LA, 70433, USA
| | - Peter Winsauer
- Department of Pharmacology; Alcohol and Drug Abuse Center of Excellence, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, 1901 Perdido Street, New Orleans, LA, 70112, USA
| | - Patricia Molina
- Department of Physiology, Alcohol and Drug Abuse Center of Excellence, Louisiana State University Health Sciences, 1901 Perdido Street, Medical Education Building 7205, P7-3, New Orleans, LA, 70112, USA.
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22
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Molina PE, Amedee AM, Winsauer P, Nelson S, Bagby G, Simon L. Behavioral, Metabolic, and Immune Consequences of Chronic Alcohol or Cannabinoids on HIV/AIDs: Studies in the Non-Human Primate SIV Model. J Neuroimmune Pharmacol 2015; 10:217-32. [PMID: 25795088 PMCID: PMC4470723 DOI: 10.1007/s11481-015-9599-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2014] [Accepted: 03/05/2015] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
HIV-associated mortality has been significantly reduced with antiretroviral therapy (ART), and HIV infection has become a chronic disease that frequently coexists with many disorders, including substance abuse (Azar et al. Drug Alcohol Depend 112:178-193, 2010; Phillips et al. J Gen Int Med 16:165, 2001). Alcohol and drugs of abuse may modify host-pathogen interactions at various levels including behavioral, metabolic, and immune consequences of HIV infection, as well as the ability of the virus to integrate into the genome and replicate in host cells. Identifying mechanisms responsible for these interactions is complicated by many factors, such as the tissue specific responses to viral infection, multiple cellular mechanisms involved in inflammatory responses, neuroendocrine and localized responses to infection, and kinetics of viral replication. An integrated physiological analysis of the biomedical consequences of chronic alcohol and drug use or abuse on disease progression is possible using rhesus macaques infected with simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV), a relevant model of HIV infection. This review will provide an overview of the data gathered using this model to show that chronic administration of two of the most commonly abused substances, alcohol and cannabinoids (Δ(9)-Tetrahydrocannabinol; THC), affect host-pathogen interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia E Molina
- Department of Physiology, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, School of Medicine, 1901 Perdido Street, New Orleans, LA, 70112, USA,
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23
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¹H NMR and HPLC/DAD for Cannabis sativa L. chemotype distinction, extract profiling and specification. Talanta 2015; 140:150-165. [PMID: 26048837 DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2015.02.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2014] [Revised: 02/12/2015] [Accepted: 02/23/2015] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The medicinal use of different chemovars and extracts of Cannabis sativa L. requires standardization beyond ∆9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) with complementing methods. We investigated the suitability of (1)H NMR key signals for distinction of four chemotypes measured in deuterated dimethylsulfoxide together with two new validated HPLC/DAD methods used for identification and extract profiling based on the main pattern of cannabinoids and other phenolics alongside the assayed content of THC, cannabidiol (CBD), cannabigerol (CBG) their acidic counterparts (THCA, CBDA, CBGA), cannabinol (CBN) and cannflavin A and B. Effects on cell viability (MTT assay, HeLa) were tested. The dominant cannabinoid pairs allowed chemotype recognition via assignment of selective proton signals and via HPLC even in cannabinoid-low extracts from the THC, CBD and CBG type. Substantial concentrations of cannabinoid acids in non-heated extracts suggest their consideration for total values in chemotype distinction and specifications of herbal drugs and extracts. Cannflavin A/B are extracted and detected together with cannabinoids but always subordinated, while other phenolics can be accumulated via fractionation and detected in a wide fingerprint but may equally serve as qualitative marker only. Cell viability reduction in HeLa was more determined by the total cannabinoid content than by the specific cannabinoid profile. Therefore the analysis and labeling of total cannabinoids together with the content of THC and 2-4 lead cannabinoids are considered essential. The suitability of analytical methods and the range of compound groups summarized in group and ratio markers are discussed regarding plant classification and pharmaceutical specification.
