Health impacts of poor water quality on an endangered shorebird breeding programme in Aotearoa New Zealand

CASE HISTORY

Two clusters of mortality among endangered tūturuatu/tchūriwat'/shore plover (Thinornis novaeseelandiae) have occurred at captive breeding facilities around New Zealand in recent years. In the first, four chicks died at Pūkaha National Wildlife Centre (Mount Bruce, NZ) in February 2016, and in the second five adult birds at the Cape Sanctuary (Cape Kidnappers, NZ) died in 2022.

CLINICAL FINDINGS

In 2016, four chicks were noted to become weak, have increased vocalisations and closed eyes prior to death. The remaining chicks were treated for 5 days with amoxycillin/clavulanate orally twice daily. Water containers and brooders were cleaned and disinfected with chlorhexidine. No further mortality was seen.In the 2022 cluster, three adult breeding birds died acutely and five others showed inappetence, weight loss and diarrhoea approximately 10 days after heavy rains flooded the local river. The five birds were treated with amoxycillin/clavulanate orally twice daily and oral fluids for 5 days. Two birds died and three survived. No breeding occurred in the aviaries in the following season.

PATHOLOGICAL FINDINGS

In 2016, the chicks showed pulmonary changes ranging from congestion and oedema to heterophilic inflammation consistent with septicaemia.In 2022, the adult birds showed proliferation of bacteria in the distal small intestine associated with mucosal ulceration and heterophilic infiltration. Acid-fast staining of the caecal contents in one bird showed organisms consistent with Cryptosporidium spp.

LABORATORY FINDINGS

Aerobic bacterial cultures of the lung and liver of two affected chicks carried out in 2016 showed heavy growth of Plesiomonas shigelloides. The same organism was cultured from water trays and holding tanks containing water boatmen (Sigara arguta) on which the chicks were fed.In 2022, cultures from the livers of three dead birds each showed a mixed bacterial growth with differing dominant organisms (Aeromonas sobria, Hafnia alvei, Citrobacter freundii and an Enterococcus sp.). PCR and sequencing confirmed Cryptosporidium parvum in the caecum of one bird. Fresh faeces from 24 breeding birds from the captive breeding facilities were negative by PCR for Cryptosporidium spp.The captive breeding facilities obtain water for the aviaries and aquatic invertebrates to feed to the chicks from local freshwater sources. Water quality testing at the Cape Sanctuary revealed concentrations of faecal indicator bacteria in excess of safe drinking water guidelines, with peaks following heavy rainfall.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE

Fluctuations in water quality associated with mammalian faecal bacteria can adversely affect bird health and impact on captive rearing of endangered wildlife.

A retrospective study of native wild birds and reptiles admitted to three New Zealand wildlife hospitals due to predation by cats

AIMS

To investigate the types of wildlife affected and outcomes of hospitalisation for native wild birds and reptiles admitted to three wildlife hospitals in New Zealand following predation by cats.

METHODS

We reviewed hospital records of three wildlife hospitals (Wildbase Hospital (WBH) in Palmerston North; The Wildlife Hospital - Dunedin (DWH); and The Nest Te Kōhanga (TNTK) in Wellington) for cases of native species with a submission history or diagnosis of predation by cats over the period 2006-2022. Frequency analysis and cross-tabulation of the data were carried out using the factors wildlife hospital, animal order, species, and case outcome.

RESULTS

Native wildlife (n = 639) presented following predation by cats to the three wildlife hospitals comprised 598 (93.6%) birds from 31 species and 41 (6.4%) reptiles from eight species. The mortality rate of these patients combined was 61.8% (395/639), with the other 38.2% (244/639) being released from hospital to rehabilitation facilities, released to the wild, or, for a small number, put into permanent captive placements. The most common species of birds admitted due to predation by cats were tūī (Prosthemadera novaeseelandiae; n = 173), silvereyes (Zosterops lateralis; n = 142), sacred kingfishers (Todiramphus sanctus; n = 100) and kererū (Hemiphaga novaeseelandiae; n = 70). There was an overall trend to increasing numbers of wildlife admitted for predation by cats over the period of this review, but the different operating periods of the three hospitals should be considered. Each of the three hospitals saw a different mix of species, with Wellington's TNTK seeing the widest diversity of species affected.

CONCLUSIONS

Predation by cats was a common cause of native birds and reptiles being admitted to all three wildlife hospitals and a diversity of urban and rural wildlife were affected.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE

Predation by cats causes significant mortality in wildlife patients admitted to wildlife hospitals despite best current treatment. Cat management strategies in Aotearoa New Zealand should consider the welfare and health of wildlife.

Cardiac morphology of North Island brown kiwi (Apteryx mantelli)

AIMS

To investigate the cardiac anatomy of North Island brown kiwi (Apteryx mantelli) through heart morphometric parameters measured at post-mortem examination.

METHODS

Morphometric cardiac parameters were established at post-mortem examination of 20 North Island brown kiwi. Birds were classified by gender and age (chicks vs. adults). Measurements included: body mass, heart mass, sternal length, midpoint thickness of left ventricular free wall, midpoint thickness of right ventricular free wall and ratios of heart mass to body mass, left ventricular length to sternal length, right ventricular length to sternal length, length of left ventricle to right ventricle, interventricular septal thickness relative to the sternal length and interventricular septal thickness relative to the left ventricular length. Unadjusted estimates of the median difference and their 95% CI were then reported at each age and sex for all the cardiac morphometric parameters and their ratios.

RESULTS

The small sample size led to wide 95% CI for the median difference between gender and age for the cardiac morphometric measurements. Nevertheless, between adult female and male kiwi, the estimated population median differences for heart mass (2.2 (95% CI = -2.9-5.6) g), length (1.2 (95% CI = -2.2-5.6) mm), width (6.1 (95% CI = -1.0-8.2) mm), left ventricular free wall length (5.5 (95% CI = -0.5-8.8) mm) and right ventricular free wall length (2.6 (95% CI = -3.7-6.9) mm) were established. In adult North Island brown kiwi, the heart mass is 0.8 (95% CI = 0.7-0.8)% of the body mass.

CONCLUSIONS

The precision of the differences noted in heart measurements recorded between male and female kiwi at each age was limited by the low sample size available for this study. This led to wide CI and an inability to adjust differences observed for gender by differences in other confounders such as body size. With this caveat, there is weak evidence that adult female kiwi have a larger heart size and mass than the adult males.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE

These results can be used to improve the diagnosis of cardiac disease in kiwi at post-mortem examination and aid in interpretation of the results of echocardiography in live birds for the antemortem diagnosis of cardiac disorders.

