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Barkowsky G, Abt C, Pöhner I, Bieda A, Hammerschmidt S, Jacob A, Kreikemeyer B, Patenge N. Antimicrobial Activity of Peptide-Coupled Antisense Peptide Nucleic Acids in Streptococcus pneumoniae. Microbiol Spectr 2022; 10:e0049722. [PMID: 36321914 PMCID: PMC9784828 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.00497-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2022] [Accepted: 10/19/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Streptococcus pneumoniae is the most common cause of community-acquired pneumonia and is responsible for multiple other infectious diseases, such as meningitis and otitis media, in children. Resistance to penicillins, macrolides, and fluoroquinolones is increasing and, since the introduction of pneumococcal conjugate vaccines (PCVs), vaccine serotypes have been replaced by non-vaccine serotypes. Antisense peptide nucleic acids (PNAs) have been shown to reduce the growth of several pathogenic bacteria in various infection models. PNAs are frequently coupled to cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) to improve spontaneous cellular PNA uptake. In this study, different CPPs were investigated for their capability to support translocation of antisense PNAs into S. pneumoniae. HIV-1 TAT- and (RXR)4XB-coupled antisense PNAs efficiently reduced the viability of S. pneumoniae strains TIGR4 and D39 in vitro. Two essential genes, gyrA and rpoB, were used as targets for antisense PNAs. Overall, the antimicrobial activity of anti-gyrA PNAs was higher than that of anti-rpoB PNAs. Target gene transcription levels in S. pneumoniae were reduced following antisense PNA treatment. The effect of HIV-1 TAT- and (RXR)4XB-anti-gyrA PNAs on pneumococcal survival was also studied in vivo using an insect infection model. Treatment increased the survival of infected Galleria mellonella larvae. Our results represent a proof of principle and may provide a basis for the development of efficient antisense molecules for treatment of S. pneumoniae infections. IMPORTANCE Streptococcus pneumoniae is the most common cause of community-acquired pneumonia and is responsible for the deaths of up to 2 million children each year. Antibiotic resistance and strain replacement by non-vaccine serotypes are growing problems. For this reason, S. pneumoniae has been added to the WHO "global priority list" of antibiotic-resistant bacteria for which novel antimicrobials are most urgently needed. In this study, we investigated whether CPP-coupled antisense PNAs show antibacterial activity in S. pneumoniae. We demonstrated that HIV-1 TAT- and (RXR)4XB-coupled antisense PNAs were able to kill S. pneumoniae in vitro. The specificity of the antimicrobial effect was verified by reduced target gene transcription levels in S. pneumoniae. Moreover, CPP-antisense PNA treatment increased the survival rate of infected Galleria mellonella larvae in vivo. Based on these results, we believe that efficient antisense PNAs can be developed for the treatment of S. pneumoniae infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gina Barkowsky
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, Virology and Hygiene, University Medicine Rostock, Rostock, Germany
| | - Corina Abt
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, Virology and Hygiene, University Medicine Rostock, Rostock, Germany
| | - Irina Pöhner
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, Virology and Hygiene, University Medicine Rostock, Rostock, Germany
| | - Adam Bieda
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, Virology and Hygiene, University Medicine Rostock, Rostock, Germany
| | - Sven Hammerschmidt
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Infection Biology, Interfaculty Institute for Genetics and Functional Genomics, Center for Functional Genomics of Microbes, University of Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Anette Jacob
- Peps4LS GmbH, Heidelberg, Germany
- Functional Genome Analysis, Deutsches Krebsforschungszentrum, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Bernd Kreikemeyer
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, Virology and Hygiene, University Medicine Rostock, Rostock, Germany
| | - Nadja Patenge
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, Virology and Hygiene, University Medicine Rostock, Rostock, Germany
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2
