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Tomlinson S, Lomolino MV, Anderson A, Austin JJ, Brown SC, Haythorne S, Perry GLW, Wilmshurst JM, Wood JR, Fordham DA. Reconstructing colonization dynamics to establish how human activities transformed island biodiversity. Sci Rep 2024; 14:5261. [PMID: 38438419 PMCID: PMC10912269 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-55180-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2023] [Accepted: 02/21/2024] [Indexed: 03/06/2024] Open
Abstract
Drivers and dynamics of initial human migrations across individual islands and archipelagos are poorly understood, hampering assessments of subsequent modification of island biodiversity. We developed and tested a new statistical-simulation approach for reconstructing the pattern and pace of human migration across islands at high spatiotemporal resolutions. Using Polynesian colonisation of New Zealand as an example, we show that process-explicit models, informed by archaeological records and spatiotemporal reconstructions of past climates and environments, can provide new and important insights into the patterns and mechanisms of arrival and establishment of people on islands. We find that colonisation of New Zealand required there to have been a single founding population of approximately 500 people, arriving between 1233 and 1257 AD, settling multiple areas, and expanding rapidly over both North and South Islands. These verified spatiotemporal reconstructions of colonisation dynamics provide new opportunities to explore more extensively the potential ecological impacts of human colonisation on New Zealand's native biota and ecosystems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sean Tomlinson
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, 5005, Australia.
| | - Mark V Lomolino
- College of Environmental Science and Forestry, State University of New York, Syracuse, NY, 13210, USA
| | - Atholl Anderson
- School of Culture, History and Language, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, 0200, Australia
- Ngai Tahu Research Centre, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, 8140, New Zealand
| | - Jeremy J Austin
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, 5005, Australia
| | - Stuart C Brown
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, 5005, Australia
- Globe Institute, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, 1353, Denmark
| | - Sean Haythorne
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, 5005, Australia
- Centre of Excellence for Biosecurity Risk Analysis, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, 3010, Australia
| | - George L W Perry
- School of Environment, University of Auckland, Auckland, 1142, New Zealand
| | - Janet M Wilmshurst
- Ecosystems & Conservation, Manaaki Whenua Landcare Research, Lincoln, 7640, New Zealand
| | - Jamie R Wood
- The Environment Institute, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, 5005, Australia
| | - Damien A Fordham
- The Environment Institute, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, 5005, Australia.
- Center for Macroecology, Evolution and Climate, Globe Institute, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, 1353, Denmark.
- Center for Mountain Biodiversity, Globe Institute, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, 1353, Denmark.
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2
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Blanchet G, Bellinger MR, Kearns AM, Cortes-Rodriguez N, Masuda B, Campana MG, Rutz C, Fleischer RC, Sutton JT. Reduction of genetic diversity in 'Alalā (Hawaiian crow; Corvus hawaiiensis) between the late 1800s and the late 1900s. J Hered 2024; 115:32-44. [PMID: 37846510 DOI: 10.1093/jhered/esad063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2023] [Revised: 09/26/2023] [Accepted: 10/12/2023] [Indexed: 10/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Genetic and genomic data are increasingly used to aid conservation management of endangered species by providing insights into evolutionary histories, factors associated with extinction risks, and potential for future adaptation. For the 'Alalā, or Hawaiian crow (Corvus hawaiiensis), genetic concerns include negative correlations between inbreeding and hatching success. However, it is unclear if low genetic diversity and inbreeding depression are consequences of a historical population bottleneck, or if 'Alalā had historically low genetic diversity that predated human influence, perhaps as a result of earlier declines or founding events. In this study, we applied a hybridization-based sequence capture to generate a genome-wide single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) dataset for comparing historical specimens collected in the 1890s, when 'Alalā were more numerous, to samples taken between 1973 and 1998, when 'Alalā population densities were near the lowest documented levels in the wild, prior to all individuals being collected for captive rearing. We found low genome-wide diversity in both sample groups, however, the modern sample group (1973 to 1998 cohort) exhibited relatively fewer polymorphic alleles, a lower proportion of polymorphic loci, and lower observed heterozygosity, consistent with a population decline and potential bottleneck effects. These results combined with a current low population size highlight the importance of continued efforts by conservation managers to mitigate inbreeding and maintain founder representation to preserve what genetic diversity remains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Geneviève Blanchet
- Department of Biology, University of Hawai'i at Hilo, 200 W Kāwili St, Hilo, Hawai'i 96720, United States
| | - M Renee Bellinger
- Department of Biology, University of Hawai'i at Hilo, 200 W Kāwili St, Hilo, Hawai'i 96720, United States
- U.S. Geological Survey, Pacific Island Ecosystems Research Center, PO Box 44, Hawai'i National Park, Hawai'i 96718, United States
| | - Anna M Kearns
- Center for Conservation Genomics, National Zoo and Conservation Biology Institute, Smithsonian Institution, Washington DC 20008, United States
| | - Nandadevi Cortes-Rodriguez
- Center for Conservation Genomics, National Zoo and Conservation Biology Institute, Smithsonian Institution, Washington DC 20008, United States