Surgical repair of a meningoencephalocoele in a kākāpō (Strigops habroptilus)

CASE HISTORY

A kākāpō (Strigops habroptilus) chick hatched on an off-shore island of New Zealand with a small white mass protruding through the cranial skin of the head. The chick's growth followed a normal pattern for kākāpō but at 3 weeks of age the cranium mass was non-reducible and fixed in place and the chick was removed from the island for diagnostic imaging and hand-rearing.

CLINICAL FINDINGS AND TREATMENT

A computed tomography (CT) examination revealed a full-thickness circular defect in the central cranium with suspected herniation of brain and dura. Surgery was performed at 37 days of age, and the herniated dura was dissected from the open fontanelle. Attempts to reduce the herniated tissue were unsuccessful, so the herniated dura and cortex were clamped and resected. The dura was closed and the periosteum of the skull was scarified and monofilament polypropylene mesh was secured tautly over the fontanelle. The mesh graft was infused with autologous bone marrow harvested from the ulna in an attempt to stimulate osteogenesis in the mesh repair. The skin flap was then closed. Post-operative recovery and healing were without complication. A CT examination 4 weeks after surgery showed no recurrence of the hernia, and a composite of mesh and scar over the open fontanelle which had reduced in diameter. The chick was released back onto an off-shore island with a radio transmitter and it continues to be monitored regularly.

PATHOLOGICAL FINDINGS

The tissue resected at surgery consisted of a cylindrical core of cerebral parenchyma overlain by a mildly hyperplastic epidermis, and large amounts of oedematous fibrovascular tissue arising from the leptomeninges.

DIAGNOSIS

Rostral parietal meningoencephalocoele.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE

This is the first report of successful surgical resolution of a meningoencephalocoele in any bird. Techniques from human neurosurgery were adapted for the unique anatomical features of the avian skull. The risks of the procedure included increased intra-cranial pressure resulting in anaesthetic complications or death, cerebrospinal fluid leakage, meningitis or recurrence of the meningoencephalocoele. In the longer term, there was a risk of developmental deficits in cognition or behaviour. None of these complications eventuated in the short to medium term, probably due to the small size of the meningoencephalocoele.

Prevalence and characterisation of wounds in sheep attributed to attacks by kea (Nestor notabilis) on high country farms in New Zealand

Aims: To characterise and classify wounds in sheep suspected to have been caused by attacks by kea (Nestor notabilis) (kea strike), and to report the prevalence of these wounds on five high country farms in the South Island of New Zealand.Methods: Data were collected from farms between 28 August 2012 and 20 September 2013. Sheep were examined opportunistically immediately after shearing for signs of wounds caused by kea. The age and sex of sheep were also recorded. Wounds were measured and characterised as recent, healing, or healed, and the estimated true prevalence was calculated for each farm.Results: Injuries consistent with kea strike wounds were identified in 70/13,978 (0.5%) sheep examined. The estimated true prevalence varied between farms, from 0 (95% CI = 0-0.16) to 1.25 (95% CI = 0.97-1.61)%. Of the 76 wounds identified, 61 (80%) were located in the lumbar region, and 74 (97%) consisted of full-thickness ulceration of the skin, one showed evidence of injury to muscle and one to bone. The median length of the 63 wounds measured was 6 (min 1, max 23.5) cm, and 10/63 (13%) were categorised as recently healed, 47/63 (62%) as healing, and 17/63 (22%) as recent wounds.Conclusions: The results of this study show that kea strike on sheep was occurring at a low prevalence on the high country farms surveyed. The wounds identified were survivable, but the welfare impact of kea strike on sheep should be considered in balance with the conservation status of kea. There was clear variation in the prevalence of wounds attributed to kea strike between the farms but we were not able to identify the risk factors contributing to these differences. Future studies of kea strike should examine variables such as altitude, local kea density and distribution, and differences in kea strike management and husbandry practices, and should include high country farms without a history of kea strike.

Thermal burns of the spectacle associated with supplementary heating in native New Zealand geckos

Case history: Gradual onset of ocular opacity was observed in three gold-striped geckos (Woodworthia chrysosiretica), and five Pacific geckos (Dactylocnemis pacificus) held in two adjacent terrariums in a zoological institution located in the North Island of New Zealand. Ultraviolet light and heat had been provided for the previous 3-4 years by a fluorescent bulb, but in the last 4 weeks of winter a ceramic heat bulb had been added, situated 10 cm above the upper mesh of the cageClinical findings: All eight geckos presented with mostly bilateral lesions of varying severity confined to the central or upper quadrant of the spectacles. These lesions ranged from variable areas of opacity within the stroma of the spectacle to similarly distributed ulcers of the surface epithelium of both spectacles. The spectacle lesions in the Pacific geckos responded well to treatment with topical combined antimicrobial therapy, within 18-29 days. The gold-striped geckos suffered complications including dysecdysis, severe spectacle ulceration and perforation, mycotic spectaculitis, and widespread mycotic dermatitis resulting in death or leading to euthanasia.Pathological findings: In the three gold-striped geckos, there were extensive areas of deep ulceration and replacement of the spectacle with a thick serocellular crust containing large numbers of fungal elements. The affected areas of the stroma were expanded by large deposits of proteinaceous and mucinous material, pyknotic cellular debris and moderate numbers of heterophils and macrophages as well as infiltrating fungal hyphae.Diagnosis: Mycotic spectaculitis with ulceration and perforation, and disseminated mycotic dermatitis likely secondary to thermal burns.Clinical relevance: This is the first report of thermal burns of the spectacle in any reptile. There was species variation in the burn severity with gold-striped geckos showing more severe lesions, possibly due to a mix of behavioural and anatomical factors. The thermal burns to the spectacles in three cases were complicated by delayed healing, perforation, dysecdysis and severe mycotic infection.

