Evaluating Cross-resistance Between Vip and Cry Toxins of Bacillus thuringiensis

A chromosome-level genome assembly of the soybean pod borer: insights into larval transcriptional response to transgenic soybean expressing the pesticidal Cry1Ac protein

BACKGROUND

Genetically modified (GM) crop plants with transgenic expression of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) pesticidal proteins are used to manage feeding damage by pest insects. The durability of this technology is threatened by the selection for resistance in pest populations. The molecular mechanism(s) involved in insect physiological response or evolution of resistance to Bt is not fully understood.

RESULTS

To investigate the response of a susceptible target insect to Bt, the soybean pod borer, Leguminivora glycinivorella (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), was exposed to soybean, Glycine max, expressing Cry1Ac pesticidal protein or the non-transgenic parental cultivar. Assessment of larval changes in gene expression was facilitated by a third-generation sequenced and scaffolded chromosome-level assembly of the L. glycinivorella genome (657.4 Mb; 27 autosomes + Z chromosome), and subsequent structural annotation of 18,197 RefSeq gene models encoding 23,735 putative mRNA transcripts. Exposure of L. glycinivorella larvae to transgenic Cry1Ac G. max resulted in prediction of significant differential gene expression for 204 gene models (64 up- and 140 down-regulated) and differential splicing among isoforms for 10 genes compared to unexposed cohorts. Differentially expressed genes (DEGs) included putative peritrophic membrane constituents, orthologs of Bt receptor-encoding genes previously linked or associated with Bt resistance, and those involved in stress responses. Putative functional Gene Ontology (GO) annotations assigned to DEGs were significantly enriched for 36 categories at GO level 2, respectively. Most significantly enriched cellular component (CC), biological process (BP), and molecular function (MF) categories corresponded to vacuolar and microbody, transport and metabolic processes, and binding and reductase activities. The DEGs in enriched GO categories were biased for those that were down-regulated (≥ 0.783), with only MF categories GTPase and iron binding activities were bias for up-regulation genes.

CONCLUSIONS

This study provides insights into pathways and processes involved larval response to Bt intoxication, which may inform future unbiased investigations into mechanisms of resistance that show no evidence of alteration in midgut receptors.

Cross-pollination in seed-blended refuge and selection for Vip3A resistance in a lepidopteran pest as detected by genomic monitoring

The evolution of pest resistance to management tools reduces productivity and results in economic losses in agricultural systems. To slow its emergence and spread, monitoring and prevention practices are implemented in resistance management programs. Recent work suggests that genomic approaches can identify signs of emerging resistance to aid in resistance management. Here, we empirically examined the sensitivity of genomic monitoring for resistance management in transgenic Bt crops, a globally important agricultural innovation. Whole genome resequencing of wild North American Helicoverpa zea collected from non-expressing refuge and plants expressing Cry1Ab confirmed that resistance-associated signatures of selection were detectable after a single generation of exposure. Upon demonstrating its sensitivity, we applied genomic monitoring to wild H. zea that survived Vip3A exposure resulting from cross-pollination of refuge plants in seed-blended plots. Refuge seed interplanted with transgenic seed exposed H. zea to sublethal doses of Vip3A protein in corn ears and was associated with allele frequency divergence across the genome. Some of the greatest allele frequency divergence occurred in genomic regions adjacent to a previously described candidate gene for Vip3A resistance. Our work highlights the power of genomic monitoring to sensitively detect heritable changes associated with field exposure to Bt toxins and suggests that seed-blended refuge will likely hasten the evolution of resistance to Vip3A in lepidopteran pests.

Cross-resistance and redundant killing of Vip3Aa resistant populations of Helicoverpa zea on purified Bt proteins and pyramided Bt crops

BACKGROUND

Pyramiding Bt proteins is a key strategy to delay insect resistance development. However, the durability of pyramided Bt crops for controlling insect pests is threatened by cross-resistance among Bt proteins, which can ultimately contribute to resistance development. The corn earworm, Helicoverpa zea, is a major agricultural pest of pyramided Bt crops. Previous studies have examined cross-resistance and redundant killing of Cry resistance in H. zea, but such information is lacking for Vip3Aa resistance in this pest. Here, we evaluated cross-resistance and redundant killing of Vip3Aa-resistant H. zea to purified Bt proteins, as well as Bt corn and Bt cotton.

RESULTS

Diet bioassays demonstrated high susceptibility of Vip3Aa-resistant H. zea to Cry1Ac, Cry1A.105, and Cry2Ab2 purified proteins. No Vip3Aa-susceptible, -heterozygous, or -resistant H. zea could survive on pyramided Bt corn containing Cry1 and/or Cry2 proteins. Complete redundant killing was observed in pyramided Bt corn containing Cry1 and/or Cry2 proteins against Vip3Aa resistance in H. zea. Vip3Aa-susceptible, -heterozygous, and -resistant H. zea exhibited survival rates ranging from 0.0% to 22.5% on pyramided Bt cotton with Cry1 and/or Cry2 proteins. Incomplete to complete redundant killing was observed for Vip3Aa-resistant H. zea on pyramided Bt cotton containing Cry1 and/or Cry2 proteins.

CONCLUSION

Our findings indicate that Vip3Aa-resistant H. zea does not exhibit positive cross-resistance to Cry1 or Cry2 proteins. In addition, most pyramided Bt crops showed complete or nearly complete redundant killing of Vip3Aa-resistant H. zea. These results indicate that a pyramiding strategy would often be effective for managing Vip3Aa resistance in regions of the United States where H. zea has not evolved resistance to Cry1 and Cry2 toxins. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.

Cry9A and Vip3A protein-induced transcriptional changes correspond to their synergistic damage to the midgut of Chilo suppressalis

Cry and Vip3 proteins are both pore-forming toxins produced by Bacillus thuringiensis that show synergistic insecticidal activity against different insect pests. However, the synergistic effect of Cry and Vip3 proteins on the midgut in target insects is still unclear. In this study, faster and more serious damage was observed after treatment with both Cry9A and Vip3A proteins in the Chilo suppressalis midgut compared to single-protein treatment. Through RNA sequencing, midgut transcriptomic comparison was performed between dual- and single-protein treatments according to midgut injury. After 6 h, 609 differentially expressed genes were found with the combined Cry9A and Vip3A treatments, which was much more than that in the single treatment, corresponding to faster and more serious damage. These genes were mainly enriched in similar pathways, such as lipid metabolic, oxidation-reduction and carbohydrate metabolic process, peptide secretion and cell-cell adhesion; however, the number and expression level of differentially expressed genes are increased. For specific genes significantly regulated by induction of Cry9A and Vip3A, lipases, phospholipid scramblase, probable tape measure protein and arylsulfatase J were significantly downregulated after 6 h treatment. In addition, regular genes related to the activation and receptor binding of B. thuringiensis toxins were differentially regulated, such as ATP-binding cassette subfamily G member 1 and serine protease. Validation with RT-qPCR showed agreement with the sequencing results. Overall, our results support that stronger and faster midgut responses at the cellular and transcriptional levels are induced by the synergistic toxicity of Cry9A and Vip3A in C. suppressalis.