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24
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Desrosiers NA, Scheidweiler KB, Huestis MA. Quantification of six cannabinoids and metabolites in oral fluid by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Drug Test Anal 2014; 7:684-94. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.1753] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2014] [Revised: 10/07/2014] [Accepted: 10/24/2014] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Nathalie A. Desrosiers
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism, Intramural Research Program; National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health; 251 Bayview Boulevard Baltimore MD 21224 USA
- Program in Toxicology; University of Maryland Baltimore; 620 W. Lexington St Baltimore MD 21201 USA
| | - Karl B. Scheidweiler
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism, Intramural Research Program; National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health; 251 Bayview Boulevard Baltimore MD 21224 USA
| | - Marilyn A. Huestis
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism, Intramural Research Program; National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health; 251 Bayview Boulevard Baltimore MD 21224 USA
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25
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Shirazi J, Shah S, Sagar D, Nonnemacher MR, Wigdahl B, Khan ZK, Jain P. Epigenetics, drugs of abuse, and the retroviral promoter. J Neuroimmune Pharmacol 2013; 8:1181-96. [PMID: 24218017 DOI: 10.1007/s11481-013-9508-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2013] [Accepted: 10/10/2013] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Drug abuse alone has been shown to cause epigenetic changes in brain tissue that have been shown to play roles in addictive behaviors. In conjunction with HIV-1 infection, it can cause epigenetic changes at the viral promoter that can result in altered gene expression, and exacerbate disease progression overall. This review entails an in-depth look at research conducted on the epigenetic effects of three of the most widely abused drugs (cannabinoids, opioids, and cocaine), with a particular focus on the mechanisms through which these drugs interact with HIV-1 infection at the viral promoter. Here we discuss the impact of this interplay on disease progression from the point of view of the nature of gene regulation at the level of chromatin accessibility, chromatin remodeling, and nucleosome repositioning. Given the importance of chromatin remodeling and DNA methylation in controlling the retroviral promoter, and the high susceptibility of the drug abusing population of individuals to HIV infection, it would be beneficial to understand the way in which the host genome is modified and regulated by drugs of abuse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jasmine Shirazi
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel Institute for Biotechnology & Virology Research, Drexel University College of Medicine, 3805 Old Easton Road, Doylestown, PA, 18902, USA
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26
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Costantino CM, Gupta A, Yewdall AW, Dale BM, Devi LA, Chen BK. Cannabinoid receptor 2-mediated attenuation of CXCR4-tropic HIV infection in primary CD4+ T cells. PLoS One 2012; 7:e33961. [PMID: 22448282 PMCID: PMC3309010 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0033961] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2011] [Accepted: 02/20/2012] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Agents that activate cannabinoid receptor pathways have been tested as treatments for cachexia, nausea or neuropathic pain in HIV-1/AIDS patients. The cannabinoid receptors (CB(1)R and CB(2)R) and the HIV-1 co-receptors, CCR5 and CXCR4, all signal via Gαi-coupled pathways. We hypothesized that drugs targeting cannabinoid receptors modulate chemokine co-receptor function and regulate HIV-1 infectivity. We found that agonism of CB(2)R, but not CB(1)R, reduced infection in primary CD4+ T cells following cell-free and cell-to-cell transmission of CXCR4-tropic virus. As this change in viral permissiveness was most pronounced in unstimulated T cells, we investigated the effect of CB(2)R agonism on to CXCR4-induced signaling following binding of chemokine or virus to the co-receptor. We found that CB(2)R agonism decreased CXCR4-activation mediated G-protein activity and MAPK phosphorylation. Furthermore, CB(2)R agonism altered the cytoskeletal architecture of resting CD4+ T cells by decreasing F-actin levels. Our findings suggest that CB(2)R activation in CD4+ T cells can inhibit actin reorganization and impair productive infection following cell-free or cell-associated viral acquisition of CXCR4-tropic HIV-1 in resting cells. Therefore, the clinical use of CB(2)R agonists in the treatment of AIDS symptoms may also exert beneficial adjunctive antiviral effects against CXCR4-tropic viruses in late stages of HIV-1 infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristina Maria Costantino
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Immunology Institute, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, New York, United States of America
- Department of Pharmacology and Systems Therapeutics, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Achla Gupta
- Department of Pharmacology and Systems Therapeutics, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Alice W. Yewdall
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Immunology Institute, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Benjamin M. Dale
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Immunology Institute, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Lakshmi A. Devi
- Department of Pharmacology and Systems Therapeutics, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Benjamin K. Chen
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Immunology Institute, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, New York, United States of America
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27
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Abstract
Since 2004, when the World Anti-Doping Agency assumed the responsibility for establishing and maintaining the list of prohibited substances and methods in sport (i.e. the Prohibited List), cannabinoids have been prohibited in all sports during competition. The basis for this prohibition can be found in the World Anti-Doping Code, which defines the three criteria used to consider banning a substance. In this context, we discuss the potential of cannabis to enhance sports performance, the risk it poses to the athlete's health and its violation of the spirit of sport. Although these compounds are prohibited in-competition only, we explain why the pharmacokinetics of their main psychoactive compound, Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol, may complicate the results management of adverse analytical findings. Passive inhalation does not appear to be a plausible explanation for a positive test. Although the prohibition of cannabinoids in sports is one of the most controversial issues in anti-doping, in this review we stress the reasons behind this prohibition, with strong emphasis on the evolving knowledge of cannabinoid pharmacology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marilyn A Huestis
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA.