Untargeted metabolic profiling of dogs with a suspected toxic mitochondrial myopathy using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry

'Go Slow myopathy' (GSM) is a suspected toxic myopathy in dogs that primarily occurs in the North Island of New Zealand, and affected dogs usually have a history of consuming meat, offal or bones from wild pigs (including previously frozen and/or cooked meat). Previous epidemiological and pathological studies on GSM have demonstrated that changes in mitochondrial structure and function are most likely caused by an environmental toxin that dogs are exposed to through the ingestion of wild pig. The disease has clinical, histological and biochemical similarities to poisoning in people and animals from the plant Ageratina altissima (white snakeroot). Aqueous and lipid extracts were prepared from liver samples of 24 clinically normal dogs and 15 dogs with GSM for untargeted liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. Group-wise comparisons of mass spectral data revealed 38 features that were significantly different (FDR<0.05) between normal dogs and those with GSM in aqueous extracts, and 316 significantly different features in lipid extracts. No definitive cause of the myopathy was identified, but alkaloids derived from several plant species were among the possible identities of features that were more abundant in liver samples from affected dogs compared to normal dogs. Mass spectral data also revealed that dogs with GSM have reduced hepatic phospholipid and sphingolipid concentrations relative to normal dogs. In addition, affected dogs had changes in the abundance of kynurenic acid, various dicarboxylic acids and N-acetylated branch chain amino acids, suggestive of mitochondrial dysfunction.

Captive husbandry and veterinary care of seabirds during the MV Rena oil spill response

Abstract ContextSeabirds were the most common taxa captured alive as part of the oiled wildlife response to the grounding of the container vessel MV Rena in the Bay of Plenty, New Zealand. AimsTo describe the management of seabirds during the spill response, to outline the common problems encountered and to make recommendations for future responses. MethodsSeabirds were collected from 7 October 2011 to 14 January 2012. They were stabilised and underwent pretreatment, washing and rinsing procedures to remove oil, followed by swimming physiotherapy to restore waterproofing and long-term housing in outdoor aviaries. The birds were released in batches close to the original sites of capture once the wild habitat was cleaned. Key results428 live seabirds were admitted. There were two temporal peaks in admissions associated with the ship grounding and when the ship broke up. The majority of live birds were little penguins (Eudyptula minor; 394/428, 92%). Most seabirds admitted (393/428, 91.8%) were contaminated with heavy fuel oil, with the remainder (35/428, 8.2%) found unoiled but starving and/or exhausted or with injuries. Little penguins had lower mortality during rehabilitation (28/394, 7.1%) than other seabird species combined (27/34, 79.4%). Seabirds in poorer body condition on arrival had higher mortality, and unoiled birds were also more likely to die than oiled birds. In oiled little penguins, the degree of oiling on the plumage ranged from 1 to 100%, but mortality was not significantly associated with the degree of oiling (P=0.887). Pododermatitis affected 66% of little penguins. The most common causes of death (n=45) included weakness, anaemia and hypothermia in oiled seabirds (16/45, 35.6%), and starvation and weakness in unoiled seabirds (14/45, 31.1%). ConclusionsTotal survival to release was 87.1%, primarily influenced by the species involved and the body condition of the birds on arrival. Unoiled seabirds had higher mortality rates than oiled seabirds. ImplicationsOiled wildlife can be rehabilitated with good success, even when heavily oiled, or to a lesser extent, when found in poor body condition. More work is needed to refine species-specific rehabilitation protocols for seabirds, especially for those being admitted in emaciated body condition.

Wildlife diseases in New Zealand: recent findings and future challenges

Our knowledge of diseases in New Zealand wildlife has expanded rapidly in the last two decades. Much of this is due to a greater awareness of disease as a cause of mortality in some of our highly threatened species or as a limiting factor to the successful captive rearing of intensely managed species such as hihi (Notiomystis cincta), kiwi (Apteryx spp.) and kakapo (Strigops habroptilus). An important factor contributing to the increase of our knowledge has been the development of new diagnostic techniques in the fields of molecular biology and immunohistochemistry, particularly for the diagnosis and epidemiology of viral and protozoan diseases. Although New Zealand remains free of serious exotic viruses there has been much work on understanding the taxonomy and epidemiology of local strains of avipox virus and circoviruses. Bacterial diseases such as salmonellosis, erysipelas and tuberculosis have also been closely investigated in wildlife and opportunist mycotic infections such as aspergillosis remain a major problem in many species. Nutritional diseases such as hyperplastic goitre due to iodine deficiency and metabolic bone disease due to Ca:P imbalance have made significant impacts on some captive reared birds, while lead poisoning is a problem in some localities. The increasing use of wildlife translocations to avoid the extinction of threatened species has highlighted the need for improved methods to assess the disease risks inherent in these operations and other intensive conservation management strategies such as creching young animals. We have also become more aware of the likelihood of inbreeding suppression as populations of many species decrease or pass through a genetic bottleneck. Climate change and habitat loss, however, remain the greatest threats to biodiversity and wildlife health worldwide. Temperature changes will affect our wildlife habitats, alter the distribution of disease vectors and wildlife predators, or directly harm threatened species in vulnerable localities.

An epidemiological investigation of an idiopathic myopathy in hunting dogs in New Zealand

AIM

To conduct an epidemiological investigation of an idiopathic myopathy, known as "Go Slow" (GSM), which was initially recognised in dogs used for pig hunting. A secondary aim was to describe the hunting activities, diet and health of dogs used for pig hunting in New Zealand.

METHODS

A retrospective cohort study was conducted between June 2014-June 2017. Cases of GSM in dogs were diagnosed by veterinarians using a combination of clinical history, physical examination findings, serum biochemistry and/or skeletal muscle histology. A telephone interview was conducted with the owner or primary veterinarian to provide information regarding the dog's diet and exercise over the 7 days preceding the onset of clinical signs. In August 2015, a separate online survey of owners of dogs used for pig hunting was conducted to characterise the normal hunting activities, diet and health of these dogs.

RESULTS

A total of 86 cases of GSM were recruited, of which 58 (67%) were pig hunting dogs, 16 (19%) pet dogs and 12 (14%) working farm dogs. Cases were most commonly reported in the upper North Island, and 65 (76 (95% CI=67-85)%) were from the Northland region. Processed commercial dog food had been fed to 93 (95% CI=88-98)% of affected dogs. Ingestion of raw, frozen or cooked wild pig in the preceding week was reported for 76 (88 (95% CI=82-95)%) dogs with the myopathy. In the survey of owners of healthy pig hunting dogs, 203 eligible responses were received; pig hunting was reported to most commonly occur in Northland (20.2%), Waikato (22.3%) and Bay of Plenty (23.2%) regions. Commercial dog food was fed to 172 (85 (95% CI=80-90)%) of the dogs included in this survey, and 55 (27 (95% CI=20-33)%) had eaten wild pig in the preceding week. The most common reported health problem in pig hunting dogs was traumatic wounds.