Downregulation of a transcription factor associated with resistance to Bt toxin Vip3Aa in the invasive fall armyworm

Transgenic crops producing insecticidal proteins from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) have revolutionized control of some major pests. However, more than 25 cases of field-evolved practical resistance have reduced the efficacy of transgenic crops producing crystalline (Cry) Bt proteins, spurring adoption of alternatives including crops producing the Bt vegetative insecticidal protein Vip3Aa. Although practical resistance to Vip3Aa has not been reported yet, better understanding of the genetic basis of resistance to Vip3Aa is urgently needed to proactively monitor, delay, and counter pest resistance. This is especially important for fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda), which has evolved practical resistance to Cry proteins and is one of the world's most damaging pests. Here, we report the identification of an association between downregulation of the transcription factor gene SfMyb and resistance to Vip3Aa in S. frugiperda. Results from a genome-wide association study, fine-scale mapping, and RNA-Seq identified this gene as a compelling candidate for contributing to the 206-fold resistance to Vip3Aa in a laboratory-selected strain. Experimental reduction of SfMyb expression in a susceptible strain using RNA interference (RNAi) or CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing decreased susceptibility to Vip3Aa, confirming that reduced expression of this gene can cause resistance to Vip3Aa. Relative to the wild-type promoter for SfMyb, the promoter in the resistant strain has deletions and lower activity. Data from yeast one-hybrid assays, genomics, RNA-Seq, RNAi, and proteomics identified genes that are strong candidates for mediating the effects of SfMyb on Vip3Aa resistance. The results reported here may facilitate progress in understanding and managing pest resistance to Vip3Aa.

Baseline Susceptibility of the Field Populations of Ostrinia furnacalis in Indonesia to the Proteins Cry1A.105 and Cry2Ab2 of Bacillus thuringiensis

Genetically modified MON 89034 corn (Zea mays L.) expressing Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) insecticidal proteins, viz. Cry1A.105 and Cry2Ab2, is a biotechnological option being considered for the management of the major corn pest in Indonesia, the Asian corn borer (Ostrinia furnacalis (Guenée) (Lepidoptera: Crambidae)). As a part of a proactive resistance-management program for MON 89034 corn in Indonesia, we assessed the baseline susceptibility of field-collected populations of O. furnacalis to Cry1A.105 and Cry2Ab2 proteins. Dose-response bioassays using the diet-dipping method indicated that the lethal concentration (LC50) values of Cry1A.105 and Cry2Ab2 in 24 different field populations of O. furnacalis ranged from 0.006 to 0.401 µg/mL and from 0.044 to 4.490 µg/mL, respectively, while the LC95 values ranged from 0.069 to 15.233 µg/mL for Cry1A.105 and from 3.320 to 277.584 µg/mL for Cry2Ab2. The relative resistance ratios comparing the most tolerant field populations and an unselected laboratory population were 6.0 for Cry1A.105 and 2.0 for Cry2Ab2 based on their LC50 values. Some field populations were more susceptible to both proteins than the unselected laboratory population. The LC99 and its 95% fiducial limits across the field populations were calculated and proposed as candidate diagnostic concentrations. These data provide a basis for resistance monitoring in Bt Corn and further support building resistance-management strategies in Indonesia.

Impact of seed blend and structured maize refuge on Helicoverpa zea (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) potential phenological resistance development parameters in pupae and adults

BACKGROUND

Helicoverpa zea, an economic pest in the south-eastern United States, has evolved practical resistance to Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) Cry toxins in maize and cotton. Insect resistance management (IRM) programs have historically required planting of structured non-Bt maize, but because of its low adoption, the use of seed blends has been considered. To generate knowledge on target pest biology and ecology to help improve IRM strategies, nine field trials were conducted in 2019 and 2020 in Florida, Georgia, North Carolina, and South Carolina to evaluate the impact of Bt (Cry1Ab + Cry1F or Cry1Ab + Cry1F + Vip3A) and non-Bt maize plants in blended and structured refuge treatments on H. zea pupal survival, weight, soil pupation depth, adult flight parameters, and adult time to eclosion.

RESULTS

From a very large sample size and geography, we found a significant difference in pupal mortality and weight among treatments in seed blends with Vip3A, implying that cross-pollination occurred between Bt and non-Bt maize ears. There was no treatment effect for pupation depth, adult flight distance, and eclosion time.

CONCLUSION

Results of this study demonstrate the potential impact of different refuge strategies on phenological development and survival of an important pest species of regulatory concern. © 2023 The Authors. Pest Management Science published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.

Utilization of a strong promoter combined with the knockout of protease genes to improve the yield of Vip3Aa in Bacillus thuringiensis BMB171

BACKGROUND

Vip3Aa is an insecticidal protein secreted by some Bacillus thuringiensis strains during vegetative growth. It has excellent insecticidal activity, its mechanism of action is different from that of Cry protein, and it can delay the development of pest resistance. To date, Vip3Aa has been widely used in genetically modified Bt crops. However, the secretion of Vip3Aa by industrial production strains is usually very low. Moreover, most of the Vip3Aa in the medium is degraded by proteases, limiting its application as a biopesticide.

RESULTS

We report a novel constitutive strong promoter from B. thuringiensis, P_rsi , which directs the abundant expression of vip3Aa in B. thuringiensis BMB171. Furthermore, to reduce the degradation of Vip3Aa caused by proteases, we constructed B. thuringiensis mutants in which different protease genes were knocked out. We found that the degradation of Vip3Aa was greatly inhibited and its yield was significantly improved in a mutant that lacked all three protease genes.

CONCLUSION

Our results provide a new strategy to enhance the production of Vip3Aa in B. thuringiensis and have reference value for the research and development of novel bioinsecticides. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.

Structural changes upon membrane insertion of the insecticidal pore-forming toxins produced by Bacillus thuringiensis

Different Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) strains produce a broad variety of pore-forming toxins (PFTs) that show toxicity against insects and other invertebrates. Some of these insecticidal PFT proteins have been used successfully worldwide to control diverse insect crop pests. There are several studies focused on describing the mechanism of action of these toxins that have helped to improve their performance and to cope with the resistance evolved by different insects against some of these proteins. However, crucial information that is still missing is the structure of pores formed by some of these PFTs, such as the three-domain crystal (Cry) proteins, which are the most commercially used Bt toxins in the biological control of insect pests. In recent years, progress has been made on the identification of the structural changes that certain Bt insecticidal PFT proteins undergo upon membrane insertion. In this review, we describe the models that have been proposed for the membrane insertion of Cry toxins. We also review the recently published structures of the vegetative insecticidal proteins (Vips; e.g. Vip3) and the insecticidal toxin complex (Tc) in the membrane-inserted state. Although different Bt PFTs show different primary sequences, there are some similarities in the three-dimensional structures of Vips and Cry proteins. In addition, all PFTs described here must undergo major structural rearrangements to pass from a soluble form to a membrane-inserted state. It is proposed that, despite their structural differences, all PFTs undergo major structural rearrangements producing an extended α-helix, which plays a fundamental role in perforating their target membrane, resulting in the formation of the membrane pore required for their insecticidal activity.

