Chlorella saccharophila cytochrome f and its involvement in the heat shock response

Effects of sulfamonomethoxine and trimethoprim co-exposures at different environmentally relevant concentrations on microalgal growth and nutrient assimilation

In aquaculture around the world, sulfamonomethoxine (SMM), a long-acting antibiotic that harms microalgae, is widely employed in combination with trimethoprim (TMP), a synergist. However, their combined toxicity to microalgae under long-term exposures at environmentally relevant concentrations remains poorly understood. Therefore, we studied the effects of SMM single-exposures and co-exposures (SMM:TMP=5:1) at concentrations of 5 μg/L and 500 μg/L on Chlorella pyrenoidosa within one aquacultural drainage cycle (15 days). Photosynthetic activity and N assimilating enzyme activities were employed to evaluate microalgal nutrient assimilation. Oxidative stress and flow cytometry analysis for microalgal proliferation and death jointly revealed mechanisms of inhibition and subsequent self-adaptation. Results showed that exposures at 5 μg/L significantly inhibited microalgal nutrient assimilation and induced oxidative stress on day 7, with a recovery to levels comparable to the control by day 15. This self-adaptation and over 95 % removal of antibiotics jointly contributed to promoting microalgal growth and proliferation while reducing membrane-damaged cells. Under 500 μg/L SMM single-exposure, microalgae self-adapted to interferences on nutrient assimilation, maintaining unaffected growth and proliferation. However, over 60 % of SMM remained, leading to sustained oxidative stress and apoptosis. Remarkably, under 500 μg/L SMM-TMP co-exposure, the synergistic toxicity of SMM and TMP significantly impaired microalgal nutrient assimilation, reducing the degradation efficiency of SMM to about 20 %. Consequently, microalgal growth and proliferation were markedly inhibited, with rates of 9.15 % and 17.7 %, respectively, and a 1.36-fold increase in the proportion of cells with damaged membranes was observed. Sustained and severe oxidative stress was identified as the primary cause of these adverse effects. These findings shed light on the potential impacts of antibiotic mixtures at environmental concentrations on microalgae, facilitating responsible evaluation of the ecological risks of antibiotics in aquaculture ponds.

The regulation of Cytochrome f by mannose treatment in broccoli and its relationship with programmed cell death in tobacco BY-2 cells

It is well established that programmed cell death (PCD) occurred in broccoli during postharvest senescence, but no studies have been conducted on the regulation of broccoli cytochrome f by mannose treatment and its relationship with PCD. In this study, we treated broccoli buds with mannose to investigate the changes in color, total chlorophyll content, gene expression related to chlorophyll metabolism, chloroplast structure, and cytochrome f determination during postharvest storage. In addition, to investigate the effect of cytochrome f on PCD, we extracted cytochrome f from broccoli and treated Nicotiana tabacum L. cv Bright Yellow 2 (BY-2) cells with extracted cytochrome f from broccoli at various concentrations. The results showed that cytochrome f can induce PCD in tobacco BY-2 cells, as evidenced by altered cell morphology, nuclear chromatin disintegration, DNA degradation, decreased cell viability, and increased caspase-3-like protease production. Taken together, our study indicated that mannose could effectively delay senescence of postharvest broccoli by inhibiting the expression of gene encoding cytochrome f which could induce PCD.

Paraquat induces different programmed cell death patterns in Microcystis aeruginosa and Chlorella luteoviridis