CONCLUSIONS

Cases of GSM were most commonly recognised in dogs used for pig hunting, but also occurred in pet and working farm dogs. The disease was most frequently reported in the upper North Island of New Zealand and ingestion of wild pig was a consistent feature in cases of this myopathy.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE

To minimise the risk of dogs developing this myopathy, it would seem prudent to avoid feeding any tissues from wild pigs to dogs in areas where the disease is known to occur.

Cases of mortality in little penguins (Eudyptula minor) in New Zealand associated with avian malaria

CASE HISTORY A little penguin (Eudyptula minor) of wild origin, in captivity at Wellington Zoo, became inappetent and lethargic in March 2013. Despite supportive care in the zoo's wildlife hospital, the bird died within 24 hours. CLINICAL FINDINGS Weight loss, dehydration, pale mucous membranes, weakness, increased respiratory effort and biliverdinuria were apparent on physical examination. Microscopic evaluation of blood smears revealed intra-erythrocytic stages of Plasmodium spp. and a regenerative reticulocytosis in the absence of anaemia. PATHOLOGICAL FINDINGS Post-mortem findings included reduced body condition, dehydration, pulmonary congestion and oedema, hepatomegaly, splenomegaly, hydropericardium and subcutaneous oedema. Histopathological findings included protozoal organisms in sections of lung, liver and spleen. A marked, diffuse, sub-acute interstitial histiocytic pneumonia was present. Accumulation of haemosiderin was noted in the Kupffer cells of the liver and in histiocytic-type cells in the spleen. MOLECULAR TESTING DNA was extracted from frozen portions of the liver. Nested PCR results and DNA sequencing confirmed infection of the deceased little penguin with Plasmodium (Huffia) elongatum lineage GRW06. DIAGNOSIS Avian malaria due to Plasmodium (Huffia) elongatum GRW06 RETROSPECTIVE INVESTIGATION A retrospective analysis of 294 little penguin cases in the Massey University post-mortem database revealed three other potential avian malaria cases. Analysis of archived tissues using a nested PCR for Plasmodium spp. followed by DNA sequencing revealed that a little penguin which died at Auckland Zoo was infected with P. elongatum GRW06 and two wild little penguins found dead on New Zealand beaches were infected with P. relictum SGS1 and Plasmodium. sp. lineage LINN1. Therefore, the overall frequency of deaths in little penguins associated with avian malaria was 4/295 (1.36%). CLINICAL RELEVANCE Our results suggest that avian malaria is associated with sporadic mortality in New Zealand's little penguins both in the wild and in captivity, but there is no evidence of mass mortality events due to Plasmodium spp. infection.

Efficacy of anthelmintic treatment in captive-reared black stilts (Himantopus novaezelandiae) released to the wild

AIMS

To assess the efficacy of praziquantel (PZQ) administered to control helminths in captive-reared critically endangered black stilts (Himantopus novaezelandiae) before their release into the wild and determine the effect on their survival shortly after release.

METHODS

Of 77 captive black stilts, 37 were treated with PZQ prior to release into the wild in South Canterbury, New Zealand, in August and September 2007. Faecal helminth egg counts (FEC) were measured before and after anthelmintic treatment, and before and after release to the wild using modified faecal flotation and sedimentation methods. In addition, total helminth counts were determined in 11 of the birds that died following release, as well as four captive and 11 other wild stilts.

RESULTS

The efficacy of PZQ against trematodes was 92% and against Capillaria spp. was 34%. No trematode or Capillaria spp. eggs were detected in treated birds 1 day after treatment, but FEC increased 3-5 days after treatment. There were no differences in the total helminth counts for trematodes, cestodes or Capillaria spp. in control or treated birds (p>0.2). Survival did not differ between treatment groups in the August or September releases (p>0.4). Of control and treated birds, 11/17 (65%) and 8/14 (57%) survived to 31 days, respectively, in the August release, and 16/20 (80%) and 10/15 (67%) survived to 84 days, respectively, in the September release.

CONCLUSION

Overall, the results suggest that PZQ treatment may be an unnecessary cost and the risks of producing anthelmintic resistance, injuring the birds during processing or producing an unnecessary stress response at the time of release could exceed any likely benefits.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE

It is recommended that pre-release anthelmintic treatment of black stilts should be used only if indicated by health screening. Any treatment should incorporate annual efficacy testing to monitor the emergence of anthelmintic resistance.

Baseline hydrocarbon levels in New Zealand coastal and marine avifauna

The external effects of oil on wildlife can be obvious and acute. Internal effects are more difficult to detect and can occur without any external signs. To quantify internal effects from oil ingestion by wildlife during an oil spill, baseline levels of ubiquitous hydrocarbon fractions, like polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), need to be established. With these baseline values the extent of impact from exposure during a spill can be determined. This research represents the first investigation of baseline levels for 22 PAHs in New Zealand coastal and marine avian wildlife. Eighty-five liver samples were tested from 18 species. PAHs were identified in 98% of livers sampled with concentrations ranging from 0 to 1341.6 ng/g lipid wt or on wet wt basis, 0 to 29.5 ng/g. Overall, concentrations were low relative to other globally reported avian values. PAH concentration variability was linked with species foraging habitat and migratory patterns.

Long-term survival and reproductive success of New Zealand sea lions (Phocarctos hookeri) treated with ivermectin as pups

Context Hookworms (Uncinaria spp.) are a common parasite of neonatal fur seals and sea lions around the world and may contribute to decreased pup growth and survival. Removal of these parasitic burdens by administration of the anthelmintic ivermectin has been trialled in New Zealand (NZ) sea lion (Phocarctos hookeri) pups at Sandy Bay, Enderby Island, with initial benefits in growth and survival reported. Long-term effects, however, are not known. Aims To determine the impact of ivermectin treatment administered in the first month of life, on long-term survival and fecundity in a sample of NZ sea lion pups. Methods For a sample of treated and control pups born between 2002 and 2004, resighting data to 2012 was assessed with the Cox proportional hazards analysis to evaluate survival to maturity and fecundity. Key results Sample size was a limiting factor as juvenile survival was very low, but a trend of improved survival was observed in the ivermectin-treated group. Year of birth was significant due to the effects of a bacterial epizootic in the first year of the trial. Reproductive rate was not significantly different between groups. Conclusions The effect of disease and parasitism on the survival of NZ sea lions is apparent, contributing to early pup mortality, with potentially wider-ranging implications for juvenile survival and beyond. Implications Further research is warranted to investigate anthelmintic treatment of NZ sea lion pups as a safe and effective management tool to improve survival and recruitment in declining populations.