Global Patterns of Insect Resistance to Transgenic Bt Crops: The First 25 Years

Crops genetically engineered to produce insecticidal proteins from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) have improved pest management and reduced reliance on insecticide sprays. However, evolution of practical resistance by some pests has reduced the efficacy of Bt crops. We analyzed global resistance monitoring data for 24 pest species based on the first 25 yr of cultivation of Bt crops including corn, cotton, soybean, and sugarcane. Each of the 73 cases examined represents the response of one pest species in one country to one Bt toxin produced by one or more Bt crops. The cases of practical resistance rose from 3 in 2005 to 26 in 2020. Practical resistance has been documented in some populations of 11 pest species (nine lepidopterans and two coleopterans), collectively affecting nine widely used crystalline (Cry) Bt toxins in seven countries. Conversely, 30 cases reflect no decrease in susceptibility to Bt crops in populations of 16 pest species in 10 countries. The remaining 17 cases provide early warnings of resistance, which entail genetically based decreases in susceptibility without evidence of reduced field efficacy. The early warnings involve four Cry toxins and the Bt vegetative insecticidal protein Vip3Aa. Factors expected to favor sustained susceptibility include abundant refuges of non-Bt host plants, recessive inheritance of resistance, low resistance allele frequency, fitness costs, incomplete resistance, and redundant killing by multi-toxin Bt crops. Also, sufficiently abundant refuges can overcome some unfavorable conditions for other factors. These insights may help to increase the sustainability of current and future transgenic insecticidal crops.

Resistance Allele Frequency of Helicoverpa zea to Vip3Aa Bacillus thuringiensis Protein in the Southeastern U.S

Helicoverpa zea is a major target pest of Bt crops expressing Cry and/or Vip3Aa proteins in the U.S.A. Widespread practical resistance of H. zea to the Cry1 and Cry2 proteins makes Vip3Aa the only effective Bt protein against this pest. Understanding the frequency of resistance alleles against Vip3Aa in field populations of H. zea is crucial for resistance management and the sustainability of Vip3Aa technology. Using a modified F₂ screen method by crossing susceptible laboratory female moth with feral male moth of H. zea, we successfully screened a total of 24,576 neonates from 192 F₂ families of H. zea collected from Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Tennessee during 2019-2020. We found five F₂ families containing ≥3rd instar survivors on the diagnostic concentration of 3.0 µg/cm² Vip3Aa39. Dose-response bioassays confirmed the high levels of Vip3Aa resistance in these F₂ families, with an estimated resistance ratio of >909.1-fold relative to the susceptible strain. The estimated resistance allele frequency against Vip3Aa in H. zea for these four southern states is 0.0155 with a 95% CI of 0.0057-0.0297. These data should provide critical information for understanding the risks of Vip3Aa resistance in H. zea and help design appropriate resistance management strategies for the sustainability of the Vip3Aa technology.

Molecular Characterization and Efficacy Evaluation of Transgenic Maize Harboring cry2Ab-vip3A-cp4epsps for Insect Resistance and Herbicide Tolerance

Insect infestation and weed interference have a seriously negative impact on the growth, yield, and grain quality of maize. In this study, transgenic maize plants harboring three exogenous genes, cry2Ab, vip3A, and cp4epsps, that were constructed into a single T-DNA were developed for protection against insects and weeds. The transgene integration sites on the chromosomes in two transgenic maize events, CVC-1 and CVC-2, were determined using whole genome sequencing and specific PCR detection. As revealed by laboratory insect bioassays, these two transgenic events exhibited strong insecticidal toxicity against three major species of Lepidoptera insects, including Mythimna separata, Helicoverpa armigera, and Spodoptera frugiperda, with mortality rates exceeding 96%, 100%, and 100%, respectively, after six days of infestation. In addition, CVC-1 exhibited a high tolerance to glyphosate under field conditions. The successful expressions of cry2Ab, vip3A, and cp4epsps in various tissues at different developmental stages of CVC-1 were validated at the transcriptional and translational levels using quantitative real-time reverse transcription PCR (qRT-PCR) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), respectively. These findings demonstrated that the transgenic maize CVC-1 developed using this triple gene construct has excellent insect resistance and herbicide tolerance, which may provide a valuable germplasm resource and data support for future maize breeding of insect and weed control.

Insecticidal activity of Bacillus thuringiensis towards Agrotis exclamationis larvae-A widespread and underestimated pest of the Palearctic zone

acillus thuringiensis is an entomopathogenic bacterium commonly used as a bioinsecticide against numerous invertebrate pests. However, the efficacy of this microbe has not yet been determined towards Agrotis exclamationis-a lepidopteran, polyphagous pest, widespread throughout the Palearctic zone. In this work we have detected very low susceptibility of A. exclamationis to B. thuringiensis commercial strains, used as microbial formulations in pest control. To investigate this matter, the biological activity of six selected (Cry1Aa, Cry1Ca, Cry1Ia, Cry2Ab, Cry9Ea and Vip3Aa), heterogously-expressed Bacillus thuringiensis insecticidal proteins has been assessed towards A. exclamationis. Only Cry9Ea and Vip3Aa caused significant mortality in the tested pest species, with LC50 values of 950 and 140 ng/cm2, respectively. The histopathological effects of Cry9Ea and Vip3Aa on A. exclamationis were determined. On the other hand, Cry1- and Cry2-type toxins, which are the main active molecules of the majority of currently-used B. thuringiensis-based biocontrol agents (including the commercial strains tested in this work), did not cause mortality in target insect, but only different levels of growth inhibition. Moreover, in the case of Cry1Ca and Cry1Ia hormesis has been observed-a phenomenon that may be disadvantageous in implementation of these proteins in pest management. The obtained results broaden the existing knowledge regarding B. thuringiensis insecticidal protein target range and depict variable susceptibility of A. exclamationis to different groups of Cry/Vip toxins. This work indicates Cry9Ea and Vip3Aa as good candidates for efficient biological control of A. exclamationis and possibly other Agrotinae and discusses the potential use of Vip3-type and Cry9-type insecticidal proteins as successful bioinsecticides.

Genetic engineering: an efficient approach to mitigating biotic and abiotic stresses in sugarcane cultivation

Abiotic stresses are the foremost limiting factors for crop productivity. Crop plants need to cope with adverse external pressure caused by various environmental conditions with their intrinsic biological mechanisms to keep their growth, development, and productivity. Climate-resilient, high-yielding crops need to be developed to maintain sustainable food supply. Over the last decade, understanding of the genetic complexity of agronomic traits in sugarcane has prompted the integrated application of genetic engineering to address specific biological questions. Genes for adaptation to environmental stress and yield enhancement traits are being determined and introgressed to develop elite sugarcane cultivars with improved characteristics through genetic engineering approaches. Here, we discuss the advancement to provide a reference for future sugarcane (Saccharum spp.) genetic engineering.

