Do Ionic Liquids Exhibit the Required Characteristics to Dissolve, Extract, Stabilize, and Purify Proteins? Past-Present-Future Assessment

Proteins are highly labile molecules, thus requiring the presence of appropriate solvents and excipients in their liquid milieu to keep their stability and biological activity. In this field, ionic liquids (ILs) have gained momentum in the past years, with a relevant number of works reporting their successful use to dissolve, stabilize, extract, and purify proteins. Different approaches in protein-IL systems have been reported, namely, proteins dissolved in (i) neat ILs, (ii) ILs as co-solvents, (iii) ILs as adjuvants, (iv) ILs as surfactants, (v) ILs as phase-forming components of aqueous biphasic systems, and (vi) IL-polymer-protein/peptide conjugates. Herein, we critically analyze the works published to date and provide a comprehensive understanding of the IL-protein interactions affecting the stability, conformational alteration, unfolding, misfolding, and refolding of proteins while providing directions for future studies in view of imminent applications. Overall, it has been found that the stability or purification of proteins by ILs is bispecific and depends on the structure of both the IL and the protein. The most promising IL-protein systems are identified, which is valuable when foreseeing market applications of ILs, e.g., in "protein packaging" and "detergent applications". Future directions and other possibilities of IL-protein systems in light-harvesting and biotechnology/biomedical applications are discussed.

Investigation of the vesicle-to-micelle transition of 11-amino undecanoic acid derived sulphonamide and a comprehensive study of its interaction with protein

In the present manuscript, an amphiphile sulphonamide based surfactant benzenesulphonyl-11-amino sodium undecanoate (BASU) is designed and synthesized. The surface activity of the amphiphile in the solutions is studied at neutral pH so that the resulting amphiphile self-organizes and transfers from large unilamellar vesicles to small micelles from dilute to concentrated solutions. During the aggregate transitions, the common surfactants tend to form the small aggregate at low concentrations; but BASU shows the large vesicle structure at low concentration of ~3 mM and converts into the small micelle at ~9 mM. Therefore, different techniques have been used, such as, tensiometry, conductometry, fluorimetry and DLS and some microscopic characterization, e.g., confocal fluorescence microscopy to reveal the aggregate assembly and transition mechanism. The isothermal titration calorimetry is used for quantitative measurement of thermodynamic properties of self-assembly formation and the process is found spontaneous and entropically favorable. The permeability of the vesicle membrane bilayer is explored by a kinetic study. Effects of salt and cholesterol on the aggregate of respective amphiphile are also investigated. The interaction of surfactant with both human and bovine serum albumin is analyzed through UV-visible and fluorescence techniques to draw a comparative study. Antibacterial activity is tested by both spectral and zone inhibition methods and its application for mixed amphiphiles (e.g., BASU/CTAB) is found. Therefore, according to the ability of formation of unilamellar vesicles (ULV) and its stability, permeability and antibacterial activity, the amphiphile can have potential applications in the medicinal field.

Unveiling the Three-Step Model for the Interaction of Imidazolium-Based Ionic Liquids on Albumin

The effect of the ionic liquids (ILs) 1-methyl-3-tetradecylimidazolium chloride ([C14MIM][Cl]), 1-dodecyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride ([C12MIM][Cl]), and 1-decyl-methylimidazolium chloride ([C10MIM][Cl]) on the structure of bovine serum albumin (BSA) was investigated by fluorescence spectroscopy, ultraviolet-visible (UV-vis) spectroscopy, small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS), and molecular dynamics (MD) simulations. Concerning the fluorescence measurements, we observed a blue shift and a fluorescence quenching as the IL concentration increased in the solution. Such behavior was observed for all three studied imidazolium-based ILs, being larger as the number of methylene groups in the alkyl chain increased. UV-vis absorbance measurements indicate that even at relatively small IL/protein ratios, like 1:1 or 1:2, ([C14MIM][Cl]) is able to change, at least partially, the sample turbidity. SAXS results agree with the spectroscopic techniques and suggest that the proteins underwent partial unfolding, evidenced by an increase in the radius of gyration (Rg) of the scattering particle. In the absence and presence of ([C14MIM][Cl]) = 3 mM BSA Rg increases from 29.1 to 45.1 Å, respectively. Together, these results indicate that the interaction of BSA with ILs is divided into three stages: the first stage is characterized by the protein in its native form. It takes place for protein/IL ≤ 1:2, and the interaction is predominantly due to the electrostatic forces provided by the negative charges on the surface of BSA and the cationic polar head of the ILs. In the second stage, higher IL concentrations induce the unfolding of the protein, most likely inducing the unfolding of domains I and III, in such a way that the protein's secondary structure is kept almost unaltered. In the last stage, IL micelles start to form, and therefore, the interaction with protein reaches a saturation point and free micelles may be formed. We believe that this work provides new information about the interaction of ILs with BSA.