Ventral dermatitis in rowi (Apteryx rowi) due to cutaneous larval migrans

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Rowi on a crèche island showed loss of feathers and dermatitis.

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We identified cutaneous larval migrans, possibly due to Trichostrongylus.

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This is the first instance of cutaneous larval migrans to be recorded in birds.

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Fatal complications resulted in the death of eight birds from aspergillosis.

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Intensive conservation management can result in pathways for novel infections.

The rowi is a critically endangered species of kiwi. Young birds on a crèche island showed loss of feathers from the ventral abdomen and a scurfy dermatitis of the abdominal skin and vent margin. Histology of skin biopsies identified cutaneous larval migrans, which was shown by molecular sequencing to be possibly from a species of Trichostrongylus as a cause of ventral dermatitis and occasional ulcerative vent dermatitis. The predisposing factors that led to this disease are suspected to be the novel exposure of the rowi to parasites from seabirds or marine mammals due to the island crèche and the limited management of roost boxes. This is the first instance of cutaneous larval migrans to be recorded in birds. Severe and fatal complications of the investigation resulted in the death of eight birds of aspergillosis and pulmonary complications associated with the use of bark as a substrate in hospital. Another bird died of renal failure during the period of hospitalisation despite oral and intravenous fluid therapy. The initiating cause of the renal failure was not determined. These complications have the potential to undermine the working relationship between wildlife veterinarians and conservation managers. This case highlights that intensive conservation management can result in increased opportunities for novel routes of cross-species pathogen transmission.

Prevalence of and risk factors for coccidiosis in kiwi between 1977 and 2011

AIMS

To identify risk factors associated with coccidiosis in kiwi (Apteryx spp.) using a retrospective analysis of historical data from kiwi examined post-mortem, and to determine the prevalence of coccidial oocysts in the droppings of wild and captive kiwi.

METHODS

Necropsy reports were examined from kiwi submitted to the National Wildlife Mortality Database of New Zealand (Huia) between February 1977 and May 2011. All cases that reported histological examination of one or more hepatic, intestinal or renal tissues were included in the study (n=372). Data collated for analysis included the presence or absence of coccidiosis in one or more tissues, age, host species, habitat, and season of submission. Fisher's exact test was used to determine the association between each independent variable and the prevalence of coccidiosis. Droppings opportunistically collected from wild and captive kiwi between January 2008 and June 2010 were also examined for the presence of coccidial oocysts.

RESULTS

Coccidiosis was evident in 47/372 (12.6%) kiwi examined post-mortem and was considered the primary cause of death in 12/47 (26%) infected cases. Examination of 412 droppings from wild and captive kiwi collected over a 29-month period revealed that 98 (23.8%) samples contained coccidia at the time of sampling. Enteric (n=27) coccidiosis was the most common form diagnosed using histology, followed by renal (n=19) and hepatic (n=11), with splenic (n=2) and pulmonary (n=1) infections infrequently seen. Many kiwi demonstrated infections in multiple tissues. The prevalence of coccidiosis was greater in juvenile kiwi (36/148, 24.3%) than adults (8/133, 6.0%) or chicks (2/83, 2.4%) (p<0.001), although there was no difference in mortality between age groups. Season of year was also associated with overall prevalence (p=0.05), with most cases being diagnosed in the autumn and winter. Coccidiosis was histologically evident in four of five species of kiwi examined, and in all host species upon analysis of droppings. Host species or habitat (captive vs. wild) did not influence the prevalence of disease detected histologically.

CONCLUSIONS

Age and season were the only factors that influenced the prevalence of coccidiosis in kiwi in this study. Coccidiosis was present in all species of kiwi, and this is the first report of coccidiosis in rowi (Apteryx rowi).

Avian polyomavirus identified in a nestling Gouldian finch (Erythrura gouldiae) in New Zealand

Abstract

CASE HISTORY

Four 4-5-month-old nestlings and one adult in a commercial aviary of 53 Gouldian finches (Erythrura gouldiae) died over a 2-week period in July 2000.

PATHOLOGICAL FINDINGS

One nestling was necropsied and showed bronze-tinged skeletal muscles, a swollen liver with haemorrhagic margins and numerous haemorrhages on serosal surfaces. The histological lesions included multifocal hepatic necrosis and haemorrhage associated with the presence of large clear or basophilic intranuclear inclusions in hepatocytes and Kupffer cells suggestive of avian polyomavirus infection. Similar inclusion bodies were present in splenic histiocytes.

MOLECULAR BIOLOGY

DNA was subsequently extracted from archived portions of liver, spleen, gizzard, heart, lung and kidney. A broad spectrum nested PCR was used to detect polyomavirus which sequence analysis confirmed as finch polyomavirus.

DIAGNOSIS

Avian polyomavirus.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE

Avian virus infections such as polyomavirus should be suspected in cases of sudden death in nestlings, particularly in susceptible species such as psittacine and passerine birds. The archiving of tissues from unconfirmed disease outbreaks provides a valuable resource for retrospective investigations.

Captive husbandry and veterinary care of northern New Zealand dotterels (Charadrius obscurus aquilonius) during the CV Rena oil-spill response