Resistance of Spodoptera frugiperda to Cry1, Cry2, and Vip3Aa Proteins in Bt Corn and Cotton in the Americas: Implications for the Rest of the World

The fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda, is an economically important pest of corn, cotton, and soybean, and a major target of transgenic crops expressing Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) proteins. In recent years, this insect has invaded most countries in Africa, Southeastern Asia, and Oceania, posing a great threat to food security. Successful use of Bt crops in the U.S. indicates that Bt technology can be an effective tool for management of S. frugiperda in other countries. Evolution of insect resistance is the primary threat to the long-term efficacy of Bt technology. There are many factors that may affect the rate of evolution of insect resistance to Bt crops, which include initial resistance allele frequency, the dose of Bt protein in Bt crops, cross-resistance, complete/incomplete resistance, and fitness costs associated with resistance. Currently, the high dose/refuge and gene-pyramiding approaches are the two main IRM strategies used in the U.S. to combat evolution of insect resistance. In this paper, we review research on resistance of S. frugiperda to Cry1, Cry2, and Vip3Aa proteins. Specifically, we discuss the resistance allele frequencies of S. frugiperda to these three proteins in the field, the genetic basis of resistance, the patterns of cross-resistance, and the fitness costs associated with resistance. Experience and knowledge gained from these studies provide valuable information for the successful use of Bt crop technology for control of S. frugiperda worldwide.

Practical resistance to Cry toxins and efficacy of Vip3Aa in Bt cotton against Helicoverpa zea

BACKGROUND

Crops genetically engineered to make insect-killing proteins from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) have revolutionized management of some pests. However, the benefits of such transgenic crops are reduced when pests evolve resistance to Bt toxins. We evaluated resistance to Bt toxins and Bt cotton plants using laboratory bioassays and complementary field trials focusing on Helicoverpa zea, one of the most economically important pests of cotton and other crops in the United States.

RESULTS

The data from 235 laboratory bioassays demonstrate resistance to Cry1Ac, Cry1Fa, and Cry2Ab occurred in most of the 95 strains of H. zea derived from Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Tennessee, and Texas during 2016 to 2021. Complementary field data show efficacy decreased for Bt cotton producing Cry1Ac + Cry1Fa or Cry1Ac + Cry2Ab, but not Cry1Ac + Cry1Fa + Vip3Aa. Moreover, analysis of data paired by field site and year shows higher survival in bioassays was generally associated with lower efficacy of Bt cotton.

CONCLUSIONS

The results confirm and extend previous evidence showing widespread practical resistance of H. zea in the United States to the Cry toxins produced by Bt cotton and corn, but not to Vip3Aa. Despite deployment in combination with Cry toxins in Bt crops, Vip3Aa effectively acts as a single toxin against H. zea larvae that are highly resistant to Cry toxins. Furthermore, Vip3Aa adoption is increasing and previous work provided an early warning of field-evolved resistance. Thus, rigorous resistance management measures are needed to preserve the efficacy of Vip3Aa against this highly adaptable pest. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.

Baseline susceptibility of Helicoverpa armigera, Plutella xylostella, and Spodoptera frugiperda to the meta-diamide insecticide broflanilide

Broflanilide is a novel meta-diamide insecticide that acts as a γ-aminobutyric acid-gated chloride channel allosteric modulator. With its unique mode of action, broflanilide has no known cross-resistance with existing insecticides and is expected to be an effective tool for the management of insecticide resistance. Establishing the baseline susceptibility to this insecticide is an essential step for developing and implementing effective resistance management strategies. Here we evaluated the baseline susceptibility to broflanilide for 3 cosmopolitan lepidopteran pest species, Helicoverpa armigera, Plutella xylostella, and Spodoptera frugiperda. Broflanilide exhibited high activity against populations sampled in the major distribution range of these pests in China, with median lethal concentrations (LC₅₀ ) ranging between 0.209 and 0.684, 0.076 and 0.336, and 0.075 and 0.219 mg/L for H. armigera, P. xylostella, and S. frugiperda, respectively. Among-population variability in susceptibility to broflanilide was moderate for H. armigera (3.3-fold), P. xylostella (4.4-fold), and S. frugiperda (2.9-fold). The recommended diagnostic concentrations for H. armigera, P. xylostella, and S. frugiperda were 8, 4, and 2 mg/L, respectively. Little or no cross-resistance to broflanilide was detected in 3 diamide-resistant strains of P. xylostella and 1 spinosyns-resistant strain of S. frugiperda. Our results provide critical information for the development of effective resistance management programs to sustain efficacy of broflanilide against these key lepidopteran pests.

Responses to Bt toxin Vip3Aa by pink bollworm larvae resistant or susceptible to Cry toxins

BACKGROUND

Transgenic crops that make insecticidal proteins from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) have revolutionized management of some pests. However, evolution of resistance to Bt toxins by pests diminishes the efficacy of Bt crops. Resistance to crystalline (Cry) Bt toxins has spurred adoption of crops genetically engineered to produce the Bt vegetative insecticidal protein Vip3Aa. Here we used laboratory diet bioassays to evaluate responses to Vip3Aa by pink bollworm (Pectinophora gossypiella), one of the world's most damaging pests of cotton.

RESULTS

Against pink bollworm larvae susceptible to Cry toxins, Vip3Aa was less potent than Cry1Ac or Cry2Ab. Conversely, Vip3Aa was more potent than Cry1Ac or Cry2Ab against laboratory strains highly resistant to those Cry toxins. Five Cry-susceptible field populations were less susceptible to Vip3Aa than a Cry-susceptible laboratory strain (APHIS-S). Relative to APHIS-S, significant resistance to Vip3Aa did not occur in strains selected in the laboratory for > 700-fold resistance to Cry1Ac or both Cry1Ac and Cry2Ab.

CONCLUSIONS

Resistance to Cry1Ac and Cry2Ab did not cause strong cross-resistance to Vip3Aa in pink bollworm, which is consistent with predictions based on the lack of shared midgut receptors between these toxins and previous results from other lepidopterans. Comparison of the Bt toxin concentration in plants relative to the median lethal concentration (LC₅₀ ) from bioassays may be useful for estimating efficacy. The moderate potency of Vip3Aa against Cry1Ac- and Cry2Ab-resistant and susceptible pink bollworm larvae suggests that Bt cotton producing this toxin together with novel Cry toxins might be useful as one component of integrated pest management. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.