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Das O, Kundu J, Ghosh A, Gautam A, Ghosh S, Chakraborty M, Masid A, Gauri SS, Mitra D, Dutta M, Mukherjee B, Sinha S, Bhaumik M. AUF-1 knockdown in mice undermines gut microbial butyrate-driven hypocholesterolemia through AUF-1-Dicer-1-mir-122 hierarchy. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 12:1011386. [PMID: 36601302 PMCID: PMC9806232 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2022.1011386] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2022] [Accepted: 11/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction and objective Cholesterol homeostasis is a culmination of cellular synthesis, efflux, and catabolism to important physiological entities where short chain fatty acid, butyrate embodied as a key player. This discourse probes the mechanistic molecular details of butyrate action in maintaining host-cholesterol balance. Methods Hepatic mir-122 being the most indispensable regulator of cholesterol metabolic enzymes, we studied upstream players of mir-122 biogenesis in the presence and absence of butyrate in Huh7 cells and mice model. We synthesized unique self-transfecting GMO (guanidinium-morpholino-oligo) linked PMO (Phosphorodiamidate-Morpholino Oligo)-based antisense cell-penetrating reagent to selectively knock down the key player in butyrate mediated cholesterol regulation. Results We showed that butyrate treatment caused upregulation of RNA-binding protein, AUF1 resulting in RNase-III nuclease, Dicer1 instability, and significant diminution of mir-122. We proved the importance of AUF1 and sequential downstream players in AUF1-knock-down mice. Injection of GMO-PMO of AUF1 in mouse caused near absence of AUF1 coupled with increased Dicer1 and mir-122, and reduced serum cholesterol regardless of butyrate treatment indicating that butyrate acts through AUF1. Conclusion The roster of intracellular players was as follows: AUF1-Dicer1-mir-122 for triggering butyrate driven hypocholesterolemia. To our knowledge this is the first report linking AUF-1 with cholesterol biogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oishika Das
- Department of Immunology, Indian Council of Medical Research-National Institute of Cholera and Enteric Diseases, Kolkata, India
| | - Jayanta Kundu
- School of Applied and Interdisciplinary Sciences, Indian Associations for Cultivation of Science, Kolkata, India
| | - Atanu Ghosh
- School of Applied and Interdisciplinary Sciences, Indian Associations for Cultivation of Science, Kolkata, India
| | - Anupam Gautam
- Department of Algorithms in Bioinformatics, Institute for Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany,International Max Planck Research School “From Molecules to Organisms”, Max Planck Institute for Biology Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany,Cluster of Excellence: EXC 2124: Controlling Microbes to Fight Infection, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Souradeepa Ghosh
- School of Medical Science and Technology, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, India
| | - Mainak Chakraborty
- Department of Immunology, Indian Council of Medical Research-National Institute of Cholera and Enteric Diseases, Kolkata, India
| | - Aaheli Masid
- Department of Immunology, Indian Council of Medical Research-National Institute of Cholera and Enteric Diseases, Kolkata, India
| | - Samiran Sona Gauri
- School of Medical Science and Technology, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, India
| | - Debmalya Mitra
- Department of Immunology, Indian Council of Medical Research-National Institute of Cholera and Enteric Diseases, Kolkata, India
| | - Moumita Dutta
- Department of Immunology, Indian Council of Medical Research-National Institute of Cholera and Enteric Diseases, Kolkata, India
| | - Budhaditya Mukherjee
- School of Medical Science and Technology, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, India
| | - Surajit Sinha
- School of Applied and Interdisciplinary Sciences, Indian Associations for Cultivation of Science, Kolkata, India
| | - Moumita Bhaumik
- Department of Immunology, Indian Council of Medical Research-National Institute of Cholera and Enteric Diseases, Kolkata, India,*Correspondence: Moumita Bhaumik,
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3
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Takada H, Tsuchiya K, Demizu Y. Helix-Stabilized Cell-Penetrating Peptides for Delivery of Antisense Morpholino Oligomers: Relationships among Helicity, Cellular Uptake, and Antisense Activity. Bioconjug Chem 2022; 33:1311-1318. [PMID: 35737901 DOI: 10.1021/acs.bioconjchem.2c00199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The secondary structures of cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) influence their properties including their cell-membrane permeability, tolerability to proteases, and intracellular distribution. Herein, we developed helix-stabilized arginine-rich peptides containing α,α-disubstituted α-amino acids and their conjugates with antisense phosphorodiamidate morpholino oligomers (PMOs), to investigate the relationships among the helicity of the peptides, cellular uptake, and antisense activity of the peptide-conjugated PMOs. We demonstrated that helical CPPs can efficiently deliver the conjugated PMO into cells compared with nonhelical CPPs and that their antisense activities are synergistically enhanced in the presence of an endosomolytic reagent or an endosomal escape domain peptide.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroyuki Takada
- Division of Organic Chemistry, National Institute of Health Sciences, Kanagawa 210-9501, Japan.,Graduate School of Medical Life Science, Yokohama City University, Kanagawa 236-0027, Japan
| | - Keisuke Tsuchiya
- Division of Organic Chemistry, National Institute of Health Sciences, Kanagawa 210-9501, Japan.,Graduate School of Pharmacy, Showa University, Tokyo 142-8555, Japan