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28
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Molina PE, Amedee A, LeCapitaine NJ, Zabaleta J, Mohan M, Winsauer P, Vande Stouwe C. Cannabinoid neuroimmune modulation of SIV disease. J Neuroimmune Pharmacol 2011; 6:516-27. [PMID: 21830069 DOI: 10.1007/s11481-011-9301-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2011] [Accepted: 07/25/2011] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Marijuana is one of the most commonly used and abused drugs. Δ-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ-9-THC), the primary psychoactive component in marijuana, is FDA-approved to ameliorate AIDS-associated wasting. Because cannabinoid receptors are expressed on cells of the immune system, it is possible that chronic Δ-9-THC use may impact HIV disease progression. Until recently, longitudinal, controlled, systems-approach studies on the effects of cannabinoids on disease progression were lacking. Data from our controlled studies in non-human primates show chronic Δ-9-THC administration prior to and during simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) infection ameliorates disease progression, attenuates viral load and tissue inflammation, significantly reducing morbidity and mortality of SIV-infected macaques. Identification of possible mechanisms responsible for this modulation of disease progression is complicated due to the multiplicity of cannabinoid-mediated effects, tissue-specific responses to the viral infection, multiple cellular mechanisms involved in inflammatory responses, coordinated neuroendocrine and localized responses to infection, and kinetics of viral replication. Emerging results from our studies reveal that the overall mechanisms mediating the protective effects of cannabinoids involve novel epigenomic regulatory mechanisms in need of systematic investigation. Here, we review the evidence supporting an immunomodulatory role for cannabinoids and its impact on disease progression with focus on HIV/SIV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia E Molina
- Department of Physiology, LSUHSC at New Orleans, 1901 Perdido Street, Medical Education Building, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA.
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29
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Separate and combined effects of the cannabinoid agonists nabilone and Δ⁹-THC in humans discriminating Δ⁹-THC. Drug Alcohol Depend 2011; 116:86-92. [PMID: 21227600 PMCID: PMC3089804 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2010.11.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2010] [Revised: 11/22/2010] [Accepted: 11/24/2010] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Agonist replacement treatment is a promising strategy to manage cannabis-use disorders. The aim of this study was to assess the combined effects of the synthetic cannabinoid agonist nabilone and Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ⁹-THC) using drug-discrimination procedures, which are sensitive to drug interactions. Testing the concurrent administration of nabilone and Δ⁹-THC was also conducted to provide initial safety and tolerability data, which is important because cannabis users will likely lapse during treatment. METHODS Six cannabis users learned to discriminate 30 mg oral Δ⁹-THC from placebo and then received nabilone (0, 1 and 3mg) and Δ⁹-THC (0, 5, 15 and 30 mg), alone and in combination. Subjects completed the multiple-choice procedure to assess drug reinforcement, and self-report, task performance and physiological measures were collected. RESULTS Δ⁹-THC and nabilone alone shared discriminative-stimulus effects with the training dose of Δ⁹-THC, increased crossover point on the multiple-choice procedure, produced overlapping subject ratings and decreased skin temperature. Nabilone alone also elevated heart rate. In combination, nabilone shifted the discriminative-stimulus effects of Δ⁹-THC leftward/upward and enhanced Δ⁹-THC effects on the other outcome measures. CONCLUSIONS These results replicate a previous study demonstrating that nabilone shares agonist effects with the active constituent of cannabis in cannabis users, and contribute further by indicating that nabilone would likely be safe and well tolerated when combined with cannabis. These data support the conduct of future studies to determine if nabilone treatment would produce cross-tolerance to the abuse-related effects of cannabis and reduce cannabis use.