MON 95379 Bt maize as a new tool to manage sugarcane borer (Diatraea saccharalis) in South America

BACKGROUND

The sugarcane borer (SCB), Diatraea saccharalis (Lepidoptera: Crambidae), is a key pest of maize in Argentina, and genetically modified maize, producing Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) proteins, has revolutionized the management of this insect in South America. However, field-evolved resistance to some Bt technologies has been observed in SCB in Argentina. Here we assessed a new Bt technology, MON 95379, in the laboratory, greenhouse and field for efficacy against SCB.

RESULTS

In a laboratory leaf disc bioassay, both MON 95379 (producing Cry1B.868 and Cry1Da_7) and Cry1B.868_single maize (producing only Cry1B.868) resulted in 100% mortality of SCB. The level of Cry1B.868 in the Cry1B.868_single maize is comparable to that in MON 95379 maize. However, the Cry1Da_7 protein does not have high efficacy against SCB, as evidenced by < 20% mortality on Cry1Da_7_single leaf tissue. Total (100%) mortality of SCB in a Cry1B.868_single tissue dilution bioassay indicated that Cry1B.868_single maize meets the criteria to be classified as a high dose. Similar median lethal concentration (LC₅₀ ) values were observed for MON 89034-R and susceptible SCB strains exposed to Cry1B.868 protein. MON 95379 also controlled SCB strains resistant to MON 89034 (Cry1A.105/Cry2Ab2) and Cry1Ab. Under field conditions in Brazil and Argentina, MON 95379 maize plants were consistently protected from SCB damage.

CONCLUSION

MON 95379 maize will bring value to maize growers in South America by effectively managing SCB even in locations where resistance to other Bt-containing maize technologies has been reported. © 2022 The Authors. Pest Management Science published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.

Vip3Aa domain IV and V mutants confer higher insecticidal activity against Spodoptera frugiperda and Helicoverpa armigera

BACKGROUND

The fall armyworm Spodoptera frugiperda and cotton bollworm Helicoverpa armigera are major insect pests of corn and cotton worldwide. Genetically engineered crops producing Vip3Aa, a potent endotoxin, from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) are effective in controlling these two harmful pests. However, Vip3Aa efficacy is relatively weak compared to that of other Bt proteins such as Cry1A and Cry1F. This study sought to modify Vip3Aa for increased insecticidal activity and determine the cause of elevated activity.

RESULTS

The two triple Vip3Aa mutants in domains IV and V (Vip3Aa-S543N/I544L/E627A and Vip3Aa-S543N/I544L/S686R) exhibited 7.3-fold and 2.8-fold increased toxicity against S. frugiperda, respectively, compared with the wild type while the toxicity of Vip3Aa-S543N/I544L/S686R was 3.2 times that of wild-type protein in H. armigera. The mutants had enhanced stability in midgut juice and 2.6-5.1 times higher binding affinity against S. frugiperda and H. armigera compared with wild type protein.

CONCLUSIONS

The enhanced toxicity of Vip3Aa mutants was due to increased stability and binding affinity during infection. The amino acids S543 and I544 combined with E627 or S686 in domains IV and V of Vip3Aa are important for maintaining structural stability and receptor binding. The results match insecticidal activity (LC₅₀ ) with binding activity (K_d ), which provides novel clues for the rational design of Bt insecticidal proteins. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.

Recombinant Expression of ABCC2 Variants Confirms the Importance of Mutations in Extracellular Loop 4 for Cry1F Resistance in Fall Armyworm

Fall armyworm (FAW), Spodoptera frugiperda, is a highly destructive and invasive global noctuid pest. Its control is based on insecticide applications and Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) insecticidal Cry toxins expressed in transgenic crops, such as Cry1F in Bt corn. Continuous selection pressure has resulted in populations that are resistant to Bt corn, particularly in Brazil. FAW resistance to Cry1F was recently shown to be conferred by mutations of ATP-binding cassette transporter C2 (ABCC2), but several mutations, particularly indels in extracellular loop 4 (ECL4), are not yet functionally validated. We addressed this knowledge gap by baculovirus-free insect cell expression of ABCC2 variants (and ABCC3) by electroporation technology and tested their response to Cry1F, Cry1A.105 and Cry1Ab. We employed a SYTOX^TM orange cell viability test measuring ABCC2-mediated Bt toxin pore formation. In total, we tested seven different FAW ABCC2 variants mutated in ECL4, two mutants modified in nucleotide binding domain (NBD) 2, including a deletion mutant lacking NBD2, and S. frugiperda ABCC3. All tested ECL4 mutations conferred high resistance to Cry1F, but much less to Cry1A.105 and Cry1Ab, whereas mutations in NBD2 hardly affected Bt toxin activity. Our study confirms the importance of indels in ECL4 for Cry1F resistance in S. frugiperda ABCC2.

Computer vision for detecting field-evolved lepidopteran resistance to Bt maize

BACKGROUND

Resistance evolution of lepidopteran pests to Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) toxins produced in maize and cotton is a significant issue worldwide. Effective toxin stewardship requires reliable detection of field-evolved resistance to enable the implementation of mitigation strategies. Currently, visual estimates of maize injury are used to document changing susceptibility. In this study, we evaluated an existing maize injury monitoring protocol used to estimate Bt resistance levels in Helicoverpa zea (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae).

RESULTS

We detected high interobserver variability across multiple injury metrics, suggesting that the precision and accuracy of maize injury detection could be improved. To do this, we developed a computer vision-based algorithm to measure H. zea injury. Algorithm estimates were more accurate and precise than a sample of human observers. Moreover, observer estimates tended to overpredict H. zea injury, which may increase the false-positive rate, leading to prophylactic insecticide application and unnecessary regulatory action.

CONCLUSIONS

Automated detection and tracking of lepidopteran resistance evolution to Bt toxins are critical for genetically engineered crop stewardship to prevent the use of additional insecticides to combat resistant pests. Advantages of this computerized screening are: (i) standardized Bt injury metrics in space and time, (ii) preservation of digital data for cross-referencing when thresholds are reached, and (iii) the ability to increase sample sizes significantly. This technological solution represents a significant step toward improving confidence in resistance monitoring efforts among researchers, regulators and the agricultural biotechnology industry.

Managing Fall Armyworm in Africa: Can Bt Maize Sustainably Improve Control?

The recent invasion of Africa by fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda, a lepidopteran pest of maize and other crops, has heightened concerns about food security for millions of smallholder farmers. Maize genetically engineered to produce insecticidal proteins from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) is a potentially useful tool for controlling fall armyworm and other lepidopteran pests of maize in Africa. In the Americas, however, fall armyworm rapidly evolved practical resistance to maize producing one Bt toxin (Cry1Ab or Cry1Fa). Also, aside from South Africa, Bt maize has not been approved for cultivation in Africa, where stakeholders in each nation will make decisions about its deployment. In the context of Africa, we address maize production and use; fall armyworm distribution, host range, and impact; fall armyworm control tactics other than Bt maize; and strategies to make Bt maize more sustainable and accessible to smallholders. We recommend mandated refuges of non-Bt maize or other non-Bt host plants of at least 50% of total maize hectares for single-toxin Bt maize and 20% for Bt maize producing two or more distinct toxins that are each highly effective against fall armyworm. The smallholder practices of planting more than one maize cultivar and intercropping maize with other fall armyworm host plants could facilitate compliance. We also propose creating and providing smallholder farmers access to Bt maize that produces four distinct Bt toxins encoded by linked genes in a single transgene cassette. Using this novel Bt maize as one component of integrated pest management could sustainably improve control of lepidopteran pests including fall armyworm.