| | - Yosuke Demizu
- Division of Organic Chemistry, National Institute of Health Sciences, Kanagawa 210-9501, Japan.,Graduate School of Medical Life Science, Yokohama City University, Kanagawa 236-0027, Japan.,Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama University, Okayama 700-8530, Japan
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4
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Liczner C, Hanna CC, Payne RJ, Wilds CJ. Generation of oligonucleotide conjugates via one-pot diselenide-selenoester ligation-deselenization/alkylation. Chem Sci 2022; 13:410-420. [PMID: 35126973 PMCID: PMC8729807 DOI: 10.1039/d1sc04937b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2021] [Accepted: 11/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
A breadth of strategies are needed to efficiently modify oligonucleotides with peptides or lipids to capitalize on their therapeutic and diagnostic potential, including the modulation of in vivo chemical stability and for applications in cell-targeting and cell-permeability. The chemical linkages typically used in peptide oligonucleotide conjugates (POCs) have limitations in terms of stability and/or ease of synthesis. Herein, we report an efficient method for POC synthesis using a diselenide-selenoester ligation (DSL)-deselenization strategy that rapidly generates a stable amide linkage between the two biomolecules. This conjugation strategy is underpinned by a novel selenide phosphoramidite building block that can be incorporated into an oligonucleotide by solid-phase synthesis to generate diselenide dimer molecules. These can be rapidly ligated with peptide selenoesters and, following in situ deselenization, lead to the efficient generation of POCs. The diselenide within the oligonucleotide also serves as a flexible functionalisation handle that can be leveraged for fluorescent labelling, as well as for alkylation to generate micelles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher Liczner
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Concordia University 7141 Rue Sherbrooke Ouest Montréal Québec H4B 1R6 Canada
| | - Cameron C Hanna
- School of Chemistry, The University of Sydney Sydney NSW 2006 Australia.,Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Innovations in Peptide and Protein Science, The University of Sydney Sydney NSW 2006 Australia
| | - Richard J Payne
- School of Chemistry, The University of Sydney Sydney NSW 2006 Australia.,Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Innovations in Peptide and Protein Science, The University of Sydney Sydney NSW 2006 Australia
| | - Christopher J Wilds
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Concordia University 7141 Rue Sherbrooke Ouest Montréal Québec H4B 1R6 Canada
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5
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Markowska A, Markowski AR, Jarocka-Karpowicz I. The Importance of 6-Aminohexanoic Acid as a Hydrophobic, Flexible Structural Element. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:12122. [PMID: 34830000 PMCID: PMC8618066 DOI: 10.3390/ijms222212122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2021] [Revised: 11/02/2021] [Accepted: 11/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
6-aminohexanoic acid is an ω-amino acid with a hydrophobic, flexible structure. Although the ω-amino acid in question is mainly used clinically as an antifibrinolytic drug, other applications are also interesting and important. This synthetic lysine derivative, without an α-amino group, plays a significant role in chemical synthesis of modified peptides and in the polyamide synthetic fibers (nylon) industry. It is also often used as a linker in various biologically active structures. This review concentrates on the role of 6-aminohexanoic acid in the structure of various molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agnieszka Markowska
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Medical University of Bialystok, 15-089 Bialystok, Poland;
| | - Adam Roman Markowski
- Department of Internal Medicine and Gastroenterology, Polish Red Cross Memorial Municipal Hospital, 79 Henryk Sienkiewicz Street, 15-003 Bialystok, Poland;
| | - Iwona Jarocka-Karpowicz
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Medical University of Bialystok, 15-089 Bialystok, Poland;
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6