Context Oil spills cause significant detrimental impacts on many shoreline species. There is limited information in the scientific literature about the management and response of shorebirds to oil spills. Northern New Zealand dotterels (Charadrius obscurus aquilonius) were pre-emptively captured as part of the oiled wildlife response to the container vessel Rena oil spill, to ensure the survival of a regional population should there be a catastrophic release of oil. Previous attempts to hold dotterels in captivity have resulted in high mortality. Aims To describe the captive husbandry and veterinary management of wild-caught adult dotterels, to outline the common problems encountered, and make recommendations for future captive management. Methods The dotterels were caught by noose mat on beaches at risk of further contamination by oil. Initially, dotterels were kept individually indoors and force-fed until they converted to self-feeding on a diet of an artificial insect analogue, ox heart and mealworms. Once self-feeding, the birds were shifted to individual outdoor aviaries. Key results Sixty dotterels were caught. About half of birds had oil contamination of the legs, nine birds had light oil staining of feathers and only three of these birds required washing. The degree of oiling and washing did not affect survival. Dotterels took a median of 5 days (range 1–15 days) to convert to the captive diet. Common problems encountered in captivity included carpal and beak abrasions (61.7%) and pododermatitis (75%); however, these did not affect survival. Seven birds (11.7%) developed respiratory disease and six of these died from aspergillosis. The incidence of aspergillosis increased with length of time in captivity and was largely refractory to treatment. The 54 surviving birds were released at their capture sites after a median time of 49 days in captivity (with a range of 39–61 days). Conclusions The captive management of the dotterels achieved a 90% survival rate over a period of about 2 months. Deaths were solely due to respiratory aspergillosis, but intensive captive husbandry was required to convert the birds to a captive diet, to minimise traumatic injuries and to manage pododermatitis. Implications Although the captive management of shorebird species as a pre-emptive strategy to minimise the effects of oil spills carries significant costs and risks to the birds, it should be considered in the emergency management of high-priority species.

A cluster of avian malaria cases in a kiwi management programme

AIM

To describe a temporal cluster of avian malaria (Plasmodium spp.) at an Operation Nest Egg™ (ONE) site in Rotorua which caused mortality in a juvenile kiwi and had high population prevalence in brown kiwi (Apteryx mantelli).

METHODS

A 70-day-old wild-born captive brown kiwi was submitted for post-mortem examination to Massey University Wildlife Health Centre. Post-mortem examination and histopathology were used to determine the cause of death. Plasmodium specific PCR analysis was subsequently conducted on tissue samples and 108 individual blood samples from living kiwi from five ONE breeding sites and two rowi kiwi crèches. Positive PCR products were sequenced to identify the Plasmodium spp. isolated. Where possible, blood smear microscopic examination was used to determine the level of parasitaemia in the infected kiwi.

RESULTS

Plasmodium spp. was detected in the kiwi which died and it showed histopathological evidence of disseminated protozoal infection. A high prevalence of Plasmodium was found in blood samples from kiwi concurrently residing at ONE Rotorua by blood smear microscopy (22/32, 68%) and PCR (25/32, 78%). All kiwi with positive blood smears had only a low level of peripheral parasitaemia at the time of sampling. However, 0/17 additional kiwi sampled at Rotorua 3 weeks after the juvenile's death, 0/23 Rotorua juveniles sampled 1 year later and 0/59 kiwi from the five other locations were positive for Plasmodium by these methods. Sequencing analysis revealed a cosmopolitan Plasmodium (Huffia) elongatum lineage in all positive birds.

CONCLUSIONS

This is the first description of an avian malaria (Plasmodium spp.) infection associated with mortality and a high population prevalence in brown kiwi at a ONE site in the 20 years of the programme. The study suggests that this level of infection in a population of kiwi was unusual and provides evidence in support of continued vigilance of disease risks associated with this and other conservation management programmes involving wildlife translocation.

Prevalence of Salmonella spp., and serovars isolated from captive exotic reptiles in New Zealand

AIM

To investigate the prevalence of Salmonella spp. in captive exotic reptile species in New Zealand, and identify the serovars isolated from this population.

METHODS

Cloacal swabs were obtained from 378 captive exotic reptiles, representing 24 species, residing in 25 collections throughout New Zealand between 2008 and 2009. Samples were cultured for Salmonella spp., and suspected colonies were serotyped by the Institute of Environmental Science and Research (ESR).

RESULTS

Forty-three of the 378 (11.4%) reptiles sampled tested positive for Salmonella spp., with 95% CI for the estimated true prevalence being 12-25% in exotic reptiles in this study population. Lizards tested positive for Salmonella spp. more often than chelonians. Agamid lizards tested positive more often than any other family group, with 95% CI for the estimated true prevalence being 56-100%.. Six Salmonella serovars from subspecies I and two from subspecies II were isolated. The serovar most commonly isolated was S. Onderstepoort (30.2%), followed by S. Thompson (20.9%), S. Potsdam (14%), S. Wangata (14%), S. Infantis (11.6%) and S. Eastbourne (2.3%). All of the subspecies I serovars have been previously reported in both reptiles and humans in New Zealand, and include serovars previously associated with disease in humans.

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE

This study showed that Salmonella spp. were commonly carried by exotic reptiles in the study population in New Zealand. Several serovars of Salmonella spp. with known pathogenicity to humans were isolated, including S. Infantis, which is one of the most common serovars isolated from both humans and non-human sources in New Zealand. The limitations of this study included the bias engendered by the need for voluntary involvement in the study, and the non-random sampling design. Based on the serovars identified in this and previous studies, it is recommended native and exotic reptiles be segregated within collections, especially when native reptiles may be used for biodiversity restoration. Veterinarians and reptile keepers are advised to follow hygiene protocols developed to minimise reptile-associated salmonellosis.

A retrospective study of post-mortem examination findings in takahe (Porphyrio hochstetteri)

AIMS

To identify the major diseases or disease processes affecting both captive and wild populations of takahe (Porphyrio hochstetteri) in birds submitted for post-mortem examination between 1992 and 2007, and to survey archived wild dead takahe for the presence of Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae.

METHODS

Reports of 199 post-mortem examinations submitted between 1992 and 2007 were reviewed retrospectively. The reports comprised 56 eggs, 51 chicks up to 6 months of age, 13 sub-adults 6-18 months old, 74 adults and five birds where age was not recorded. Bone marrow flushed from the keel of 34 frozen adult takahe was assayed for the presence of E. rhusiopathiae, using PCR analysis.

RESULTS

Of the eggs examined, 6/56 (11%) had no recorded diagnosis, 24/56 (43%) were infertile and 26/56 (46%) showed embryonic mortality at various stages. Excluding eggs, the cause of death could not be determined in 64/138 (46%) birds with a recorded age that were examined. Contributing factors for the low rate of diagnosis included advanced decomposition of many carcasses, the freezing of some birds prior to pathological investigation, long delays between recovery and submission for post-mortem examination, and variation in the extent of post-mortem examination and ancillary diagnostic testing. Common post-mortem examination findings in chicks included those related to cardiac disease [11/51 (22%)], infectious or inflammatory disease [9/51 (18%)] and trauma [7/51 (14%)]. In adult birds, the most common post-mortem examination findings were due to infectious or inflammatory disease [15/74 (20%)] including septicaemia due to E. rhusiopathiae [3/74 (7%)], followed by degenerative conditions due to diet, age and husbandry [9/74 (12%)]. Bacteria implicated in the causes of death included Escherichia coli, E. rhusiopathiae, Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Only 1/34 (3%) of the frozen carcass examined using PCR was positive for E. rhusiopathiae.