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Molina PE, Winsauer P, Zhang P, Walker E, Birke L, Amedee A, Stouwe CV, Troxclair D, McGoey R, Varner K, Byerley L, LaMotte L. Cannabinoid administration attenuates the progression of simian immunodeficiency virus. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 2011; 27:585-92. [PMID: 20874519 DOI: 10.1089/aid.2010.0218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Δ(9)-Tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ(9)-THC), the primary psychoactive component in marijuana, is FDA approved to ameliorate AIDS-associated wasting. Because cannabinoid receptors are expressed on cells of the immune system, chronic Δ(9)-THC use may impact HIV disease progression. We examined the impact of chronic Δ(9)-THC administration (0.32 mg/kg im, 2 × daily), starting 28 days prior to inoculation with simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV(mac251); 100 TCID(50)/ml, iv), on immune and metabolic indicators of disease during the initial 6 month asymptomatic phase of infection in rhesus macaques. SIV(mac251) inoculation resulted in measurable viral load, decreased lymphocyte CD4(+)/CD8(+) ratio, and increased CD8(+) proliferation. Δ(9)-THC treatment of SIV-infected animals produced minor to no effects in these parameters. However, chronic Δ(9)-THC administration decreased early mortality from SIV infection (p = 0.039), and this was associated with attenuation of plasma and CSF viral load and retention of body mass (p = NS). In vitro, Δ(9)-THC (10 μm) decreased SIV (10 TCID(50)) viral replication in MT4-R5 cells. These results indicate that chronic Δ(9)-THC does not increase viral load or aggravate morbidity and may actually ameliorate SIV disease progression. We speculate that reduced levels of SIV, retention of body mass, and attenuation of inflammation are likely mechanisms for Δ(9)-THC-mediated modulation of disease progression that warrant further study.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Peter Winsauer
- Department of Pharmacology, LSUHSC, New Orleans, Louisiana
| | - Ping Zhang
- Department of Medicine, LSUHSC, New Orleans, Louisiana
| | - Edith Walker
- Department of Physiology, LSUHSC, New Orleans, Louisiana
| | - Leslie Birke
- Department of Physiology, LSUHSC, New Orleans, Louisiana
| | - Angela Amedee
- Department of Microbiology, LSUHSC, New Orleans, Louisiana
| | | | | | - Robin McGoey
- Department of Pathology, LSUHSC, New Orleans, Louisiana
| | - Kurt Varner
- Department of Pharmacology, LSUHSC, New Orleans, Louisiana
| | - Lauri Byerley
- Department of Physiology, LSUHSC, New Orleans, Louisiana
| | - Lynn LaMotte
- School of Public Health, Alcohol Research Center, and Alcohol and Drug Abuse Center of Excellence, LSUHSC, New Orleans, Louisiana
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Mehmedic Z, Chandra S, Slade D, Denham H, Foster S, Patel AS, Ross SA, Khan IA, ElSohly MA. Potency trends of Δ9-THC and other cannabinoids in confiscated cannabis preparations from 1993 to 2008. J Forensic Sci 2011; 55:1209-17. [PMID: 20487147 DOI: 10.1111/j.1556-4029.2010.01441.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 322] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
The University of Mississippi has a contract with the National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) to carry out a variety of research activities dealing with cannabis, including the Potency Monitoring (PM) program, which provides analytical potency data on cannabis preparations confiscated in the United States. This report provides data on 46,211 samples seized and analyzed by gas chromatography-flame ionization detection (GC-FID) during 1993-2008. The data showed an upward trend in the mean Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ(9)-THC) content of all confiscated cannabis preparations, which increased from 3.4% in 1993 to 8.8% in 2008. Hashish potencies did not increase consistently during this period; however, the mean yearly potency varied from 2.5-9.2% (1993-2003) to 12.0-29.3% (2004-2008). Hash oil potencies also varied considerably during this period (16.8 ± 16.3%). The increase in cannabis preparation potency is mainly due to the increase in the potency of nondomestic versus domestic samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zlatko Mehmedic
- National Center for Natural Products Research, School of Pharmacy, University of Mississippi, University, MS 38677, USA
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Lowe RH, Karschner EL, Schwilke EW, Barnes AJ, Huestis MA. Simultaneous quantification of Delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol, 11-hydroxy-Delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol, and 11-nor-Delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol-9-carboxylic acid in human plasma using two-dimensional gas chromatography, cryofocusing, and electron impact-mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr A 2007; 1163:318-27. [PMID: 17640656 PMCID: PMC2714866 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2007.06.069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2007] [Revised: 06/14/2007] [Accepted: 06/21/2007] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