| | - Bryce Masuda
- San Diego Zoo Wildlife Alliance, P.O. Box 39, Volcano, HI 96785, United States
| | - Michael G Campana
- Center for Conservation Genomics, National Zoo and Conservation Biology Institute, Smithsonian Institution, Washington DC 20008, United States
| | - Christian Rutz
- Centre for Biological Diversity, School of Biology, University of St Andrews, St Andrews KY16 9TH, United Kingdom
| | - Robert C Fleischer
- Center for Conservation Genomics, National Zoo and Conservation Biology Institute, Smithsonian Institution, Washington DC 20008, United States
| | - Jolene T Sutton
- Department of Biology, University of Hawai'i at Hilo, 200 W Kāwili St, Hilo, Hawai'i 96720, United States
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3
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Palaeoecological and historical observations of an endemic New Zealand bird (Strigops habroptila, kākāpō) reveal shifting drivers of decline during 800 years of human settlement. Glob Ecol Conserv 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.gecco.2023.e02433] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/13/2023] Open
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4
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Digby A, Eason D, Catalina A, Lierz M, Galla S, Urban L, Le Lec MF, Guhlin J, Steeves TE, Dearden PK, Joustra T, Lees C, Davis T, Vercoe D. Hidden impacts of conservation management on fertility of the critically endangered kākāpō. PeerJ 2023; 11:e14675. [PMID: 36755872 PMCID: PMC9901309 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.14675] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2021] [Accepted: 12/11/2022] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Animal conservation often requires intensive management actions to improve reproductive output, yet any adverse effects of these may not be immediately apparent, particularly in threatened species with small populations and long lifespans. Hand-rearing is an example of a conservation management strategy which, while boosting populations, can cause long-term demographic and behavioural problems. It is used in the recovery of the critically endangered kākāpō (Strigops habroptilus), a flightless parrot endemic to New Zealand, to improve the slow population growth that is due to infrequent breeding, low fertility and low hatching success. Methods We applied Bayesian mixed models to examine whether hand-rearing and other factors were associated with clutch fertility in kākāpō. We used projection predictive variable selection to compare the relative contributions to fertility from the parents' rearing environment, their age and previous copulation experience, the parental kinship, and the number of mates and copulations for each clutch. We also explored how the incidence of repeated copulations and multiple mates varied with kākāpō density. Results The rearing status of the clutch father and the number of mates and copulations of the clutch mother were the dominant factors in predicting fertility. Clutches were less likely to be fertile if the father was hand-reared compared to wild-reared, but there was no similar effect for mothers. Clutches produced by females copulating with different males were more likely to be fertile than those from repeated copulations with one male, which in turn had a higher probability of fertility than those from a single copulation. The likelihood of multiple copulations and mates increased with female:male adult sex ratio, perhaps as a result of mate guarding by females. Parental kinship, copulation experience and age all had negligible associations with clutch fertility. Conclusions These results provide a rare assessment of factors affecting fertility in a wild threatened bird species, with implications for conservation management. The increased fertility due to multiple mates and copulations, combined with the evidence for mate guarding and previous results of kākāpō sperm morphology, suggests that an evolutionary mechanism exists to optimise fertility through sperm competition in kākāpō. The high frequency of clutches produced from single copulations in the contemporary population may therefore represent an unnatural state, perhaps due to too few females. This suggests that opportunity for sperm competition should be maximised by increasing population densities, optimising sex ratios, and using artificial insemination. The lower fertility of hand-reared males may result from behavioural defects due to lack of exposure to conspecifics at critical development stages, as seen in other taxa. This potential negative impact of hand-rearing must be balanced against the short-term benefits it provides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Digby
- Kākāpō Recovery Programme, Department of Conservation, Invercargill, New Zealand
| | - Daryl Eason
- Kākāpō Recovery Programme, Department of Conservation, Invercargill, New Zealand
| | | | - Michael Lierz
- Clinic for Birds, Reptiles, Amphibians and Fish, Justus-Liebig University Giessen, Giessen, Germany
| | - Stephanie Galla
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand,Department of Biological Sciences, Boise State University, Boise, ID, United States of America
| | - Lara Urban
- Genomics Aotearoa, Dunedin, New Zealand,Department of Anatomy, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - Marissa F. Le Lec
- Genomics Aotearoa, Dunedin, New Zealand,Department of Biochemistry, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - Joseph Guhlin
- Genomics Aotearoa, Dunedin, New Zealand,Department of Biochemistry, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - Tammy E. Steeves
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand,Genomics Aotearoa, Christchurch, New Zealand
| | - Peter K. Dearden
- Genomics Aotearoa, Dunedin, New Zealand,Department of Biochemistry, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | | | - Caroline Lees
- IUCN SSC Conservation Planning Specialist Group, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Tane Davis
- Te Rūnanga o Ngāi Tahu, Christchurch, New Zealand
| | - Deidre Vercoe
- Kākāpō Recovery Programme, Department of Conservation, Invercargill, New Zealand