Critical domains in the specific binding of radiolabelled Vip3Af insecticidal protein to brush border membrane vesicles from Spodoptera spp. and cultured insect cells

Vegetative insecticidal proteins (Vip3) from Bacillus thuringiensis have been used, in combination with Cry proteins, to better control insect pests and as a strategy to delay the evolution of resistance to Cry proteins in Bt crops (crops protected from insect attack by the expression of proteins from B. thuringiensis). In this study, we have set up the conditions to analyze the specific binding of ¹²⁵I-Vip3Af to Spodoptera frugiperda and Spodoptera exigua brush border membrane vesicles (BBMV). Heterologous competition binding experiments revealed that Vip3Aa shares the same binding sites with Vip3Af, but that Vip3Ca does not recognize all of them. As expected, Cry1Ac and Cry1F did not compete for Vip3Af binding sites. By trypsin treatment of selected alanine-mutants, we were able to generate truncated versions of Vip3Af. Their use as competitors with ¹²⁵I-Vip3Af indicated that only those molecules containing domains I to III (DI-III and DI-IV) were able to compete with the trypsin-activated Vip3Af protein for binding, and that molecules only containing either domain IV or domains IV and V (DIV and DIV-V) were unable to compete with Vip3Af. These results were further confirmed with competition binding experiments using ¹²⁵I-DI-III. In addition, the truncated protein ¹²⁵I-DI-III also bound specifically to Sf21 cells. Cell viability assays showed that the truncated proteins DI-III and DI-IV were as toxic to Sf21 cells as the activated Vip3Af, suggesting that domains IV and V are not necessary for the toxicity to Sf21 cells, in contrast to their requirement in vivo. IMPORTANCE This study shows that Vip3Af binding sites are fully shared with Vip3Aa, only partially shared with Vip3Ca, and not shared with Cry1Ac and Cry1F in two Spodoptera spp. Truncated versions of Vip3Af revealed that only domains I to III were necessary for the specific binding, most likely because they can form the functional tetrameric oligomer and because domain III is supposed to contain the binding epitopes. In contrast to results obtained in vivo (bioassays against larvae), domains IV and V are not necessary for the ex vivo toxicity to Sf21 cells.

Early Warning of Resistance to Bt Toxin Vip3Aa in Helicoverpa zea

Evolution of resistance by pests can reduce the benefits of crops genetically engineered to produce insecticidal proteins from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt). Because of the widespread resistance of Helicoverpa zea to crystalline (Cry) Bt toxins in the United States, the vegetative insecticidal protein Vip3Aa is the only Bt toxin produced by Bt corn and cotton that remains effective against some populations of this polyphagous lepidopteran pest. Here we evaluated H. zea resistance to Vip3Aa using diet bioassays to test 42,218 larvae from three lab strains and 71 strains derived from the field during 2016 to 2020 in Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Tennessee, and Texas. Relative to the least susceptible of the three lab strains tested (BZ), susceptibility to Vip3Aa of the field-derived strains decreased significantly from 2016 to 2020. Relative to another lab strain (TM), 7 of 16 strains derived from the field in 2019 were significantly resistant to Vip3Aa, with up to 13-fold resistance. Susceptibility to Vip3Aa was significantly lower for strains derived from Vip3Aa plants than non-Vip3Aa plants, providing direct evidence of resistance evolving in response to selection by Vip3Aa plants in the field. Together with previously reported data, the results here convey an early warning of field-evolved resistance to Vip3Aa in H. zea that supports calls for urgent action to preserve the efficacy of this toxin.

Crop protection compounds - trends and perspective

The Industry responsible for the discovery and development of crop protection compounds has undergone dramatic changes and increasing consolidation since the initial innovations in synthetic organic fungicides, herbicides and insecticides in the late 1940s and early 1950s. Likewise, there have been striking changes in the rate of introduction of new crop protection compounds over the past 70 years. While numerous studies over the past five decades have signaled the ongoing decline in the numbers of new active ingredients (AIs), a detailed analysis of the trends in the rate of introduction of crop protection compounds shows a more complex pattern in the overall output of new AIs. The recent (post-2000) decline in the numbers of new herbicides is the primary source of the perceived decline in overall numbers. When herbicides are excluded, the output of new fungicides and insecticides has been relatively constant, especially for the past 20 years. A notable observation is that innovation, as measured by the number of compounds representing a new chemical class (First-in-Class) has been relatively constant for the past 70 years, and most recently has been driven by the appearance of new fungicides and insecticides. Thus, the discovery and development of new AIs for crop protection and public health continues, in spite of the many challenges and changes to the Industry. © 2021 Society of Chemical Industry.

Microbial Toxins in Insect and Nematode Pest Biocontrol

Invertebrate pests, such as insects and nematodes, not only cause or transmit human and livestock diseases but also impose serious crop losses by direct injury as well as vectoring pathogenic microbes. The damage is global but greater in developing countries, where human health and food security are more at risk. Although synthetic pesticides have been in use, biological control measures offer advantages via their biodegradability, environmental safety and precise targeting. This is amply demonstrated by the successful and widespread use of Bacillusthuringiensis to control mosquitos and many plant pests, the latter by the transgenic expression of insecticidal proteins from B. thuringiensis in crop plants. Here, I discuss the prospects of using bacterial and fungal toxins for pest control, including the molecular basis of their biocidal activity.

Evaluating Cross-Resistance to Cry and Vip Toxins in Four Strains of Helicoverpa armigera With Different Genetic Mechanisms of Resistance to Bt Toxin Cry1Ac

Evolution of resistance by pests has diminished the efficacy of transgenic crops producing insecticidal proteins from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt). In China, where transgenic cotton producing Bt toxin Cry1Ac has been planted since 1997, field control failures have not been reported but the frequency of resistance to Cry1Ac has increased in the cotton bollworm, Helicoverpa armigera. This provides incentive to switch to multi-toxin Bt cotton, which is grown in many other countries. Previous work created four laboratory strains of H. armigera with >100-fold resistance to Cry1Ac, with the genetic basis of resistance known in all but the LF256 strain. Here, we analyzed the genetic basis of resistance in Cry1Ac in LF256 and evaluated cross-resistance of all four strains to three toxins produced by widely planted multi-toxin Bt cotton: Cry1Fa, Cry2Ab, and Vip3Aa. DNA sequencing revealed that LF256 lacked the mutations in three genes (HaTSPAN1, HaABCC2, and HaABCC3) that confer resistance to Cry1Ac in two other strains of H. armigera we analyzed. Together with previous results, the data reported here show that each of the four strains examined has a different genetic basis of resistance to Cry1Ac. Significant positive cross-resistance occurred to Cry1Fa in three of the four strains tested but not to Cry2Ab or Vip3Aa in any strain. Thus, Cry2Ab and Vip3Aa are likely to be especially valuable for increasing the efficacy and durability of Bt cotton against H. armigera populations that have some resistance to Cry1Ac.