Monosaccharides interact weakly with human serum albumin. Insights for the functional perturbations on the binding capacity of albumin

Monosaccharides, e.g. fructose, glucose, and arabinose are present in most foods consumed daily, whether, in natural or industrialized forms, and their concentration in the human bloodstream can impact the formation of advanced glycation end-products (AGEs, prevalent in people with diabetes) impacting the profile of Human Serum Albumin (HSA) in biodistribution of endogenous and exogenous compounds. Multiple spectroscopic techniques (UV-vis, circular dichroism, steady-state, and time-resolved fluorescence) combined with molecular docking showed that carbohydrates interact weakly and spontaneously via a ground-state association with HSA. The binding is enthalpically and entropically driven in the subdomain IIA (site I) and perturb weakly the secondary structure of the albumin. Hydrogen bonding and van der Waals forces are the main intermolecular interactions involved in the ligand binding, as well as hydrophobic effects related to the release of hydration shell upon ligand binding. Overall, the results indicated that an increase in glucose, fructose or arabinose level in the human bloodstream may cause functional perturbation on the binding capacity of albumin. Therefore, there is the necessity of carbohydrate level control in the bloodstream to not compromise the interaction and distribution of exogenous and endogenous compounds by HSA.

Spectroscopic studies of the aggregation behavior of Human Serum Albumin and cetyltrimethylammonium bromide

To check the role of micelle in the interaction studies of human serum albumin (HSA) and cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB), many spectroscopic techniques, like UV-visible, fluorescence, circular dichroism, fluorescence lifetime measurement, and atomic force microscopy (AFM), are employed. The binding affinity of all compound groups depended on the hydrocarbon chain, indicating the predominant role of hydrophobic forces, electrostatic forces and supported by polar interactions on protein surfaces. The protein has a different effect on the polarity of a microenvironment in fluorescence spectra above and below the critical micelle concentration (CMC) of the suractant. The far-UV-CD spectra show unfolding below the CMC and refolding above the CMC. The binding of the surfactant induces changes in the microenvironment at different pHs around the residues of the aromatic amino acid and the disulfide bond of protein. The AFM images show significant changes in the protein's structure. AFM images show dense aggregation below the CMC and above the CMC, some net-like structure formed in the HSA-CTAB complex. To test the experimental results, we used Auto dock Vina to conduct molecular docking. Above and below the CMC, structural changes can be seen.

Influence of micelles on protein's denaturation

To evaluate the role of micelles for protein-surfactant interaction, we have studied the binding modes of serum albumin proteins (human (HSA) and rabbit (RSA)) with anionic-surfactant, sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) by using UV-visible, fluorescence, circular dichroism, fluorescence lifetime, atomic force microscopy (AFM) techniques. The study performed with three different pHs (below (4.0), at (4.7), and above (7.0) isoelectric point). Hydrocarbon chain of the surfactant, dominant role of hydrophobic forces and electrostatic interactions helped in polar interaction on protein on binding surfaces. The change above and below the critical micelle concentration (CMC) in fluorescence spectra was due to polarity of the microenvironment. The CD spectra different binding aspects as below CMC and above CMC, explain about folding and unfolding in secondary structure. Surfactant's binding induces fluctuations in the microenvironment of aromatic amino acid's residues of both proteins at different pHs. AFM images clarify the structural changes in both proteins (HSA & RSA). AFM images also indicate some different interesting conformational and structural changes in both proteins below/above the CMC of the surfactant. The molecular docking studies indicate the binding energy -4.8 kcal mol^-1 and -4.7 kcal mol^-1 for HSA-SDS and RSA-SDS, respectively. Structural changes can be seen above and below the CMC.