A two-dimensional (2D) gas chromatography/electron impact-mass spectrometry (GC/EI-MS) method for simultaneous quantification of Delta(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), 11-hydroxy-Delta(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (11-OH-THC), and 11-nor-Delta(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol-9-carboxylic acid (THCCOOH) in human plasma was developed and validated. The method employs 2D capillary GC and cryofocusing for enhanced resolution and sensitivity. THC, 11-OH-THC, and THCCOOH were extracted by precipitation with acetonitrile followed by solid-phase extraction. GC separation of trimethylsilyl derivatives of analytes was accomplished with two capillary columns in series coupled via a pneumatic Deans switch system. Detection and quantification were accomplished with a bench-top single quadrupole mass spectrometer operated in electron impact-selected ion monitoring mode. Limits of quantification (LOQ) were 0.125, 0.25 and 0.125 ng/mL for THC, 11-OH-THC, and THCCOOH, respectively. Accuracy ranged from 86.0 to 113.0% for all analytes. Intra- and inter-assay precision, as percent relative standard deviation, was less than 14.1% for THC, 11-OH-THC, and THCCOOH. The method was successfully applied to quantification of THC and its 11-OH-THC and THCCOOH metabolites in plasma specimens following controlled administration of THC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ross H. Lowe
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism Section, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, 5500 Nathan Shock Drive, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
| | - Erin L. Karschner
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism Section, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, 5500 Nathan Shock Drive, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
| | - Eugene W. Schwilke
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism Section, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, 5500 Nathan Shock Drive, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
| | - Allan J. Barnes
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism Section, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, 5500 Nathan Shock Drive, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
| | - Marilyn A. Huestis
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism Section, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, 5500 Nathan Shock Drive, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
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Chou SL, Ling YC, Yang MH, Pai CY. Determination of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol in indoor air as an indicator of marijuana cigarette smoking using adsorbent sampling and in-injector thermal desorption gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. Anal Chim Acta 2007; 598:103-9. [PMID: 17693313 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2007.07.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2007] [Revised: 06/17/2007] [Accepted: 07/04/2007] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The marijuana leaves are usually mixed with tobaccos and smoked at amusement places in Taiwan. Recently, for investigation-legal purposes, the police asked if we can identify the marijuana smoke in a KTV stateroom (a private room at the entertainment spot for singing, smoking, alcohol drinking, etc.) without marijuana residues. A personal air-sampler pump fitted with the GC liner-tube packed with Tenax-TA adsorbent was used for air sampling. The GC-adsorbent tube was placed in the GC injector port and desorbed directly, followed by GC-MS analysis for the determination of delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol (delta9-THC) in indoor air. The average desorption efficiency and limit of detection for delta9-THC were 89% and 0.1 microg m(-3), respectively, approximately needing 1.09 mg of marijuana leaves smoked in an unventilated closed room (3.0 m x 2.4 m x 2.7 m) to reach this level. The mean delta9-THC contained in the 15 marijuana plants seized from diverse locations was measured to be 0.32%. The delta9-THC in room air can be successfully identified from mock marijuana cigarettes, mixtures of marijuana and tobacco, and an actual case. The characteristic delta9-THC peak in chromatogram can serve as the indicator of marijuana. Positive result suggests marijuana smoking at the specific scene in the recent past, facilitating the formulation of further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Su-Lien Chou
- Department of Biomedical Engineering and Environmental Sciences, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu 30013, Taiwan, ROC
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Abstract
Oral fluid testing for drugs of abuse offers significant advantages over urine as a test matrix. Collection can be performed under direct observation with reduced risk of adulteration and substitution. Drugs generally appear in oral fluid by passive diffusion from blood, but also may be deposited in the oral cavity during oral, smoked, and intranasal administration. Drug metabolites also can be detected in oral fluid. Unlike urine testing, there may be a close correspondence between drug and metabolite concentrations in oral fluid and in blood. Interpretation of oral fluid results for drugs of abuse should be an iterative process whereby one considers the test results in the context of program requirements and a broad scientific knowledge of the many factors involved in determining test outcome. This review delineates many of the chemical and metabolic processes involved in the disposition of drugs and metabolites in oral fluid that are important to the appropriate interpretation of oral fluid tests. Chemical, metabolic, kinetic, and analytic parameters are summarized for selected drugs of abuse, and general guidelines are offered for understanding the significance of oral fluid tests.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edward J Cone
- Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA.