Although programmed cell death (PCD) has been reported in phytoplankton, knowledge of the characterization of the PCD pathway and cascade process in different phytoplankton species is still limited. In this study, PCD progression in cyanobacterium Microcystis aeruginosa and green algae Chlorella luteoviridis by paraquat-induced oxidative stress was monitored. The results showed that paraquat-induced PCD in the two species belonged to the caspase-dependent pathway. Dose- and time-dependent PCD characteristics in the two strains under paraquat included the increase in caspase-like activity, DNA fragmentation, and chromatin condensation. However, the signaling pathway and cascade events of PCD in M. aeruginosa and C. luteoviridis differed. In M. aeruginosa, the free Ca²⁺ concentration was rapidly increased at 8 h, followed by a significant elevation of the reactive oxygen species (ROS) level at 24 h, and eventual cell death. In C. luteoviridis, the mitochondrial apoptosis pathway, revealed by the depolarization of the mitochondrial membrane potential at 1 h and increase in the ROS level and caspase-like activity at 8 h, might contribute to cell death. In addition, the dynamics of ROS levels and metacaspase activity were synchronized, suggesting that paraquat-triggered PCD was ROS-mediated in both M. aeruginosa and C. luteoviridis. These results provide insights into PCD patterns in prokaryotic cyanobacteria and eukaryotic green algae under similar stress.

The wild plant Gnaphalium lavandulifolium as a sentinel for biomonitoring the effects of environmental heavy metals in the metropolitan area of México Valley

Biomonitoring is a valuable tool for assessing the presence and effects of air pollutants such as heavy metals (HM); due to their toxicity and stability, these compounds can affect human health and the balance of ecosystems. To assess its potential as a sentinel organism of HM pollution, the wild plant Gnaphalium lavandulifolium was exposed to four sites in the metropolitan area of México Valley (MAMV): Altzomoni (ALT) Coyoacán (COY), Ecatepec (ECA), and Tlalnepantla (TLA) during 2, 4, and 8 weeks, between October and November 2019. Control plants remained under controlled conditions. The chemical analysis determined twelve HM (Al, As, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb, V, and Zn) in the leaves. Macroscopic damage to the leaves, later determined in semi-thin sections under light microscopy, lead to a finer analysis. Transmission electron microscope (TEM) showed major structural changes: chromatin condensation, protoplast shrinkage, cytoplasm vacuolization, cell wall thinning, decreased number and size of starch grains, and plastoglobules in chloroplasts. All these characteristics of stress-induced programed cell death (sPCD) were related to the significant increase of toxic HM in the leaves of the exposed plants compared to the control (p < 0.05). Immunohistochemistry revealed a significant amount of proteases with caspase 3-like activity in ECA and TLA samples during long exposure times. Ultrastructural changes and sPCD features detected confirmed the usefulness of G. lavandulifolium as a good biomonitor of HM contamination. They supported the possibility of considering subcellular changes as markers of abiotic stress conditions in plants.

Plasticity across levels: relating epigenomic, transcriptomic, and phenotypic responses to osmotic stress in a halotolerant microalga

Phenotypic plasticity, the ability of a given genotype to produce alternative phenotypes in response to its environment of development, is an important mechanism for coping with variable environments. While the mechanisms underlying phenotypic plasticity are diverse, their relative contributions need to be investigated quantitatively to better understand the evolvability of plasticity across biological levels. This requires relating plastic responses of the epigenome, transcriptome, and organismal phenotype, and investigating how they vary with the genotype. Here we carried out this approach for responses to osmotic stress in Dunaliella salina, a green microalga that is a model organism for salinity tolerance. We compared two strains that show markedly different demographic responses to osmotic stress, and showed that these phenotypic responses involve strain‐ and environment‐specific variation in gene expression levels, but a relative low—albeit significant—effect of strain × environment interaction. We also found an important genotype effect on the genome‐wide methylation pattern, but little contribution from environmental conditions to the latter. However, we did detect a significant marginal effect of epigenetic variation on gene expression, beyond the influence of genetic differences on epigenetic state, and we showed that hypomethylated regions are correlated with higher gene expression. Our results indicate that epigenetic mechanisms are either not involved in the rapid plastic response to environmental change in this species, or involve only few changes in trans that are sufficient to trigger concerted changes in the expression of many genes, and phenotypic responses by multiple traits.