Sequestration of Cetyltrimethylammonium Bromide on Gold Nanorods by Human Serum Albumin Causes Its Conformation Change

Serum albumin could potentially be exploited to form a protein corona on gold nanorods (AuNRs) for drug delivery because of its endogenous functionality as a small molecule carrier. However, the cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) surfactant, which is a synthesis byproduct passivating AuNRs to confer colloidal stability, could also cause its conformational change upon interaction with serum albumin during the process of corona formation, thus altering its biological functions. Unfortunately, a clear understanding of how exactly human serum albumin (HSA) would change its conformation as it interacts with AuNR-CTAB is presently lacking. Here, we made use of coarse-grain molecular dynamics (CGMD) simulation to elucidate the interaction between HSA and AuNR-CTAB leading to its widely reported conformational change. We showed that HSA could sequester CTAB from the surface of AuNRs and form HSA-CTAB complexes, which could also interact with other adjacent complexes through "cross-linking" by the clusters of CTAB. Such a HSA-CTAB complex resulted in the observed conformational change of HSA, which we verified empirically with an esterase activity assay and by analyzing the root-mean-square-deviation of the HSA molecules from CGMD. The conformational change of HSA was not observed in AuNRs passivated with other negatively or positively charged surface ligands such as polystyrene sulfonate and polydiallyldimethylammonium chloride. Therefore, our study revealed that the conformational change experienced by HSA may not necessarily be attributed to protein unfolding on the surface of the AuNR due to charge interactions but rather to the instability of the surface ligands on the AuNRs which allows them to be sequestered by HSA to form HSA-CTAB complexes.

Synergistic effect of hen egg white lysozyme and lysosomotropic surfactants on cell viability and membrane permeability

The interactions between two types of quaternary ammonium surfactants (N,N,N-trimethyl-2-(dodecanoyloxy)ethaneammonium bromide (DMM-11) and N,N,N-trimethyl-2-(dodecanoyloxy)propaneammonium bromide (DMPM-11)) and hen egg white lysozyme were studied through several techniques, including isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC), circular dichroism (CD) and fluorescence spectroscopy, and surface tension measurement. The average number of surfactants interacting with each molecule of lysozyme was calculated from the biophysical results. Moreover, the CD results showed that the conformation of lysozyme changed in the presence of DMM-11 and DMPM-11. The studies drew a detailed picture on the physicochemical nature of interactions between both surfactants and lysozyme. Both DMM-11 and DMPM-11, with and without lysozyme were studied against three target microorganisms, including Gram-negative (Escherichia coli) and Gram-positive (Enterococcus hirae and Enterococcus faecalis) bacteria. The results revealed a broad spectrum of antibacterial nature of surfactant/lysozyme complexes, as well as their effect on the membrane damage, hence providing the basis to further explore DMM-11 and DMPM-11 combined with lysozyme as possible antibacterial tools.

Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer, Small-Angle Neutron Scattering, and Dynamic Light Scattering Study on Interactions of Gemini Surfactants Having Different Spacer Groups with Protein at Various Regions of Binding Isotherms

The binding interactions of three gemini surfactants having different spacer groups (12-4-12, 12-8-12, and 12-4(OH)-12) with a high concentration (150 μM) of bovine serum albumin (BSA) at various regions of binding isotherms have been studied by means of steady-state fluorescence and fluorescence anisotropy, time-correlated single-photon counting fluorescence of trans-2-[4-(dimethylamino)styryl]benzothiazole, small-angle neutron scattering (SANS), and dynamic light scattering (DLS) measurements. The fluorescence resonance energy transfer phenomenon between the twisted intramolecular charge transfer fluorescent molecule, trans-2-[4-(dimethylamino)styryl]benzothiazole as an acceptor, and tryptophan 213 (Trp-213) of BSA as a donor has been successfully used to probe the binding interactions of gemini surfactants with protein at all regions of binding isotherms. The increasing order of energy transfer efficiency at a higher concentration range of surfactants is 12-8-12 > 12-4-12 > 12-4(OH)-12. Stronger binding of micelles of gemini surfactant molecules having a comparatively more hydrophobic spacer group with the hydrophobic segments of the protein results in closer approach of trans-2-[4-(dimethylamino)styryl]benzothiazole molecules solubilized in micelles to Trp-213. The average excited-state lifetimes become shorter with a trend of increase in contribution from the fast component and decrease in contribution from the slow component to the decay with increasing concentration of a surfactant. The nonradiative rate constant of trans-2-[4-(dimethylamino)styryl]benzothiazole increases with increasing concentration of a surfactant because the average microenvironment around it in protein-surfactant aggregates is more polar as compared to that in native protein. SANS and DLS measurements were carried out for the study of the structural deformations in the protein, on enhancement of the concentration of the gemini surfactants. The necklace and bead model has been used for the analysis of SANS data for the protein-surfactant complexes. At a higher concentration range, 12-8-12 and 12-4-12 have a slightly smaller fractal dimension and a larger correlation length as compared to 12-4(OH)-12. DLS data show that the increasing order of hydrodynamic diameter for the complexes of protein with three gemini surfactants in their high concentration range is 12-4(OH)-12 < 12-4-12 < 12-8-12.