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Winter DJ, Weir BS, Glare T, Rhodes J, Perrott J, Fisher MC, Stajich JE, Digby A, Dearden PK, Cox MP. A single fungal strain was the unexpected cause of a mass aspergillosis outbreak in the world’s largest and only flightless parrot. iScience 2022; 25:105470. [PMID: 36404926 PMCID: PMC9668684 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2022.105470] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2022] [Revised: 10/03/2022] [Accepted: 10/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Kākāpō are a critically endangered species of parrots restricted to a few islands off the coast of New Zealand. Kākāpō are very closely monitored, especially during nesting seasons. In 2019, during a highly successful nesting season, an outbreak of aspergillosis affected 21 individuals and led to the deaths of 9, leaving a population of only 211 kākāpō. In monitoring this outbreak, cultures of aspergillus were grown, and genome sequenced. These sequences demonstrate that, very unusually for an aspergillus outbreak, a single strain of aspergillus caused the outbreak. This strain was found on two islands, but only one had an outbreak of aspergillosis; indicating that the strain was necessary, but not sufficient, to cause disease. Our analysis provides an understanding of the 2019 outbreak and provides potential ways to manage such events in the future. In 2019, the kākāpō, an endangered parrot species, was threatened by aspergillosis The outbreak was associated with a single strain of Aspergillus fumigatus The first reported case of a single strain of Aspergillus causing a disease outbreak
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ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR INVESTIGATION OF EXUDATIVE CLOACITIS IN KĀKĀPŌ (STRIGOPS HABROPTILUS) ON WHENUA HOU (CODFISH ISLAND), NEW ZEALAND. J Wildl Dis 2022; 58:769-781. [PMID: 36302364 DOI: 10.7589/jwd-d-21-00201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2021] [Accepted: 06/13/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
Kākāpō (Strigops habroptilus) are critically endangered nocturnal parrots endemic to New Zealand. Exudative cloacitis is a disease only affecting the breeding population of Kākāpō on Whenua Hou (Codfish Island), for which a consistent primary pathogenic organism involved has not been identified. This epidemiological study was conducted to identify the environmental factors contributing to the initiation of this disease in Kākāpō by 1) producing and describing a case series; 2) mapping the geographic distribution of exudative cloacitis cases; 3) investigating the chemical characteristics of Kākāpō roosting sites; and 4) assessing the effects of climatic factors on the incidence of exudative cloacitis each year. Soil samples from the Kākāpō roost sites and other areas of the Whenua Hou were examined for pH, ammonium, and moisture contents. From 2002 to 2017, 22 sporadic cases of exudative cloacitis have been diagnosed and the disease distribution on Whenua Hou overlaps the Kākāpō distribution. A mixed group of adults and juveniles was affected and there was no evidence of spatial or temporal clustering of the disease. Current findings on the chemical characteristics of Kākāpō roosting sites do not show any evidence that these factors are involved in the initiation of the exudative cloacitis. Nevertheless, the results suggest that the ammonium and moisture levels of the roosts are worthy of more detailed study in future cases. We were not able to demonstrate any significant influence of broad measures of climate on the incidence of exudative cloacitis on Whenua Hou. Prospective data collection would help for a complete epidemiological investigation of this disease in future cases.
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Verry AJF, Lubbe P, Mitchell KJ, Rawlence NJ. Thirty years of ancient DNA and the faunal biogeography of Aotearoa New Zealand: lessons and future directions. J R Soc N Z 2022. [DOI: 10.1080/03036758.2022.2093227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Alexander J. F. Verry
- Otago Palaeogenetics Laboratory, Department of Zoology, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
- Centre for Anthropobiology and Genomics of Toulouse, Faculté de Médecine Purpan, Université de Toulouse, Université Paul Sabatier, Toulouse, France
| | - Pascale Lubbe
- Department of Anatomy, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - Kieren J. Mitchell
- Otago Palaeogenetics Laboratory, Department of Zoology, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - Nicolas J. Rawlence
- Otago Palaeogenetics Laboratory, Department of Zoology, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
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8
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The kākāpō (Strigops habroptilus). Trends Genet 2022; 38:881-882. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tig.2022.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2022] [Accepted: 03/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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9
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Rivera-Arroyo RC, Escalante-Pliego P, Aguilar-Torres D, Úbeda-Olivas MF. Phylogeography of the white-crowned parrot (Pionus senilis). BIOTA NEOTROPICA 2022. [DOI: 10.1590/1676-0611-bn-2022-1382] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Abstract The white-crowned parrot Pionus senilis (von Spix, 1824) is distributed throughout Middle America, inhabiting the Gulf of Mexico coastal area from Tamaulipas (Mexico) to northern Panama. We used mitochondrial data (COI, ND2 and ND4) from 55 specimens to infer phylogenetic relationships, and analyzed the phylogeographic structure, genetic diversity, divergence periods, and historical demography to explore phylogeographic patterns. We found three divergent lineages: two geographically separated by the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, and the third, in Costa Rica by the Nicaragua Depression. The analysis of molecular variance and statistical analyses were consistent with genetically distinct populations. The Central American lineage diverged 1.33 million years ago, whereas the other two lines branched off 1.19 million years ago. This phylogenetic pattern has been reported in other species of Middle American birds.