Leaf Senescence: The Chloroplast Connection Comes of Age

Leaf senescence is a developmental process critical for plant fitness, which involves genetically controlled cell death and ordered disassembly of macromolecules for reallocating nutrients to juvenile and reproductive organs. While natural leaf senescence is primarily associated with aging, it can also be induced by environmental and nutritional inputs including biotic and abiotic stresses, darkness, phytohormones and oxidants. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are a common thread in stress-dependent cell death and also increase during leaf senescence. Involvement of chloroplast redox chemistry (including ROS propagation) in modulating cell death is well supported, with photosynthesis playing a crucial role in providing redox-based signals to this process. While chloroplast contribution to senescence received less attention, recent findings indicate that changes in the redox poise of these organelles strongly affect senescence timing and progress. In this review, the involvement of chloroplasts in leaf senescence execution is critically assessed in relation to available evidence and the role played by environmental and developmental cues such as stress and phytohormones. The collected results indicate that chloroplasts could cooperate with other redox sources (e.g., mitochondria) and signaling molecules to initiate the committed steps of leaf senescence for a best use of the recycled nutrients in plant reproduction.

Acidification-induced cellular changes in Symbiodinium isolated from Mussismilia braziliensis

Dinoflagellates from the Symbiodiniaceae family and corals have an ecologically important endosymbiotic relationship. Scleractinian corals cannot survive for long periods without their symbionts. These algae, also known as zooxanthellae, on the other hand, thrives outside the coral cells. The free-living populations of zooxanthellae are essential for the resilience of the coral to environmental stressors such as temperature anomalies and ocean acidification. Yet, little is known about how ocean acidification may affect the free-living zooxanthellae. In this study we aimed to test morphological, physiological and biochemical responses of zooxanthellae from the Symbiodinium genus isolated from the coral Mussismilia braziliensis, endemic to the Brazilian coast, to acidification led by increased atmospheric CO₂. We tested whether photosynthetic yield, cell ultrastructure, cell density and lipid profile would change after up to 16 days of exposure to pH 7.5 in an atmospheric pCO₂ of 1633 μatm. Photosynthetic yield and cell density were negatively affected and chloroplasts showed vesiculated thylakoids, indicating morphological damage. Moreover, Symbiodinium fatty acid profile drastically changed in acidified condition, showing lower polyunsaturated fatty acids and higher saturated fatty acids contents, when compared to the control, non-acidified condition. These results show that seawater acidification as an only stressor causes significant changes in the physiology, biochemistry and ultrastructure of free-living Symbiodinium.

Licensed to Kill: Mitochondria, Chloroplasts, and Cell Death

Programmed cell death (PCD) is crucial in plant organogenesis and survival. In this review the involvement of mitochondria and chloroplasts in PCD execution is critically assessed. Recent findings support a central role for mitochondria in PCD, with newly identified components of the mitochondrial electron transport chain (mETC), FOF1 ATP synthase, cardiolipins, and ATPase AtOM66. While chloroplasts received less attention, their contribution to PCD is well supported, suggesting that they possibly contribute by producing reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the presence of light or even contribute through cytochrome f release. Finally we discuss two working models where mitochondria and chloroplasts could cooperatively execute PCD: mitochondria initiate the commitment steps and recruit chloroplasts for swift execution or, alternatively, mitochondria and chloroplasts could operate in parallel.

Genetic and Physical Interaction Studies Reveal Functional Similarities between ALBINO3 and ALBINO4 in Arabidopsis

ALBINO3 (ALB3) is a well-known component of a thylakoid protein-targeting complex that interacts with the chloroplast signal recognition particle (cpSRP) and the cpSRP receptor, chloroplast filamentous temperature-sensitive Y (cpFtsY). Its protein-inserting function has been established mainly for light-harvesting complex proteins, which first interact with the unique chloroplast cpSRP43 component and then are delivered to the ALB3 integrase by a GTP-dependent cpSRP-cpFtsY interaction. In Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana), a subsequently discovered ALB3 homolog, ALB4, has been proposed to be involved not in light-harvesting complex protein targeting, but instead in the stabilization of the ATP synthase complex. Here, however, we show that ALB3 and ALB4 share significant functional overlap, and that both proteins are required for the efficient insertion of cytochrome f and potentially other subunits of pigment-bearing protein complexes. Genetic and physical interactions between ALB4 and ALB3, and physical interactions between ALB4 and cpSRP, suggest that the two ALB proteins may engage similar sets of interactors for their specific functions. We propose that ALB4 optimizes the insertion of thylakoid proteins by participating in the ALB3-cpSRP pathway for certain substrates (e.g. cytochrome f and the Rieske protein). Although ALB4 has clearly diverged from ALB3 in relation to the partner-recruiting C-terminal domain, our analysis suggests that one putative cpSRP-binding motif has not been entirely lost.