Comparative effect of cationic gemini surfactant and its monomeric counterpart on the conformational stability and activity of lysozyme

Protein interactions with surfactants are dependent on their physiochemical properties.

Comparative effect of cationic gemini surfactant and its monomeric counterpart on the conformational stability and activity of lysozyme

Protein interactions with surfactants are dependent on their physiochemical properties.

Comparative effect of cationic gemini surfactant and its monomeric counterpart on the conformational stability and activity of lysozyme

Protein interactions with surfactants are dependent on their physiochemical properties.

Comparative effect of cationic gemini surfactant and its monomeric counterpart on the conformational stability and activity of lysozyme

Protein interactions with surfactants are dependent on their physiochemical properties.

Spectroscopic studies on the comparative refolding of guanidinium hydrochloride denatured hen egg-white lysozyme and Rhizopus niveus lipase assisted by cationic single-chain/gemini surfactants via artificial chaperone protocol

Referred to as second generation surfactants, the gemini surfactants have shown promise in various potential areas of surfactant application.

Comparative effect of cationic gemini surfactant and its monomeric counterpart on the conformational stability and activity of lysozyme

Protein interactions with surfactants are dependent on their physiochemical properties.

Self-Aggregation, Antibacterial Activity, and Mildness of Cyclodextrin/Cationic Trimeric Surfactant Complexes

Despite efficacious antimicrobial activity, cationic oligomeric surfactants show strong skin irritation potential due to their larger cationic charge numbers and multiple hydrophobic chains. This work reports that the incorporation of α-, β-, and γ-CDs with different cavity sizes can effectively improve the mildness of cationic ammonium trimeric surfactant DTAD with a star-shaped spacer while maintaining its high antibacterial activity. On the basis of the different cavity sizes of CDs and the asymmetry in the spacer of DTAD, the CD/DTAD mixtures form α-CD@DTAD, 2α-CD@DTAD, β-CD@DTAD, and γ-CD@DTAD complexes. Compared to DTAD, these CD/DTAD complexes show much stronger self-assembly ability with much lower critical aggregation concentrations (CAC) and form more diverse aggregates with reduced zeta potential. Just above their CACs, the CD/DTAD complexes form vesicles or solid spherical aggregates of ∼50 nm and then transform into small micelles of ∼10 nm as the concentration increases. The strong self-assembly ability and the multiple sites of hydrogen bonds of the CD/DTAD complexes endow them with high antibacterial activity against E. coli, showing a very low minimum inhibitory concentration (2.22-2.48 μM) comparable to that of DTAD. In particular, the addition of CDs significantly reduces the abilities of DTAD in solubilizing zein (a skin model protein) and in binding with zein, and the mildness decreases in the order of 2α-CD@DTAD > β-CD@DTAD > γ-CD@DTAD > α-CD@DTAD. This tendency depends on their different self-assembling structures, and the formation of vesicles is approved to be in favor of the improvement of the mildness.

Urea Unfolding Study of E. coli Alanyl-tRNA Synthetase and Its Monomeric Variants Proves the Role of C-Terminal Domain in Stability

E. coli alanyl-tRNA exists as a dimer in its native form and the C-terminal coiled-coil part plays an important role in the dimerization process. The truncated N-terminal containing the first 700 amino acids (1–700) forms a monomeric variant possessing similar aminoacylation activity like wild type. A point mutation in the C-terminal domain (G674D) also produces a monomeric variant with a fivefold reduced aminoacylation activity compared to the wild type enzyme. Urea induced denaturation of these monomeric mutants along with another alaRS variant (N461 alaRS) was studied together with the full-length enzyme using various spectroscopic techniques such as intrinsic tryptophan fluorescence, 1-anilino-8-naphthalene-sulfonic acid binding, near- and far-UV circular dichroism, and analytical ultracentrifugation. Aminoacylation activity assay after refolding from denatured state revealed that the monomeric mutants studied here were unable to regain their activity, whereas the dimeric full-length alaRS gets back similar activity as the native enzyme. This study indicates that dimerization is one of the key regulatory factors that is important in the proper folding and stability of E. coli alaRS.