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10
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Hale AM, Hein CD, Straw BR. Acoustic and Genetic Data Can Reduce Uncertainty Regarding Populations of Migratory Tree-Roosting Bats Impacted by Wind Energy. Animals (Basel) 2021; 12:81. [PMID: 35011186 PMCID: PMC8749617 DOI: 10.3390/ani12010081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2021] [Revised: 11/04/2021] [Accepted: 11/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Wind turbine-related mortality may pose a population-level threat for migratory tree-roosting bats, such as the hoary bat (Lasiurus cinereus) in North America. These species are dispersed within their range, making it impractical to estimate census populations size using traditional survey methods. Nonetheless, understanding population size and trends is essential for evaluating and mitigating risk from wind turbine mortality. Using various sampling techniques, including systematic acoustic sampling and genetic analyses, we argue that building a weight of evidence regarding bat population status and trends is possible to (1) assess the sustainability of mortality associated with wind turbines; (2) determine the level of mitigation required; and (3) evaluate the effectiveness of mitigation measures to ensure population viability for these species. Long-term, systematic data collection remains the most viable option for reducing uncertainty regarding population trends for migratory tree-roosting bats. We recommend collecting acoustic data using the statistically robust North American Bat Monitoring Program (NABat) protocols and that genetic diversity is monitored at repeated time intervals to show species trends. There are no short-term actions to resolve these population-level questions; however, we discuss opportunities for relatively short-term investments that will lead to long-term success in reducing uncertainty.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda M. Hale
- Department of Biology, Texas Christian University, Fort Worth, TX 76129, USA
| | - Cris D. Hein
- National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Arvada, CO 80007, USA;
| | - Bethany R. Straw
- Fort Collins Science Center, U. S. Geological Survey, Fort Collins, CO 80526, USA;
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11
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Foster Y, Dutoit L, Grosser S, Dussex N, Foster BJ, Dodds KG, Brauning R, Van Stijn T, Robertson F, McEwan JC, Jacobs JME, Robertson BC. Genomic signatures of inbreeding in a critically endangered parrot, the kākāpō. G3 (BETHESDA, MD.) 2021; 11:jkab307. [PMID: 34542587 PMCID: PMC8527487 DOI: 10.1093/g3journal/jkab307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2021] [Accepted: 08/23/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Events of inbreeding are inevitable in critically endangered species. Reduced population sizes and unique life-history traits can increase the severity of inbreeding, leading to declines in fitness and increased risk of extinction. Here, we investigate levels of inbreeding in a critically endangered flightless parrot, the kākāpō (Strigops habroptilus), wherein a highly inbred island population and one individual from the mainland of New Zealand founded the entire extant population. Genotyping-by-sequencing (GBS), and a genotype calling approach using a chromosome-level genome assembly, identified a filtered set of 12,241 single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) among 161 kākāpō, which together encompass the total genetic potential of the extant population. Multiple molecular-based estimates of inbreeding were compared, including genome-wide estimates of heterozygosity (FH), the diagonal elements of a genomic-relatedness matrix (FGRM), and runs of homozygosity (RoH, FRoH). In addition, we compared levels of inbreeding in chicks from a recent breeding season to examine if inbreeding is associated with offspring survival. The density of SNPs generated with GBS was sufficient to identify chromosomes that were largely homozygous with RoH distributed in similar patterns to other inbred species. Measures of inbreeding were largely correlated and differed significantly between descendants of the two founding populations. However, neither inbreeding nor ancestry was found to be associated with reduced survivorship in chicks, owing to unexpected mortality in chicks exhibiting low levels of inbreeding. Our study highlights important considerations for estimating inbreeding in critically endangered species, such as the impacts of small population sizes and admixture between diverse lineages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasmin Foster
- Department of Zoology, University of Otago, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand
| | - Ludovic Dutoit
- Department of Zoology, University of Otago, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand
| | - Stefanie Grosser
- Department of Zoology, University of Otago, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand
| | - Nicolas Dussex
- Centre for Palaeogenetics, SE-106 91 Stockholm, Sweden
- Department of Bioinformatics and Genetics, Swedish Museum of Natural History, SE-104 05 Stockholm, Sweden
- Department of Zoology, Stockholm University, SE-106 91 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Brodie J Foster
- Department of Zoology, University of Otago, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand
| | - Ken G Dodds
- AgResearch Invermay Agricultural Centre, Mosgiel 9053, New Zealand
| | - Rudiger Brauning
- AgResearch Invermay Agricultural Centre, Mosgiel 9053, New Zealand
| | - Tracey Van Stijn
- AgResearch Invermay Agricultural Centre, Mosgiel 9053, New Zealand
| | - Fiona Robertson
- Department of Zoology, University of Otago, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand
| | - John C McEwan
- AgResearch Invermay Agricultural Centre, Mosgiel 9053, New Zealand
| | | | - Bruce C Robertson
- Department of Zoology, University of Otago, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand
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12