Acute effects of a prooxidant herbicide on the microalga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii: Screening cytotoxicity and genotoxicity endpoints

Since recent evidence has demonstrated that many types of chemicals exhibit oxidative and/or genotoxic potential on living organisms, reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation and DNA damage are currently the best accepted paradigms to assess the potential hazardous biological effects of a wide range of contaminants. The goal of this study was to evaluate the sensitivity of different cytotoxicity and genotoxicity responses on the model microalga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii exposed to the prooxidant herbicide paraquat. In addition to the growth endpoint, cell viability, mitochondrial membrane potential and presence of reactive oxygen species (ROS) were assayed as potential markers of cytotoxicity using flow cytometry (FCM). To study the effects of paraquat on C. reinhardtii DNA, several genotoxicity approaches were implemented for the first time in an ecotoxicological study on microalgae. Oxidative DNA base damage was analysed by measuring the oxidative DNA lesion 8-OHdG by FCM. DNA fragmentation was analysed by different methods: comet assay, and cell cycle analysis by FCM, with a particular focus on the presence of subG1-nuclei. Finally, effects on morphology of nuclei were monitored through DAPI staining. The evaluation of these endpoints showed that several physiological and biochemical parameters reacted to oxidative stress disturbances with greater sensitivity than integrative parameters such as growth rates or cell viability. The experiments revealed concentration-dependent cytotoxicity (ROS formation, depolarization of mitochondrial membrane), genotoxicity (oxidative DNA damage, DNA strand breakage, alterations in nuclear morphology), and cell cycle disturbances (subG1-nuclei, decrease of 4N population) in paraquat-treated cells. Overall, the genotoxicity results indicate that the production of ROS caused by exposure to paraquat induces oxidative DNA damage followed by DNA single- and double-strand breaks and cell cycle alterations, possibly leading to apoptosis in C. reinhardtii cells. This is supported by the observation of typical hallmarks of apoptosis, such as mitochondrial membrane depolarization, alterations in nuclear morphology and subG1 nuclei in cells exposed to the highest assayed concentrations. To our knowledge, this is the first study that provides a comprehensive analysis of oxidative DNA base damage in unicellular algal cells exposed to a prooxidant pollutant, as well as of its possible relation with other physiological effects. These results reinforce the need for additional studies on the genotoxicity of environmental pollutants on ecologically relevant organisms such as microalgae that can provide a promising basis for the characterization of potential pollutant hazards in the aquatic environment.

Programmed cell death in plants: A chloroplastic connection

Programmed cell death (PCD) is an integral cellular program by which targeted cells culminate to demise under certain developmental and pathological conditions. It is essential for controlling cell number, removing unwanted diseased or damaged cells and maintaining the cellular homeostasis. The details of PCD process has been very well elucidated and characterized in animals but similar understanding of the process in plants has not been achieved rather the field is still in its infancy that sees some sporadic reports every now and then. The plants have 2 energy generating sub-cellular organelles- mitochondria and chloroplasts unlike animals that just have mitochondria. The presence of chloroplast as an additional energy transducing and ROS generating compartment in a plant cell inclines to advocate the involvement of chloroplasts in PCD execution process. As chloroplasts are supposed to be progenies of unicellular photosynthetic organisms that evolved as a result of endosymbiosis, the possibility of retaining some of the components involved in bacterial PCD by chloroplasts cannot be ruled out. Despite several excellent reviews on PCD in plants, there is a void on an update of information at a place on the regulation of PCD by chloroplast. This review has been written to provide an update on the information supporting the involvement of chloroplast in PCD process and the possible future course of the field.