No positive cross-resistance to Cry1 and Cry2 proteins favors pyramiding strategy for management of Vip3Aa resistance in Spodoptera frugiperda

BACKGROUND

Pyramided Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) crops could delay insect resistance development by expressing multiple distinct Bt proteins to manage the same insect pest. The efficacy of pyramiding strategy for resistance management could be jeopardized by positive cross-resistance, which is defined as insects showing resistance to one Bt protein also exhibiting resistance to other Bt proteins. The fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda, is a destructive agricultural pest and target of Vip3Aa. In this study, we evaluate the cross-resistance of Vip3Aa resistance in S. frugiperda to Bt cotton and corn plants, as well as purified Bt proteins.

RESULTS

Diet bioassay showed that Vip3Aa-resistant (RR), -heterozygous (RS), and -susceptible (SS) insects of S. frugiperda performed similarly against Cry2Ab2 purified protein. The data also indicated that genotypes RR and RS were more susceptible to Cry1F and Cry2Ae purified proteins relative to SS. The diet bioassays suggested that resistance to Vip3Aa does not confer any positive cross-resistance to Cry1F, Cry2Ae or Cry2Ab2 in S. frugiperda. The plant bioassay indicated that the S. frugiperda resistance to Vip3Aa conferred no cross-resistance to corn and no cross-crop resistance to cotton plants expressing Cry1 and/or Cry2 proteins.

CONCLUSION

These findings indicate that a lack of positive cross-resistance to Cry1 and Cry2 proteins favors pyramiding strategy for managing S. frugiperda resistance to Vip3Aa protein. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry.

Genetic basis of resistance to the Vip3Aa Bt protein in Helicoverpa zea

BACKGROUND

Helicoverpa zea is a destructive pest and target of maize and cotton expressing Cry and Vip3Aa proteins in North America. The efficacy of Cry proteins against H. zea in the USA has been largely compromised by resistance. A rapid shift towards planting Bt cotton and maize producing Vip3Aa will accelerate evolution of resistance to Vip3Aa in H. zea. Research on the genetic basis of Vip3Aa resistance in H. zea is urgently needed, and can provide fundamental information for managing resistance in this pest. Here, we characterize the inheritance of Vip3Aa resistance in H. zea.

RESULTS

Susceptibility of a Vip3Aa-susceptible strain (SS), a resistant strain (RR), and progeny from different crosses against Vip3Aa39 was determined. RR was established from an F₂ screening of a population from Texas sampled in 2019. RR had a resistance ratio of 45194.1-fold against Vip3Aa39 relative to SS. Maternal effects and sex linkage were absent in RR. The dominance D value, calculated based on median lethal concentration (LC₅₀ ) values, was -1.0 and the effective dominance (D_ML ), calculated based on a given Vip3Aa39 concentration, was ≤0.0 at concentrations of 0.1-31.6 μg cm^-2 . The test using a monogenic mode of inheritance showed that resistance to Vip3Aa in H. zea was largely due to a single gene.

CONCLUSION

Results of this study indicate that Vip3Aa resistance in H. zea is monogenic, autosomal, and recessive. This information is valuable for studying the mechanism of Vip3Aa resistance, monitoring of resistance development, and designing appropriate strategies for preventive management of Vip3Aa resistance. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry.

Response Mechanisms of Invertebrates to Bacillus thuringiensis and Its Pesticidal Proteins

Extensive use of chemical insecticides adversely affects both environment and human health. One of the most popular biological pest control alternatives is bioinsecticides based on Bacillus thuringiensis This entomopathogenic bacterium produces different protein types which are toxic to several insect, mite, and nematode species. Currently, insecticidal proteins belonging to the Cry and Vip3 groups are widely used to control insect pests both in formulated sprays and in transgenic crops. However, the benefits of B. thuringiensis-based products are threatened by insect resistance evolution. Numerous studies have highlighted that mutations in genes coding for surrogate receptors are responsible for conferring resistance to B. thuringiensis Nevertheless, other mechanisms may also contribute to the reduction of the effectiveness of B. thuringiensis-based products for managing insect pests and even to the acquisition of resistance. Here, we review the relevant literature reporting how invertebrates (mainly insects and Caenorhabditis elegans) respond to exposure to B. thuringiensis as either whole bacteria, spores, and/or its pesticidal proteins.

Sweet Corn Sentinel Monitoring for Lepidopteran Field-Evolved Resistance to Bt Toxins

As part of an insect resistance management plan to preserve Bt transgenic technology, annual monitoring of target pests is mandated to detect susceptibility changes to Bt toxins. Currently Helicoverpa zea (Boddie) monitoring involves investigating unexpected injury in Bt crop fields and collecting larvae from non-Bt host plants for laboratory diet bioassays to determine mortality responses to diagnostic concentrations of Bt toxins. To date, this monitoring approach has not detected any significant change from the known range of baseline susceptibility to Bt toxins, yet practical field-evolved resistance in H. zea populations and numerous occurrences of unexpected injury occur in Bt crops. In this study, we implemented a network of 73 sentinel sweet corn trials, spanning 16 U.S. states and 4 Canadian provinces, for monitoring changes in H. zea susceptibility to Cry and Vip3A toxins by measuring differences in ear damage and larval infestations between isogenic pairs of non-Bt and Bt hybrids over three years. This approach can monitor susceptibility changes and regional differences in other ear-feeding lepidopteran pests. Temporal changes in the field efficacy of each toxin were evidenced by comparing our current results with earlier published studies, including baseline data for each Bt trait when first commercialized. Changes in amount of ear damage showed significant increases in H. zea resistance to Cry toxins and possibly lower susceptibility to Vip3a. Our findings demonstrate that the sentinel plot approach as an in-field screen can effectively monitor phenotypic resistance and document field-evolved resistance in target pest populations, improving resistance monitoring for Bt crops.