CONCLUSIONS

This study highlights a need for improved recovery, storage and submission of dead takahe for pathological examination; consistency in post-mortem examination, ancillary testing and recording of findings; and finally, regular communication between wildlife pathologists, conservation workers and representatives of Ngai Tahu.

Health screening for a translocation of captive-reared tuatara (Sphenodon punctatus) to an island refuge

AIMS

To screen tuatara undergoing translocation from a captive crèche to an island refuge for evidence of health and known diseases, and apply basic epidemiological techniques to assess the significance of disease test results.

METHODS

Tuatara (n=353) were physically examined and samples were taken from a random selection (n=30) for estimated white cell counts, screening for haemoparasites, and culture for Salmonella, Yersinia, Aeromonas and Campylobacter spp. Direct faecal smears were carried out on-site, and faecal floats were later performed to assess levels of endoparasitism with helminths and protozoa (n=69). Modified Ziehl-Neelsen staining was used to screen faecal smears, and positive specimens were further screened using an immunofluorescence antibody (IFA) test for Cryptosporidium oocysts.

RESULTS

There was no evidence of external parasites on any of the animals examined and only one animal had a gross abnormality. All estimated white cell counts were in the range 2.8- 17.5 x 10(9)/L. No haemoparasites were observed. There were no enteric pathogens cultured, indicating the intestinal carriage of these bacteria in the tuatara was <9.4%. Of the 69 individual faecal samples examined, 12 (17%) had unidentified coccidial oocysts, 21 (30%) had nematode ova of various kinds, and 12 (17%) had intestinal carriage of motile protozoa consistent with Trichomonas spp and another unidentified organism. Nineteen (28%) tuatara had acid-fast oocysts present; however, IFA staining failed to detect any Cryptosporidium oocysts.

CONCLUSIONS

Our understanding of the diversity of gastrointestinal endoparasites affecting tuatara is inadequate as many of the parasite ova seen could not be identified. This is the first record of tuatara as a host for Trichomonas spp of protozoa in the gastrointestinal tract.

Death by chocolate: A fatal problem for an inquisitive wild parrot

CASE HISTORY

An adult male kea (Nestor notabilis) in good body condition was found dead at Aoraki/Mt Cook Village, in the Southern Alps of New Zealand. The bird had previously been involved in behavioural tests of problem-solving ability.

CLINICAL AND PATHOLOGICAL FINDINGS

The bird had substantial subcutaneous and abdominal reserves of fat. The crop contained 20 g of what appeared to be dark chocolate; a conservative estimate of the dose of methylxanthines ingested by the bird was 250 mg/kg theobromine, 20 mg/kg caffeine and 3 mg/kg theophylline. Histopathological examination revealed acute degenerative changes to hepatocytes, renal tubules, and cerebrocortical neurons.

DIAGNOSIS

Acute combination methylxanthine toxicity after opportunistic ingestion of chocolate.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE

This is the first report of the pathological findings of methylxanthine toxicity in a wild parrot, and illustrates the need to ensure that kea are protected from the toxic by-products of human habitation, and the difficulties in ensuring this against a neophilic, inquisitive and innovative parrot.

A survey of the husbandry of captive tuatara (Sphenodon spp.) in relation to factors implicated in nutritional secondary hyperparathyroidism

AIM

To examine selected aspects of the diet and husbandry of captive tuatara (Sphenodon spp.) in New Zealand, in order to develop recommendations on provision of ultraviolet B light and diet, to reduce the incidence of nutritional secondary hyperparathyroidism (NSHP).

METHODS

Information was collected from 18/20 institutions holding tuatara in New Zealand, on the numbers kept, dimensions and type of enclosures, and type of light sources used. Historical information on breeding activity and problems known to be associated with NSHP, and standardised measurements of levels of ultraviolet B light in enclosures were also recorded. Diet samples were collected (n=17) and analysed for Ca, P and vitamin D content.

RESULTS

The intensity of ultraviolet B light was lower where there was a history of previous high, compared with medium or low, risk of NSHP for tuatara kept indoors (p>0.001). Light sources varied significantly in both output of ultraviolet B light (spectral irradiance) at the source, and fractional reduction in electromagnetic fluence with increasing distance from the source. The average exposure to ultraviolet B light of captive tuatara kept indoors was 26.44 (SE 4.29) microW/cm2, and there was significant variation between enclosures, with 4/14 (29%) institutes having no measurable ultraviolet B light present. For tuatara kept outdoors ultraviolet B light at ground level was influenced by weather conditions (p< or =0.007), roofing material (p=0.004), and substrate shading (p=0.003). The Ca:P ratio of dietary samples was 2.3 (SE 1.9), but this included one extreme outlier (32.7). When the outlier was excluded, it was 0.53 (SE 0.16). The levels of vitamin D in the feed samples were below the minimum detectable level of the assay (<20 IU/100 g) for all but one sample (72 IU/100 g) that had been dusted with vitamin/mineral supplement prior to freezing.

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE

The current diet and husbandry of captive tuatara in New Zealand predisposes the animals to NSHP. The ultraviolet B light emitted from commercial light sources dissipates rapidly with increasing distance from the source. Regular direct measurement of ultraviolet B light at substrate level is recommended for indoor enclosures, whereas tuatara kept outdoors should have access to an unshaded basking area through a wire-meshed roof. The Ca:P ratio and concentration of vitamin D of most common food items fed to tuatara is deficient, and reptile vitamin and mineral supplements should be provided by dusting or gut-loading insect food items.

Failure to detect Salmonella species in a population of wild tuatara (Sphenodon punctatus)

AIM

To assess the prevalence of faecal excretion of Salmonella serovars by wild tuatara (Sphenodon punctatus) on Stephens Island, New Zealand.

METHODS

One hundred cloacal swabs obtained as part of health-screening for the translocation of adult tuatara from Stephens Island were subjected to general aerobic culture and enrichment, and cultured specifically for Salmonella spp.