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Savage JL, Crane JMS, Hemmings N. Low hatching success in the critically endangered kākāpō is driven by early embryo mortality not infertility. Anim Conserv 2021. [DOI: 10.1111/acv.12746] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- J. L. Savage
- School of Biosciences University of Sheffield Sheffield UK
- School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences University College Cork Cork Ireland
| | - J. M. S. Crane
- Kākāpō Recovery Department of Conservation Invercargill New Zealand
| | - N. Hemmings
- School of Biosciences University of Sheffield Sheffield UK
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13
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Dussex N, van der Valk T, Morales HE, Wheat CW, Díez-del-Molino D, von Seth J, Foster Y, Kutschera VE, Guschanski K, Rhie A, Phillippy AM, Korlach J, Howe K, Chow W, Pelan S, Mendes Damas JD, Lewin HA, Hastie AR, Formenti G, Fedrigo O, Guhlin J, Harrop TW, Le Lec MF, Dearden PK, Haggerty L, Martin FJ, Kodali V, Thibaud-Nissen F, Iorns D, Knapp M, Gemmell NJ, Robertson F, Moorhouse R, Digby A, Eason D, Vercoe D, Howard J, Jarvis ED, Robertson BC, Dalén L. Population genomics of the critically endangered kākāpō. CELL GENOMICS 2021; 1:100002. [PMID: 36777713 PMCID: PMC9903828 DOI: 10.1016/j.xgen.2021.100002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2020] [Revised: 04/23/2021] [Accepted: 06/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
The kākāpō is a flightless parrot endemic to New Zealand. Once common in the archipelago, only 201 individuals remain today, most of them descending from an isolated island population. We report the first genome-wide analyses of the species, including a high-quality genome assembly for kākāpō, one of the first chromosome-level reference genomes sequenced by the Vertebrate Genomes Project (VGP). We also sequenced and analyzed 35 modern genomes from the sole surviving island population and 14 genomes from the extinct mainland population. While theory suggests that such a small population is likely to have accumulated deleterious mutations through genetic drift, our analyses on the impact of the long-term small population size in kākāpō indicate that present-day island kākāpō have a reduced number of harmful mutations compared to mainland individuals. We hypothesize that this reduced mutational load is due to the island population having been subjected to a combination of genetic drift and purging of deleterious mutations, through increased inbreeding and purifying selection, since its isolation from the mainland ∼10,000 years ago. Our results provide evidence that small populations can survive even when isolated for hundreds of generations. This work provides key insights into kākāpō breeding and recovery and more generally into the application of genetic tools in conservation efforts for endangered species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolas Dussex
- Centre for Palaeogenetics, Svante Arrhenius väg 20C, 10691 Stockholm, Sweden,Department of Bioinformatics and Genetics, Swedish Museum of Natural History, Box 50007, 10405 Stockholm, Sweden,Department of Zoology, Stockholm University, 10691 Stockholm, Sweden,Department of Anatomy, University of Otago, PO Box 913, Dunedin 9016, New Zealand,Corresponding author
| | - Tom van der Valk
- Centre for Palaeogenetics, Svante Arrhenius väg 20C, 10691 Stockholm, Sweden,Department of Bioinformatics and Genetics, Swedish Museum of Natural History, Box 50007, 10405 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Hernán E. Morales
- Section for Evolutionary Genomics, GLOBE Institute, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | | | - David Díez-del-Molino
- Centre for Palaeogenetics, Svante Arrhenius väg 20C, 10691 Stockholm, Sweden,Department of Bioinformatics and Genetics, Swedish Museum of Natural History, Box 50007, 10405 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Johanna von Seth
- Centre for Palaeogenetics, Svante Arrhenius väg 20C, 10691 Stockholm, Sweden,Department of Bioinformatics and Genetics, Swedish Museum of Natural History, Box 50007, 10405 Stockholm, Sweden,Department of Zoology, Stockholm University, 10691 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Yasmin Foster
- Department of Zoology, University of Otago, PO Box 56, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand
| | - Verena E. Kutschera
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, National Bioinformatics Infrastructure Sweden, Science for Life Laboratory, Stockholm University, Box 1031, 17121 Solna, Sweden
| | - Katerina Guschanski
- Institute of Evolutionary Biology, School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK,Department of Ecology and Genetics, Animal Ecology, Uppsala University, 75236 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Arang Rhie
- Genome Informatics Section, Computational and Statistical Genomics Branch, National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Adam M. Phillippy
- Genome Informatics Section, Computational and Statistical Genomics Branch, National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Jonas Korlach
- Pacific Biosciences, 1305 O’Brien Drive, Menlo Park, CA 94025, USA
| | - Kerstin Howe
- Wellcome Sanger Institute, Wellcome Trust Genome Campus, Hinxton CB10 1SA, UK
| | - William Chow
- Wellcome Sanger Institute, Wellcome Trust Genome Campus, Hinxton CB10 1SA, UK
| | - Sarah Pelan
- Wellcome Sanger Institute, Wellcome Trust Genome Campus, Hinxton CB10 1SA, UK
| | - Joanna D. Mendes Damas
- Department of Evolution and Ecology and the UC Davis Genome Center, 4321 Genome and Biomedical Sciences Facility, University of California Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - Harris A. Lewin
- Department of Evolution and Ecology and the UC Davis Genome Center, 4321 Genome and Biomedical Sciences Facility, University of California Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - Alex R. Hastie
- Bionano Genomics, 9540 Towne Centre Drive, San Diego, CA 92121, USA
| | - Giulio Formenti