Laser induced autofluorescence in the monitoring of β-mercaptoethanol mediated photo induced proton coupled electron transfer in proteins

Photo induced proton coupled electron transfer (PCET) is an important process that many organisms use for progression of catalytic reactions leading to energy conversion. In the present study, the influence of SDS and BME on the redox properties of tyrosine and tryptophan for five different globular proteins, BSA, HSA, RNase-A, trypsin and lysozyme were studied using laser induced autofluorescence. The proteins were subjected to denaturation under SDS, SDS plus heat and SDS plus β-mercaptoethanol (BME) plus heat and the corresponding fluorescence were recorded. The influence of BME on the autofluorescence properties of the proteins were evaluated upon tris-2-corboxy-ethyl phosphine (TCEP) denaturation. The BSA and HSA when exposed to SDS alone, exhibited hydrophobic collapse around their tryptophan moieties. However, these proteins when treated with SDS plus BME plus heat, an unusual red shift in the emission was observed, may be due to proton transfer from hydroxyl group of the excited tyrosine residues to the local microenvironments. The observation was further confirmed with similar proton transfer in absence of tryptophan in RNase-A showing involvement of tyrosine in the process. A drastic quenching of fluorescence in all of the proteins under study were also observed, may be due to photo-induced electron transfer (PET) from BME to the intrinsic fluorophores resulting in radical ions formation, evaluated upon DCFDA measurements.

Conformational alterations induced by novel green 16-E2-16 gemini surfactant in xanthine oxidase: Biophysical insights from tensiometry, spectroscopy, microscopy and molecular modeling

Herein we report the interaction of a biodegradable gemini surfactant, ethane-1,2-diyl bis(N,N-dimethyl-N-hexadecylammoniumacetoxy) dichloride (16-E2-16) with bovine milk xanthine oxidase (XO), employing tensiometry, fluorescence spectroscopy, UV spectroscopy, far-UV circular dichroism spectroscopy (CD), Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and computational molecular modeling. Surface tension results depict substantial changes in the micellar as well as interfacial parameters (CMC, ΠCMC, γCMC, Γmax, Amin, ΔGmic° and ΔGads°) of 16-E2-16 gemini surfactant upon XO combination, deciphering the interaction of XO with the gemini surfactant. Fluorescence measurements reveal that 16-E2-16 gemini surfactant causes quenching in the xanthine oxidase (XO) fluorescence spectra via static procedure and the values of various evaluated binding parameters (KSV, Kb, kq, ΔGb° and n) describe that 16-E2-16 effectively binds to XO. Three dimensional fluorescence, 8-anilino-1-naphthalene sulfonic acid (ANS) binding, F1F3 ratio, UV, CD, FTIR, SEM and TEM results delineate changes in the secondary structure of xanthine oxidase. Molecular docking results provide complement to the steady-state fluorescence findings and support the view that quenching occurs due to non-polar environment experienced by aromatic residues of the enzyme. The results of this study can help scientists to tune the conformation of an enzyme (XO) with biocompatible amphiphilic microstructures, which will help to unfold further understanding in the treatment modes of various diseases like gout, hyperuricemia, liver and brain necrosis.

New insights into binding interaction of novel ester-functionalized m-E2-m gemini surfactants with lysozyme: a detailed multidimensional study

Different binding patterns of m-E2-m (12-E2-12 and 14-E2-14) surfactants to HEWL.

Fusion with anticodon binding domain of GluRS is not sufficient to alter the substrate specificity of a chimeric Glu-Q-RS

Glutamyl-queuosine-tRNA(Asp) synthetase (Glu-Q-RS) is a paralog of glutamyl-tRNA synthetase (GluRS) and is found in more than forty species of proteobacteria, cyanobacteria, and actinobacteria. Glu-Q-RS shows striking structural similarity with N-terminal catalytic domain of GluRS (NGluRS) but it lacks the C-terminal anticodon binding domain (CGluRS). In spite of structural similarities, Glu-Q-RS and NGluRS differ in their functional properties. Glu-Q-RS glutamylates the Q34 nucleotide of the anticodon of tRNA(Asp) whereas NGluRS constitutes the catalytic domain of GluRS catalyzing the transfer of Glu on the acceptor end of tRNA(Glu). Since NGluRS is able to catalyze aminoacylation of only tRNA(Glu) the glutamylation capacity of tRNA(Asp) by Glu-Q-RS is surprising. To understand the substrate specificity of Glu-Q-RS we undertook a systemic approach by investigating the biophysical and biochemical properties of the NGluRS (1-301), CGluRS (314-471) and Glu-Q-RS-CGluRS, (1-298 of Glu-Q-RS fused to 314-471 from GluRS). Circular dichroism, fluorescence spectroscopy and differential scanning calorimetry analyses revealed absence of N-terminal domain (1-298 of Glu-Q-RS) and C-terminal domain (314-471 from GluRS) communication in chimera, in contrast to the native full length GluRS. The chimeric Glu-Q-RS is still able to aminoacylate tRNA(Asp) but has also the capacity to bind tRNA(Glu). However the chimeric protein is unable to aminoacylate tRNA(Glu) probably as a consequence of the lack of domain-domain communication.