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Budney AJ, Vandrey RG, Hughes JR, Moore BA, Bahrenburg B. Oral delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol suppresses cannabis withdrawal symptoms. Drug Alcohol Depend 2007; 86:22-9. [PMID: 16769180 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2006.04.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 121] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2006] [Revised: 04/21/2006] [Accepted: 04/21/2006] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND This study assessed whether oral administration of delta-9-tetrahydrocannbinol (THC) effectively suppressed cannabis withdrawal in an outpatient environment. The primary aims were to establish the pharmacological specificity of the withdrawal syndrome and to obtain information relevant to determining the potential use of THC to assist in the treatment of cannabis dependence. METHOD Eight adult, daily cannabis users who were not seeking treatment participated in a 40-day, within-subject ABACAD study. Participants administered daily doses of placebo, 30 mg (10 mg/tid), or 90 mg (30 mg/tid) oral THC during three, 5-day periods of abstinence from cannabis use separated by 7-9 periods of smoking cannabis as usual. RESULTS Comparison of withdrawal symptoms across conditions indicated that (1) the lower dose of THC reduced withdrawal discomfort, and (2) the higher dose produced additional suppression in withdrawal symptoms such that symptom ratings did not differ from the smoking-as-usual conditions. Minimal adverse effects were associated with either active dose of THC. CONCLUSIONS This demonstration of dose-responsivity replicates and extends prior findings of the pharmacological specificity of the cannabis withdrawal syndrome. The efficacy of these doses for suppressing cannabis withdrawal suggests oral THC might be used as an intervention to aid cannabis cessation attempts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alan J Budney
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, 4301 W. Markham, Little Rock, AR 72205, USA.
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Schneider U, Seifert J, Karst M, Schlimme J, Cimander K, Müller-Vahl KR. [The endogenous cannabinoid system. Therapeutic implications for neurologic and psychiatric disorders]. DER NERVENARZT 2006; 76:1062, 1065-6, 1068-72 passim. [PMID: 15776259 DOI: 10.1007/s00115-005-1888-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
For about 5,000 years, cannabis has been used as a therapeutic agent. There has been growing interest in the medical use of cannabinoids. This is based on the discovery that cannabinoids act with specific receptors (CB1 and CB2). CB1 receptors are located in specific brain areas (e.g. cerebellum, basal ganglia, and hippocampus) and CB2 receptors on cells of the immune system. Endogenous ligands of the cannabinoid receptors were also discovered (e.g. anandamids). Many physiologic processes are modulated by the two subtypes of cannabinoid receptor: motor functions, memory, appetite, and pain. These innovative neurobiologic/pharmacologic findings could possibly lead to the use of synthetic and natural cannabinoids as therapeutic agents in various areas. Until now, cannabinoids were used as antiemetic agents in chemotherapy-induced emesis and in patients with HIV-wasting syndrome. Evidence suggests that cannabinoids may prove useful in some other diseases, e.g. movement disorders such as Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome, multiple sclerosis, and pain. These new findings also explain the acute adverse effects following cannabis use.
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Affiliation(s)
- U Schneider
- Abt. Klinische Psychiatrie und Psychotherapie, Medizinische Hochschule Hannover, Deutschland.