- Vertebrate Genome Laboratory, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, USA,Laboratory of Neurogenetics of Language, Box 54, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, USA,Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Chevy Chase, MD 20815, USA
| | - Olivier Fedrigo
- Vertebrate Genome Laboratory, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Joseph Guhlin
- Genomics Aotearoa and Laboratory for Evolution and Development, Department of Biochemistry, University of Otago, PO Box 56, Dunedin 9016, New Zealand
| | - Thomas W.R. Harrop
- Genomics Aotearoa and Laboratory for Evolution and Development, Department of Biochemistry, University of Otago, PO Box 56, Dunedin 9016, New Zealand
| | - Marissa F. Le Lec
- Genomics Aotearoa and Laboratory for Evolution and Development, Department of Biochemistry, University of Otago, PO Box 56, Dunedin 9016, New Zealand
| | - Peter K. Dearden
- Genomics Aotearoa and Laboratory for Evolution and Development, Department of Biochemistry, University of Otago, PO Box 56, Dunedin 9016, New Zealand
| | - Leanne Haggerty
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory, European Bioinformatics Institute, Wellcome Genome Campus, Hinxton, Cambridge CB10 1SD, UK
| | - Fergal J. Martin
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory, European Bioinformatics Institute, Wellcome Genome Campus, Hinxton, Cambridge CB10 1SD, UK
| | - Vamsi Kodali
- National Center for Biotechnology Information, National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20894, USA
| | - Françoise Thibaud-Nissen
- National Center for Biotechnology Information, National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20894, USA
| | - David Iorns
- The Genetic Rescue Foundation, Wellington, New Zealand
| | - Michael Knapp
- Department of Anatomy, University of Otago, PO Box 913, Dunedin 9016, New Zealand
| | - Neil J. Gemmell
- Department of Anatomy, University of Otago, PO Box 913, Dunedin 9016, New Zealand
| | - Fiona Robertson
- Department of Zoology, University of Otago, PO Box 56, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand
| | - Ron Moorhouse
- Kākāpō Recovery, Department of Conservation, PO Box 743, Invercargill 9840, New Zealand
| | - Andrew Digby
- Kākāpō Recovery, Department of Conservation, PO Box 743, Invercargill 9840, New Zealand
| | - Daryl Eason
- Kākāpō Recovery, Department of Conservation, PO Box 743, Invercargill 9840, New Zealand
| | - Deidre Vercoe
- Kākāpō Recovery, Department of Conservation, PO Box 743, Invercargill 9840, New Zealand
| | - Jason Howard
- Vertebrate Genome Laboratory, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, USA,BioSkryb Genomics, 701 W Main Street, Suite 200, Durham, NC 27701, USA
| | - Erich D. Jarvis
- Vertebrate Genome Laboratory, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, USA,Laboratory of Neurogenetics of Language, Box 54, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, USA,Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Chevy Chase, MD 20815, USA,Corresponding author
| | - Bruce C. Robertson
- Department of Zoology, University of Otago, PO Box 56, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand,Corresponding author
| | - Love Dalén
- Centre for Palaeogenetics, Svante Arrhenius väg 20C, 10691 Stockholm, Sweden,Department of Bioinformatics and Genetics, Swedish Museum of Natural History, Box 50007, 10405 Stockholm, Sweden,Department of Zoology, Stockholm University, 10691 Stockholm, Sweden,Corresponding author
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14
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Gartrell BD, Argilla LS, Chatterton J, Dennison-Gibby S, Digby A, Fulton J, Hunter S, Johnson KL, Jolly M, Lenting B. Surgical repair of a meningoencephalocoele in a kākāpō ( Strigops habroptilus). N Z Vet J 2021; 69:247-254. [PMID: 33906586 DOI: 10.1080/00480169.2021.1909509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
CASE HISTORY A kākāpō (Strigops habroptilus) chick hatched on an off-shore island of New Zealand with a small white mass protruding through the cranial skin of the head. The chick's growth followed a normal pattern for kākāpō but at 3 weeks of age the cranium mass was non-reducible and fixed in place and the chick was removed from the island for diagnostic imaging and hand-rearing. CLINICAL FINDINGS AND TREATMENT A computed tomography (CT) examination revealed a full-thickness circular defect in the central cranium with suspected herniation of brain and dura. Surgery was performed at 37 days of age, and the herniated dura was dissected from the open fontanelle. Attempts to reduce the herniated tissue were unsuccessful, so the herniated dura and cortex were clamped and resected. The dura was closed and the periosteum of the skull was scarified and monofilament polypropylene mesh was secured tautly over the fontanelle. The mesh graft was infused with autologous bone marrow harvested from the ulna in an attempt to stimulate osteogenesis in the mesh repair. The skin flap was then closed. Post-operative recovery and healing were without complication. A CT examination 4 weeks after surgery showed no recurrence of the hernia, and a composite of mesh and scar over the open fontanelle which had reduced in diameter. The chick was released back onto an off-shore island with a radio transmitter and it continues to be monitored regularly. PATHOLOGICAL FINDINGS The tissue resected at surgery consisted of a cylindrical core of cerebral parenchyma overlain by a mildly hyperplastic epidermis, and large amounts of oedematous fibrovascular tissue arising from the leptomeninges. DIAGNOSIS Rostral parietal meningoencephalocoele. CLINICAL RELEVANCE This is the first report of successful surgical resolution of a meningoencephalocoele in any bird. Techniques from human neurosurgery were adapted for the unique anatomical features of the avian skull. The risks of the procedure included increased intra-cranial pressure resulting in anaesthetic complications or death, cerebrospinal fluid leakage, meningitis or recurrence of the meningoencephalocoele. In the longer term, there was a risk of developmental deficits in cognition or behaviour. None of these complications eventuated in the short to medium term, probably due to the small size of the meningoencephalocoele.