The molecular ecophysiology of programmed cell death in marine phytoplankton

Planktonic, prokaryotic, and eukaryotic photoautotrophs (phytoplankton) share a diverse and ancient evolutionary history, during which time they have played key roles in regulating marine food webs, biogeochemical cycles, and Earth's climate. Because phytoplankton represent the basis of marine ecosystems, the manner in which they die critically determines the flow and fate of photosynthetically fixed organic matter (and associated elements), ultimately constraining upper-ocean biogeochemistry. Programmed cell death (PCD) and associated pathway genes, which are triggered by a variety of nutrient stressors and are employed by parasitic viruses, play an integral role in determining the cell fate of diverse photoautotrophs in the modern ocean. Indeed, these multifaceted death pathways continue to shape the success and evolutionary trajectory of diverse phytoplankton lineages at sea. Research over the past two decades has employed physiological, biochemical, and genetic techniques to provide a novel, comprehensive, mechanistic understanding of the factors controlling this key process. Here, I discuss the current understanding of the genetics, activation, and regulation of PCD pathways in marine model systems; how PCD evolved in unicellular photoautotrophs; how it mechanistically interfaces with viral infection pathways; how stress signals are sensed and transduced into cellular responses; and how novel molecular and biochemical tools are revealing the impact of PCD genes on the fate of natural phytoplankton assemblages.

Induction of caspase-3-like activity in rice following release of cytochrome-f from the chloroplast and subsequent interaction with the ubiquitin-proteasome system

It has been known that the process of leaf senescence is accompanied by programmed cell death (PCD), and the previous study indicated that dark-induced senescence in detached leaves from rice led to the release of cytochrome f (Cyt f) from chloroplast into the cytoplasm. In this study, the effects of Cyt f on PCD were studied both in vitro and in vivo. In a cell-free system, purified Cyt f activated caspase-3-like protease and endonuclease OsNuc37, and induced DNA fragmentation. Furthermore, Cyt f-induced caspase-3-like activity could be inhibited by MG132, which suggests that the activity was attributed to the 26S proteasome. Conditional expression of Cyt f in the cytoplasm could also activate caspase-3-like activity and DNA fragmentation. Fluorescein diacetate staining and annexin V-FITC/PI double staining demonstrated that Cyt f expression in cytoplasm significantly increased the percentage of PCD protoplasts. Yeast two-hybrid screening showed that Cyt f might interact with E3-ubiquitin ligase and RPN9b, the subunits of the ubiquitin proteasome system (UPS), and other PCD-related proteins. Taken together, these results suggest that the released Cyt f from the chloroplast into the cytoplasm might activate or rescue caspase-3-like activity by interacting with the UPS, ultimately leading to the induction of PCD.

Stress-related responses in Alexandrium tamarense cells exposed to environmental changes

Organisms tend to be sensitive to drastic changes in environmental conditions. For unicellular microorganisms, variations in physico-chemical conditions are particularly challenging and may result in acclimation, entrance into quiescence, or death through necrotic or autocatalytic pathways. This study focuses on the thecate dinoflagellate Alexandrium tamarense. Cellular responses to oxidative, thermal, and nutrient stress were characterized using stress indicators, such as pigment content, efficiency of photosystem II or production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), as well as hallmarks of apoptosis including activity of caspase-like enzymes and expression of a metacaspase gene homolog. The formation of temporary cysts, a survival strategy of short-term quiescence, was also monitored. Cellular responses appeared to depend on multifactorial influences where type and intensity of stimulus as well as position in cell cycle may act in combination. Sequences of events observed implicate ROS production as a key determinant of stress-related pathways, playing potential roles in intracellular signaling, formation of temporary cysts, or cellular damage. Variations observed in caspase-like activities and metacaspase gene expression did not appear to be associated with programmed cell death pathways; our results suggest a wider range of functions for these proteases in phytoplankton cells, including roles in survival pathways and cell cycle progression.