RESULTS

No Salmonella spp were cultured from any of the cloacal samples, which suggests that, at the 95% confidence interval, the maximum prevalence of tuatara in the island population that were shedding Salmonella spp not detected by our sample size was 1.5%. Mixed bacteria were grown from the 70 cloacal swabs cultured aerobically. A predominant organism was evident in 30 cultures, and these were identified as Hafnia alvei type 1 (n=16) and type 2 (n=7), Corynebacterium spp (n=4), Klebsiella oxytoca (n=2), and Moraxella spp (n=1).

CONCLUSIONS

The absence of intestinal carriage of Salmonella spp by the tuatara sampled in this study may indicate either lack of exposure, or an innate resistance to intestinal colonisation in tuatara. The significance of the other bacteria cultured as potential pathogens to the tuatara and as zoonotic risks is also uncertain. Wildlife managers should screen translocated reptiles for Salmonella spp, and thereby avoid exposing wild and managed populations to infection.

Serratospiculosis in a New Zealand Falcon (Falco novaeseelandiae)

CASE HISTORY

An adult New Zealand falcon was presented with metacarpal fractures in the left wing.

CLINICAL FINDINGS

In addition to the fractures, radiographs revealed an area of opacity in the air sacs. A few days after hospitalisation and initiation of treatment of the fractures, the bird developed signs of respiratory disease; the area of opacity was found to have increased in size and density. Treatment with antibiotics and nebulisation was commenced; the bird initially responded but respiratory signs subsequently worsened and the bird died. At necropsy, air sacculitis and bronchopneumonia were associated with numerous nematodes in the air sacs, which were morphologically consistent with Serratospiculum guttatum.

DIAGNOSIS

Serratospiculosis

CLINICAL RELEVANCE

The discovery of this parasite and the associated disease for the first time in New Zealand indicates that it should be considered in the differential diagnosis of respiratory disease in falcons and possibly other raptors in New Zealand.

Erysipelas in the critically endangered kakapo (Strigops habroptilus)

This paper describes the effect of a disease outbreak on the success of a translocation for conservation management in a critically endangered species. Three juvenile kakapo from a group of 19 translocated birds died within 72 h of transport between New Zealand offshore islands. Clinical findings, gross necropsy changes, cytology, histopathology and bacterial culture confirmed systemic disease caused by Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae. On the island from which the kakapo were sourced, positive cultures of E. rhusiopathiae were obtained from the medulla of the ulna from 10 out of 15 seabird carcasses examined, suggesting that this could be the source of infection for the kakapo. Immediately after the diagnosis, all of the translocated birds were re-captured and treated with antibiotics. A vaccination programme has commenced using a commercial killed bacterin developed for turkeys. The disease outbreak has had costly implications for the population and conservation management of the species. This is the first report of erysipelas in wild parrots, and the first report of the management of erysipelas in a critically endangered wild population of birds.

Mycotic dermatitis with digital gangrene and osteomyelitis, and protozoal intestinal parasitism in Marlborough green geckos (Naultinus manukanus)

CASE HISTORY

Thirty adult Marlborough green geckos (Naultinus manukanus) were collected from Stephens Island and held over winter, prior to their translocation. Five adult geckos developed skin lesions after husbandry changes affected the humidity of their enclosures. Two geckos underwent ecdysis and recovered. One animal died and two others progressively worsened and were presented for treatment.

CLINICAL AND PATHOLOGICAL FINDINGS

The geckos were in poor body condition and had multiple black powdery lesions and solitary raised white nodules on their skin. Both geckos died despite topical and supportive treatment. Histopathology showed the skin nodules contained branching non-septate hyphae infiltrating necrotic epidermal tissue, and associated dermal inflammation. There was necrosis of several digits and mycotic osteomyelitis. Mucor ramosissimus was cultured from skin biopsies from each animal. Large numbers of motile protozoa, resembling Trichomonas, and another unidentifiable, were recovered from fresh faecal smears, and Nyctotherus sp protozoa were present in the lumen of the intestine of one animal post mortem.

DIAGNOSIS

Mycotic dermatitis with digital gangrene and osteomyelitis due to Mucor ramosissimus, and enteric protozoal parasitism with Trichomonas sp and Nyctotherus sp.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE

The clinical course and pathological findings of mycotic dermatitis in two Marlborough green geckos involved in a wildlife translocation in New Zealand are reported, and also the first record of the Marlborough green gecko as a host for the enteric protozoa Trichomonas sp and Nyctotherus sp.

Fatal levamisole toxicosis of captive kiwi (Apteryx mantelli)

CASE HISTORY

Nine of 24 captive kiwi treated with oral levamisole at a dose between 25-43 mg/kg showed signs of respiratory distress. Six died within 4 h of treatment and the remaining three made a full recovery within 24 h.

CLINICAL AND PATHOLOGICAL FINDINGS

Within 3-4 h of treatment, the affected birds had an elevated respiratory rate, mucoid nasal discharge and rapidly became comatose. Post mortem examination revealed accumulation of thick mucus in the oral cavity and trachea. There was severe pulmonary congestion and oedema and early bronchopneumonia in the lungs of five of the birds. In two birds, there was acute hepatic degeneration and necrosis and one bird had acute pancreatic degeneration and necrosis.

DIAGNOSIS

Acute levamisole toxicity.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE

Kiwi were acutely sensitive to levamisole toxicity at doses that are well within the safe range for domestic poultry. Levamisole should not be used as an anthelmintic in kiwi.

Bacterial sinusitis as a cause of beak deformity in an Antipodes Island parakeet(Cyanoramphus unicolor)

CASE HISTORY

From 26 days of age, an Antipodes Island parakeet (Cyanoramphus unicolor) was noted to have a severe beak deformity and reduced bodyweight gain compared to its nest mate. The bird was euthanised at 43 days of age.

CLINICAL AND PATHOLOGICAL FINDINGS

The beak abnormality consisted of distortion of the right nares and severe shortening resulting in deviation of the upper maxilla to the right and cranially. On sectioning the head, copious mucoid material was found in the infraorbital sinus and the bony sinus architecture was disrupted. Histopathological examination of the infraorbital sinuses revealed a large focus of chronic but active inflammation, bony lysis on the right side and pockets of a mixed population of bacteria.

DIAGNOSIS

Severe beak deformity, likely secondary to bacterial sinusitis.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE

The case illustrates the need to look for underlying aetiologies to beak malformation, particularly in young parrots.

KEYWORDS

Sinusitis, beak malformation, Antipodes Island parakeet, parrot, beak growth.