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McCurdy CR, Scully SS. Analgesic substances derived from natural products (natureceuticals). Life Sci 2005; 78:476-84. [PMID: 16216276 DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2005.09.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2005] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
From the first recorded accounts, over 7000 years ago, various forms of natural products have been utilized to treat pain disorders. Prototypical examples of such natural products are the opium poppy (Papaver soniferum) and the bark of the willow tree (Salix spp.). It was not until the 19th century when individual compounds were isolated from these substances and were determined to posses the desired effects. The known sources of these substances have been thoroughly investigated. Over the last several decades, more analgesic substances have been purified from natural products resulting in novel structural classes and mechanisms of actions. Plants and other natural products described in historical ethnobotanical and ethnopharmacological literature have become of more recent interest in drug discovery efforts. These manuscripts and reports are being utilized to aid in the identification of natural products that have been historically employed in the alleviation of pain. A large factor that has highlighted the importance of discovering novel compounds to treat pain has been in the fundamental understanding of the complex mechanisms of pain transmission in the nervous system. Nociceptive processing involves many receptor classes, enzymes and signaling pathways. The identification of novel classes of compounds from natural sources may lead to advancing the understanding of these underlying pharmacological mechanisms. With the potential of uncovering new compounds with idealistic pharmacological profiles (i.e., no side effects, no addictive potential), natural products still hold great promise for the future of drug discovery especially in the treatment of pain disorders and potentially drug addictions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher R McCurdy
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, National Center for Natural Products Research, Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Mississippi, University, MS 38677, USA.
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Gustafson RA, Levine B, Stout PR, Klette KL, George MP, Moolchan ET, Huestis MA. Urinary cannabinoid detection times after controlled oral administration of delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol to humans. Clin Chem 2003; 49:1114-24. [PMID: 12816908 DOI: 10.1373/49.7.1114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Urinary cannabinoid excretion and immunoassay performance were evaluated by semiquantitative immunoassay and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC/MS) analysis of metabolite concentrations in 4381 urine specimens collected before, during, and after controlled oral administration of tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). METHODS Seven individuals received 0, 0.39, 0.47, 7.5, and 14.8 mg THC/day in this double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized, clinical study conducted on a closed research ward. THC doses (hemp oils with various THC concentrations and the therapeutic drug Marinol) were administered three times daily for 5 days. All urine voids were collected over the 10-week study and later tested by Emit II, DRI, and CEDIA immunoassays and by GC/MS. Detection rates, detection times, and sensitivities, specificities, and efficiencies of the immunoassays were determined. RESULTS At the federally mandated immunoassay cutoff (50 microg/L), mean detection rates were <0.2% during ingestion of the two low doses typical of current hemp oil THC concentrations. The two high doses produced mean detection rates of 23-46% with intermittent positive tests up to 118 h. Maximum metabolite concentrations were 5.4-38.2 microg/L for the low doses and 19.0-436 micro g/L for the high doses. Emit II, DRI, and CEDIA immunoassays had similar performance efficiencies of 92.8%, 95.2%, and 93.9%, respectively, but differed in sensitivity and specificity. CONCLUSIONS The use of cannabinoid-containing foodstuffs and cannabinoid-based therapeutics, and continued abuse of oral cannabis require scientific data for accurate interpretation of cannabinoid tests and for making reliable administrative drug-testing policy. At the federally mandated cannabinoid cutoffs, it is possible but unlikely for a urine specimen to test positive after ingestion of manufacturer-recommended doses of low-THC hemp oils. Urine tests have a high likelihood of being positive after Marinol therapy. The Emit II and DRI assays had adequate sensitivity and specificity, but the CEDIA assay failed to detect many true-positive specimens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard A Gustafson
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, 5500 Nathan Shock Drive, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
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Feng S, ElSohly MA. Synthesis of (�)-6,6-[2H6]dimethyl-11-nor-?9-tetrahydrocannabivarin-9-carboxylic acid. J Labelled Comp Radiopharm 2002. [DOI: 10.1002/jlcr.586] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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40
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Nikas SP, Thakur GA, Makriyannis A. Regiospecifically deuterated (−)-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabivarins. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2002. [DOI: 10.1039/b205459k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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