Potential for green microalgae to produce hydrogen, pharmaceuticals and other high value products in a combined process

Green microalgae for several decades have been produced for commercial exploitation, with applications ranging from health food for human consumption, aquaculture and animal feed, to coloring agents, cosmetics and others. Several products from green algae which are used today consist of secondary metabolites that can be extracted from the algal biomass. The best known examples are the carotenoids astaxanthin and β-carotene, which are used as coloring agents and for health-promoting purposes. Many species of green algae are able to produce valuable metabolites for different uses; examples are antioxidants, several different carotenoids, polyunsaturated fatty acids, vitamins, anticancer and antiviral drugs. In many cases, these substances are secondary metabolites that are produced when the algae are exposed to stress conditions linked to nutrient deprivation, light intensity, temperature, salinity and pH. In other cases, the metabolites have been detected in algae grown under optimal conditions, and little is known about optimization of the production of each product, or the effects of stress conditions on their production. Some green algae have shown the ability to produce significant amounts of hydrogen gas during sulfur deprivation, a process which is currently studied extensively worldwide. At the moment, the majority of research in this field has focused on the model organism, Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, but other species of green algae also have this ability. Currently there is little information available regarding the possibility for producing hydrogen and other valuable metabolites in the same process. This study aims to explore which stress conditions are known to induce the production of different valuable products in comparison to stress reactions leading to hydrogen production. Wild type species of green microalgae with known ability to produce high amounts of certain valuable metabolites are listed and linked to species with ability to produce hydrogen during general anaerobic conditions, and during sulfur deprivation. Species used today for commercial purposes are also described. This information is analyzed in order to form a basis for selection of wild type species for a future multi-step process, where hydrogen production from solar energy is combined with the production of valuable metabolites and other commercial uses of the algal biomass.

Chloroplasts of Arabidopsis are the source and a primary target of a plant-specific programmed cell death signaling pathway

Enhanced levels of singlet oxygen ((1)O(2)) in chloroplasts trigger programmed cell death. The impact of (1)O(2) production in chloroplasts was monitored first in the conditional fluorescent (flu) mutant of Arabidopsis thaliana that accumulates (1)O(2) upon a dark/light shift. The onset of (1)O(2) production is rapidly followed by a loss of chloroplast integrity that precedes the rupture of the central vacuole and the final collapse of the cell. Inactivation of the two plastid proteins EXECUTER (EX1) and EX2 in the flu mutant abrogates these responses, indicating that disintegration of chloroplasts is due to EX-dependent signaling rather than (1)O(2) directly. In flu seedlings, (1)O(2)-mediated cell death signaling operates as a default pathway that results in seedlings committing suicide. By contrast, EX-dependent signaling in the wild type induces the formation of microlesions without decreasing the viability of seedlings. (1)O(2)-mediated and EX-dependent loss of plastid integrity and cell death in these plants occurs only in cells containing fully developed chloroplasts. Our findings support an as yet unreported signaling role of (1)O(2) in the wild type exposed to mild light stress that invokes photoinhibition of photosystem II without causing photooxidative damage of the plant.

Programmed cell death and adaptation: two different types of abiotic stress response in a unicellular chlorophyte

Eukaryotic microalgae are highly suitable biological indicators of environmental changes because they are exposed to extreme seasonal fluctuations. The biochemical and molecular targets and regulators of key proteins involved in the stress response in microalgae have yet to be elucidated. This study presents morphological and biochemical evidence of programmed cell death (PCD) in a low temperature strain of Chlorella saccharophila induced by exposure to NaCl stress. Morphological characteristics of PCD, including cell shrinkage, detachment of the plasma membrane from the cell wall, nuclear condensation and DNA fragmentation, were observed. Additionally, a significant production of H(2)O(2) and increase in caspase 3-like activity were detected. We demonstrated that singly applied environmental stresses such as warming or salt stress trigger a pathway of PCD. Intriguingly, the prior application of salt stress seems to reduce heat shock-induced cell death significantly, suggesting a combined effect which activates a defense mechanism in algal cells. These results suggest that C. saccharophila can undergo PCD under stress conditions, and that this PCD shares several features with metazoan PCD. Moreover, the simultaneous exposure of this unicellular chlorophyte to different abiotic stresses results in a tolerance mechanism.