A comparative study on the binding of single and double chain surfactant-cobalt(III) complexes with bovine serum albumin

The comparative binding effect of single and double aliphatic chain containing surfactant-cobalt(III) complexes cis-[Co(bpy)2(DA)2](ClO4)3·2H2O (1), cis-[Co(bpy)2(DA)Cl](ClO4)2·2H2O (2), cis-[Co(phen)2(CA)2](ClO4)3·2H2O (3), and cis-[Co(phen)2(CA)Cl](ClO4)2·2H2O (4) with bovine serum albumin (BSA) under physiological condition was analyzed by steady state, time resolved fluorescence, synchronous, three-dimensional fluorescence, UV-Visible absorption and circular dichroism spectroscopic techniques. The results show that these complexes cause the fluorescence quenching of BSA through a static mechanism. The binding constants (Kb) and the number of binding sites were calculated and binding constant values are found in the range of 10(4)-10(5) M(-1). The results indicate that compared to single chain complex, double chain surfactant-cobalt(III) complex interacts strongly with BSA. Also the sign of thermodynamic parameters (ΔG°, ΔH°, and ΔS°) indicate that all the complexes interact with BSA through hydrophobic force. The binding distance (r) between complexes and BSA was calculated using Förster non-radiation energy transfer theory and found to be less than 7 nm. The results of synchronous, three dimensional fluorescence and circular dichroism spectroscopic methods indicate that the double chain surfactant-cobalt(III) complexes changed the conformation of the protein considerably than the respective single chain surfactant-cobalt(III) complexes. Antimicrobial studies of the complexes showed good activities against pathogenic microorganisms.

Binding, unfolding and refolding dynamics of serum albumins

BACKGROUND

The serum albumins (human and bovine serum albumin) occupy a seminal position among all proteins investigated until today as they are the most abundant circulatory proteins. They play the major role of a transporter of many bio-active substances which include various fatty acids, drug molecules, and amino acids to the target cells. Hence, studying the interaction of these serum albumins with different binding agents has attracted enormous research interests from decades. The nature and magnitude of these bindings have direct consequence on drug delivery, pharmacokinetics, therapeutic efficacy and drug design and control.

SCOPE OF THE REVIEW

In the present review, we summarize the binding characteristics of both the serum albumins with surfactants, lipids and vesicles, polymers and dendrimers, nanomaterials and drugs. Finally we have reviewed the effect of various chemical and physical denaturants on these albumins with a special emphasis on protein unfolding and refolding dynamics.

MAJOR CONCLUSIONS

The topic of binding and dynamics of protein unfolding and refolding spans across all areas of inter-disciplinary sciences and will benefit clinical toxicology and medicines. The extensive data from several contemporary research based on albumins will help us to understand protein dynamics in a more illustrious manner.

GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE

These data have immense significance in understanding and unravelling the mechanisms of protein unfolding/refolding and thus can pave the way to prevent protein mis-folding/aggregation which sometimes leads to severe consequences like Parkinson's and Alzheimer's diseases. This article is a part of a Special Issue entitled Serum Albumin. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled Serum Albumin.

Interaction of amphiphilic drugs with human and bovine serum albumins

To know the interaction of amphiphilic drugs nortriptyline hydrochloride (NOT) and promazine hydrochloride (PMZ) with serum albumins (i.e., human serum albumin (HSA) and bovine serum albumin (BSA)), techniques of UV-visible, fluorescence, and circular dichroism (CD) spectroscopies are used. The binding affinity is more in case of PMZ with both the serum albumins. The quenching rate constant (k(q)) values suggest a static quenching process for all the drug-serum albumin interactions. The UV-visible results show that the change in protein conformation of PMZ-serum albumin interactions are more prominent as compared to NOT-serum albumin interactions. The CD results also explain the conformational changes in the serum albumins on binding with the drugs. The increment in %α-helical structure is slightly more for drug-BSA complexes as compared to drug-HSA complexes.