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Affiliation(s)
- B D Gartrell
- Wildbase, Tāwharau Ora, School of Veterinary Science, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| | - L S Argilla
- The Wildlife Hospital Dunedin, Otago Polytechnic, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - J Chatterton
- New Zealand Centre for Conservation Medicine, Auckland Zoo, Auckland, New Zealand
| | | | - A Digby
- Kakapo Recovery Team, Department of Conservation, Invercargill, New Zealand
| | - J Fulton
- Pacific Radiology, Marinoto Clinic, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - S Hunter
- Wildbase, Tāwharau Ora, School of Veterinary Science, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| | - K L Johnson
- Wildbase, Tāwharau Ora, School of Veterinary Science, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| | - M Jolly
- Wildbase, Tāwharau Ora, School of Veterinary Science, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| | - B Lenting
- The Nest Te Kōhanga, Wellington Zoo, Wellington, New Zealand
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15
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Dussex N, von Seth J, Knapp M, Kardailsky O, Robertson BC, Dalén L. Complete genomes of two extinct New Zealand passerines show responses to climate fluctuations but no evidence for genomic erosion prior to extinction. Biol Lett 2019; 15:20190491. [PMID: 31480938 DOI: 10.1098/rsbl.2019.0491] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Human intervention, pre-human climate change (or a combination of both), as well as genetic effects, contribute to species extinctions. While many species from oceanic islands have gone extinct due to direct human impacts, the effects of pre-human climate change and human settlement on the genomic diversity of insular species and the role that loss of genomic diversity played in their extinctions remains largely unexplored. To address this question, we sequenced whole genomes of two extinct New Zealand passerines, the huia (Heteralocha acutirostris) and South Island kōkako (Callaeas cinereus). Both species showed similar demographic trajectories throughout the Pleistocene. However, the South Island kōkako continued to decline after the last glaciation, while the huia experienced some recovery. Moreover, there was no indication of inbreeding resulting from recent mating among closely related individuals in either species. This latter result indicates that population fragmentation associated with forest clearing by Maōri may not have been strong enough to lead to an increase in inbreeding and exposure to genomic erosion. While genomic erosion may not have directly contributed to their extinctions, further habitat fragmentation and the introduction of mammalian predators by Europeans may have been an important driver of extinction in huia and South Island kōkako.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolas Dussex
- Department of Bioinformatics and Genetics, Swedish Museum of Natural History, Box 50007, Stockholm 10405, Sweden.,Department of Anatomy, University of Otago, PO Box 913, Dunedin 9016, New Zealand
| | - Johanna von Seth
- Department of Bioinformatics and Genetics, Swedish Museum of Natural History, Box 50007, Stockholm 10405, Sweden.,Department of Zoology, Stockholm University, Stockholm 10691, Sweden
| | - Michael Knapp
- Department of Anatomy, University of Otago, PO Box 913, Dunedin 9016, New Zealand
| | - Olga Kardailsky
- Department of Anatomy, University of Otago, PO Box 913, Dunedin 9016, New Zealand
| | - Bruce C Robertson
- Department of Zoology, University of Otago, PO Box 56, Dunedin 9016, New Zealand
| | - Love Dalén
- Department of Bioinformatics and Genetics, Swedish Museum of Natural History, Box 50007, Stockholm 10405, Sweden
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16
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Cole TL, Rawlence NJ, Dussex N, Ellenberg U, Houston DM, Mattern T, Miskelly CM, Morrison KW, Scofield RP, Tennyson AJD, Thompson DR, Wood JR, Waters JM. Ancient DNA of crested penguins: Testing for temporal genetic shifts in the world's most diverse penguin clade. Mol Phylogenet Evol 2018; 131:72-79. [PMID: 30367976 DOI: 10.1016/j.ympev.2018.10.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2018] [Revised: 10/19/2018] [Accepted: 10/19/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Human impacts have substantially reduced avian biodiversity in many parts of the world, particularly on isolated islands of the Pacific Ocean. The New Zealand archipelago, including its five subantarctic island groups, holds breeding grounds for a third of the world's penguin species, including several representatives of the diverse crested penguin genus Eudyptes. While this species-rich genus has been little studied genetically, recent population estimates indicate that several Eudyptes taxa are experiencing demographic declines. Although crested penguins are currently limited to southern regions of the New Zealand archipelago, prehistoric fossil and archaeological deposits suggest a wider distribution during prehistoric times, with breeding ranges perhaps extending to the North Island. Here, we analyse ancient, historic and modern DNA sequences to explore two hypotheses regarding the recent history of Eudyptes in New Zealand, testing for (1) human-driven extinction of Eudyptes lineages; and (2) reduced genetic diversity in surviving lineages. From 83 prehistoric bone samples, each tentatively identified as 'Eudyptes spp.', we genetically identified six prehistoric penguin taxa from mainland New Zealand, including one previously undescribed genetic lineage. Moreover, our Bayesian coalescent analyses indicated that, while the range of Fiordland crested penguin (E. pachyrhynchus) may have contracted markedly over the last millennium, genetic DNA diversity within this lineage has remained relatively constant. This result contrasts with human-driven biodiversity reductions previously detected in several New Zealand coastal vertebrate taxa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Theresa L Cole
- Department of Zoology, University of Otago, PO Box 56, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand; Manaaki Whenua Landcare Research, PO Box 69040, Lincoln, Canterbury 7640, New Zealand.