Populations of Helicoverpa zea (Boddie) in the Southeastern United States are Commonly Resistant to Cry1Ab, but Still Susceptible to Vip3Aa20 Expressed in MIR 162 Corn

The corn earworm, Helicoverpa zea (Boddie), is a major pest targeted by pyramided Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) corn and cotton in the U.S. Cry1Ab is one of the first insecticidal toxins used in Bt crops, while Vip3A is a relatively new toxin that has recently been incorporated into Cry corn with event MIR 162 and Cry cotton varieties to generate pyramided Bt traits targeting lepidopteran pests including H. zea. The objectives of this study were to determine the current status and distribution of the Cry1Ab resistance, and evaluate the susceptibility to Vip3Aa20 expressed in MIR 162 corn in H. zea in the southeastern U.S. During 2018 and 2019, 32 H. zea populations were collected from non-Bt corn (19 populations), Cry corn (12), and Cry/Vip3A cotton (1) across major corn areas in seven southeastern states of the U.S. Susceptibility of these populations to Cry1Ab and Vip3Aa20 was determined using diet-overlay bioassays. Compared to a known susceptible insect strain, 80% of the field populations were 13- to >150-fold resistant to Cry1Ab, while their response to Vip3Aa20 ranged from >11-fold more susceptible to 9-fold more tolerant. Mean susceptibility to each Bt toxin was not significantly different between the two groups of the populations collected from non-Bt and Bt crops, as well as between the two groups of the populations collected during 2018 and 2019. The results show that resistance to Cry1Ab in H. zea is widely distributed across the region. However, the Cry1Ab-resistant populations are not cross-resistant to Vip3Aa20, and H. zea in the region is still susceptible to the Vip3Aa20 toxin. Vip3Aa20 concentrations between 5 and 10 µg/cm2 may be used as diagnostic concentrations for susceptibility monitoring in future. Additional studies are necessary to elucidate the impact of the selection with Bt corn on resistance evolution in H. zea to Vip3A cotton in the U.S.

Mechanisms of Resistance to Insecticidal Proteins from Bacillus thuringiensis

Insecticidal proteins from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) are used in sprayable formulations or produced in transgenic crops as the most successful alternatives to synthetic pesticides. The most relevant threat to sustainability of Bt insecticidal proteins (toxins) is the evolution of resistance in target pests. To date, high-level resistance to Bt sprays has been limited to one species in the field and another in commercial greenhouses. In contrast, there are currently seven lepidopteran and one coleopteran species that have evolved practical resistance to transgenic plants producing insecticidal Bt proteins. In this article, we present a review of the current knowledge on mechanisms of resistance to Bt toxins, with emphasis on key resistance genes and field-evolved resistance, to support improvement of Bt technology and its sustainability.

Genetic Transformation of Sugarcane, Current Status and Future Prospects

Sugarcane (Saccharum spp.) is a tropical and sub-tropical, vegetative-propagated crop that contributes to approximately 80% of the sugar and 40% of the world's biofuel production. Modern sugarcane cultivars are highly polyploid and aneuploid hybrids with extremely large genomes (>10 Gigabases), that have originated from artificial crosses between the two species, Saccharum officinarum and S. spontaneum. The genetic complexity and low fertility of sugarcane under natural growing conditions make traditional breeding improvement extremely laborious, costly and time-consuming. This, together with its vegetative propagation, which allows for stable transfer and multiplication of transgenes, make sugarcane a good candidate for crop improvement through genetic engineering. Genetic transformation has the potential to improve economically important properties in sugarcane as well as diversify sugarcane beyond traditional applications, such as sucrose production. Traits such as herbicide, disease and insect resistance, improved tolerance to cold, salt and drought and accumulation of sugar and biomass have been some of the areas of interest as far as the application of transgenic sugarcane is concerned. Although there have been much interest in developing transgenic sugarcane there are only three officially approved varieties for commercialization, all of them expressing insect-resistance and recently released in Brazil. Since the early 1990's, different genetic transformation systems have been successfully developed in sugarcane, including electroporation, Agrobacterium tumefaciens and biobalistics. However, genetic transformation of sugarcane is a very laborious process, which relies heavily on intensive and sophisticated tissue culture and plant generation procedures that must be optimized for each new genotype to be transformed. Therefore, it remains a great technical challenge to develop an efficient transformation protocol for any sugarcane variety that has not been previously transformed. Additionally, once a transgenic event is obtained, molecular studies required for a commercial release by regulatory authorities, which include transgene insertion site, number of transgenes and gene expression levels, are all hindered by the genomic complexity and the lack of a complete sequenced reference genome for this crop. The objective of this review is to summarize current techniques and state of the art in sugarcane transformation and provide information on existing and future sugarcane improvement by genetic engineering.

Comparison of in Vitro and in Planta Toxicity of Vip3A for Lepidopteran Herbivores

Agricultural pest infestation is as old as domestication of food crops and contributes a major share to the cost of crop production. In a transgenic pest control approach, plant production of Vip3A, an insecticidal protein from Bacillus thuringiensis, is effective against lepidopteran pests. A synthetic Vip3A gene was evaluated for efficacy against Spodoptera litura Fabricius (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae; cotton leafworm), Spodoptera exigua Hübner (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae; beet armyworm), Spodoptera frugiperda Smith (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae; fall armyworm), Helicoverpa armigera Hübner (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae; cotton bollworm), Helicoverpa zea Boddie (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae; corn earworm), Heliothis virescens Fabricius (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae; tobacco budworm), and Manduca sexta L. (Lepidoptera: Sphingidae; tobacco hornworm) in tobacco. In artificial diet assays, the concentration required to achieve 50% mortality was highest for H. zea followed by H. virescens > S. exigua > H. armigera > M. sexta > S. frugiperda > S. litura. By contrast, in bioassays with detached leaves from Vip3A transgenic tobacco, the time until 50% lethality was M. sexta > H. virescens > S. litura > H. zea > H. armigera > S. exigua. There was no significant correlation between the artificial diet and transgenic plant bioassay results. Notably, the two insect species that are best-adapted for growth on tobacco, M. sexta and H. virescens, showed the greatest time to 50% mortality on Vip3A-transgenic tobacco. Together, our results suggest that artificial diet assays may be a poor predictor of Vip3A efficacy in transgenic plants, lepidopteran species vary in their sensitivity to Vip3A in diet-dependent manner, and host plant adaptation of the targeted herbivores should be considered when designing transgenic plants for pest control.

Nutrient conditions determine the localization of Bacillus thuringiensis Vip3Aa protein in the mother cell compartment

Vip3Aa was first identified as a protein secreted during the vegetative growth phase of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) bacteria and which shows high insecticidal toxicity against lepidopteran insect pests (Estruch et al., 1996). Bt strains formulated as bio‐insecticides only had low amounts of Vip3Aa secreted to the medium. Here, we report that Vip3Aa proteins produced by three different Bt strains, including an industrial strain, were indeed not secreted to the culture solution when grown in sporulation medium, but were retained in the mother cell compartment. In order to further investigate the Vip3Aa secretion and location, we grew the strains in rich medium. We found that in rich medium, a fraction of Vip3Aa was secreted, suggesting that Vip3Aa secretion is nutrient‐dependent. Regardless of the growth conditions, we found that Vip3Aa retained in cell pellets exhibited high toxicity against Spodoptera frugiperda larvae. Hence, we speculate that the accumulation of Vip3Aa protein in the mother cell compartment under sporulation conditions could still be used as an efficient strategy for industrial production in commercial Bt strains.