| | - Nicolas J Rawlence
- Department of Zoology, University of Otago, PO Box 56, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand
| | - Nicolas Dussex
- Department of Bioinformatics and Genetics, Swedish Museum of Natural History, Box 50007, Stockholm, Sweden; Department of Anatomy, University of Otago, PO Box 56, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand
| | - Ursula Ellenberg
- Department of Ecology, Environment and Evolution, La Trobe University, Melbourne, Australia; Global Penguin Society, University of Washington, Seattle, USA
| | - David M Houston
- Biodiversity Group, Department of Conservation, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Thomas Mattern
- Department of Zoology, University of Otago, PO Box 56, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand; Global Penguin Society, University of Washington, Seattle, USA
| | - Colin M Miskelly
- Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa, PO Box 467, Wellington 6140, New Zealand
| | | | - R Paul Scofield
- Canterbury Museum, Rolleston Avenue, Christchurch 8001, New Zealand
| | - Alan J D Tennyson
- Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa, PO Box 467, Wellington 6140, New Zealand
| | - David R Thompson
- National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research Ltd., Private Bag 14901, Kilbirnie, Wellington 6241, New Zealand
| | - Jamie R Wood
- Manaaki Whenua Landcare Research, PO Box 69040, Lincoln, Canterbury 7640, New Zealand
| | - Jonathan M Waters
- Department of Zoology, University of Otago, PO Box 56, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand
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17
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Subsistence practices, past biodiversity, and anthropogenic impacts revealed by New Zealand-wide ancient DNA survey. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2018; 115:7771-7776. [PMID: 29987016 PMCID: PMC6065006 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1803573115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
New Zealand's geographic isolation, lack of native terrestrial mammals, and Gondwanan origins make it an ideal location to study evolutionary processes. However, since the archipelago was first settled by humans 750 y ago, its unique biodiversity has been under pressure, and today an estimated 49% of the terrestrial avifauna is extinct. Current efforts to conserve the remaining fauna rely on a better understanding of the composition of past ecosystems, as well as the causes and timing of past extinctions. The exact temporal and spatial dynamics of New Zealand's extinct fauna, however, can be difficult to interpret, as only a small proportion of animals are preserved as morphologically identifiable fossils. Here, we conduct a large-scale genetic survey of subfossil bone assemblages to elucidate the impact of humans on the environment in New Zealand. By genetically identifying more than 5,000 nondiagnostic bone fragments from archaeological and paleontological sites, we reconstruct a rich faunal record of 110 species of birds, fish, reptiles, amphibians, and marine mammals. We report evidence of five whale species rarely reported from New Zealand archaeological middens and characterize extinct lineages of leiopelmatid frog (Leiopelma sp.) and kākāpō (Strigops habroptilus) haplotypes lost from the gene pool. Taken together, this molecular audit of New Zealand's subfossil record not only contributes to our understanding of past biodiversity and precontact Māori subsistence practices but also provides a more nuanced snapshot of anthropogenic impacts on native fauna after first human arrival.
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18
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Full Mitogenomes in the Critically Endangered Kākāpō Reveal Major Post-Glacial and Anthropogenic Effects on Neutral Genetic Diversity. Genes (Basel) 2018; 9:genes9040220. [PMID: 29671759 PMCID: PMC5924562 DOI: 10.3390/genes9040220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2018] [Revised: 04/05/2018] [Accepted: 04/06/2018] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Understanding how species respond to population declines is a central question in conservation and evolutionary biology. Population declines are often associated with loss of genetic diversity, inbreeding and accumulation of deleterious mutations, which can lead to a reduction in fitness and subsequently contribute to extinction. Using temporal approaches can help us understand the effects of population declines on genetic diversity in real time. Sequencing pre-decline as well as post-decline mitogenomes representing all the remaining mitochondrial diversity, we estimated the loss of genetic diversity in the critically endangered kākāpō (Strigops habroptilus). We detected a signal of population expansion coinciding with the end of the Pleistocene last glacial maximum (LGM). Also, we found some evidence for northern and southern lineages, supporting the hypothesis that the species may have been restricted to isolated northern and southern refugia during the LGM. We observed an important loss of neutral genetic diversity associated with European settlement in New Zealand but we could not exclude a population decline associated with Polynesian settlement in New Zealand. However, we did not find evidence for fixation of deleterious mutations. We argue that despite high pre-decline genetic diversity, a rapid and range-wide decline combined with the lek mating system, and life-history traits of kākāpō contributed to a rapid loss of genetic diversity following severe population declines.
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19
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Cole TL, Wood JR. The ancient DNA revolution: the latest era in unearthing New Zealand’s faunal history. NEW ZEALAND JOURNAL OF ZOOLOGY 2017. [DOI: 10.1080/03014223.2017.1376690] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Theresa L. Cole
- Department of Zoology, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
- Long Term Ecology Lab, Landcare Research, Lincoln, New Zealand
| | - Jamie R. Wood
- Long Term Ecology Lab, Landcare Research, Lincoln, New Zealand
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20
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Allendorf FW. Genetics and the conservation of natural populations: allozymes to genomes. Mol Ecol 2017; 26:420-430. [DOI: 10.1111/mec.13948] [Citation(s) in RCA: 180] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2016] [Accepted: 11/28/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Fred W. Allendorf
- Division of Biological Sciences University of Montana Missoula MT 59812 USA
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