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Konate K, Josse E, Tasic M, Redjatti K, Aldrian G, Deshayes S, Boisguérin P, Vivès E. WRAP-based nanoparticles for siRNA delivery: a SAR study and a comparison with lipid-based transfection reagents. J Nanobiotechnology 2021; 19:236. [PMID: 34380479 PMCID: PMC8359084 DOI: 10.1186/s12951-021-00972-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2021] [Accepted: 07/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Recently, we designed novel amphipathic cell-penetrating peptides, called WRAP, able to transfer efficiently siRNA molecules into cells. In order to gain more information about the relationship between amino acid composition, nanoparticle formation and cellular internalization of these peptides composed of only three amino acids (leucine, arginine and tryptophan), we performed a structure–activity relationship (SAR) study. First, we compared our WRAP1 and WRAP5 peptides with the C6M1 peptide also composed of the same three amino acids and showing similar behaviors in siRNA transfection. Afterwards, to further define the main determinants in the WRAP activity, we synthesized 13 new WRAP analogues harboring different modifications like the number and location of leucine and arginine residues, the relative location of tryptophan residues, as well as the role of the α-helix formation upon proline insertions within the native WRAP sequence. After having compared the ability of these peptides to form peptide-based nanoparticles (PBNs) using different biophysical methods and to induce a targeted gene silencing in cells, we established the main sequential requirements of the amino acid composition of the WRAP peptide. In addition, upon measuring the WRAP-based siRNA transfection ability into cells compared to several non-peptide transfection agents available on the markets, we confirmed that WRAP peptides induced an equivalent level of targeted gene silencing but in most of the cases with lower cell toxicity as clearly shown in clonogenic assays. ![]()
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Affiliation(s)
- Karidia Konate
- PhyMedExp - Université de Montpellier, INSERM U1046, CNRS UMR 9214, CHU Arnaud de Villeneuve, 371 av. doyen Giraud, 34295, Montpellier Cedex 5, France
| | - Emilie Josse
- PhyMedExp - Université de Montpellier, INSERM U1046, CNRS UMR 9214, CHU Arnaud de Villeneuve, 371 av. doyen Giraud, 34295, Montpellier Cedex 5, France
| | - Milana Tasic
- PhyMedExp - Université de Montpellier, INSERM U1046, CNRS UMR 9214, CHU Arnaud de Villeneuve, 371 av. doyen Giraud, 34295, Montpellier Cedex 5, France
| | - Karima Redjatti
- PhyMedExp - Université de Montpellier, INSERM U1046, CNRS UMR 9214, CHU Arnaud de Villeneuve, 371 av. doyen Giraud, 34295, Montpellier Cedex 5, France
| | - Gudrun Aldrian
- Sys2Diag, UMR 9005-CNRS/ALCEDIAG, 1682 Rue de la Valsière, 34184, Montpellier CEDEX 4, France
| | - Sébastien Deshayes
- PhyMedExp - Université de Montpellier, INSERM U1046, CNRS UMR 9214, CHU Arnaud de Villeneuve, 371 av. doyen Giraud, 34295, Montpellier Cedex 5, France
| | - Prisca Boisguérin
- PhyMedExp - Université de Montpellier, INSERM U1046, CNRS UMR 9214, CHU Arnaud de Villeneuve, 371 av. doyen Giraud, 34295, Montpellier Cedex 5, France
| | - Eric Vivès
- PhyMedExp - Université de Montpellier, INSERM U1046, CNRS UMR 9214, CHU Arnaud de Villeneuve, 371 av. doyen Giraud, 34295, Montpellier Cedex 5, France.
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7
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Abstract
Oligonucleotides can be used to modulate gene expression via a range of processes including RNAi, target degradation by RNase H-mediated cleavage, splicing modulation, non-coding RNA inhibition, gene activation and programmed gene editing. As such, these molecules have potential therapeutic applications for myriad indications, with several oligonucleotide drugs recently gaining approval. However, despite recent technological advances, achieving efficient oligonucleotide delivery, particularly to extrahepatic tissues, remains a major translational limitation. Here, we provide an overview of oligonucleotide-based drug platforms, focusing on key approaches - including chemical modification, bioconjugation and the use of nanocarriers - which aim to address the delivery challenge.
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8
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Barkowsky G, Lemster AL, Pappesch R, Jacob A, Krüger S, Schröder A, Kreikemeyer B, Patenge N. Influence of Different Cell-Penetrating Peptides on the Antimicrobial Efficiency of PNAs in Streptococcus pyogenes. MOLECULAR THERAPY-NUCLEIC ACIDS 2019; 18:444-454. [PMID: 31655262 PMCID: PMC6831891 DOI: 10.1016/j.omtn.2019.09.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2019] [Revised: 08/15/2019] [Accepted: 09/08/2019] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Streptococcus pyogenes is an exclusively human pathogen causing a wide range of clinical manifestations from mild superficial infections to severe, life-threatening, invasive diseases. S. pyogenes is consistently susceptible toward penicillin, but therapeutic failure of penicillin treatment has been reported frequently. At the same time, streptococcal resistance to alternative antibiotics, e.g., macrolides, is common. To reduce the application of antibiotics for treatment of S. pyogenes infections, it is mandatory to develop novel therapeutic strategies. Antisense peptide nucleic acids (PNAs) are synthetic DNA derivatives widely applied for hybridization-based microbial diagnostics. They have a high potential as therapeutic agents, because PNA antisense targeting of essential genes was shown to reduce growth of several pathogenic bacterial species. Spontaneous cellular uptake of PNAs is restricted in eukaryotes and in bacteria. To overcome this problem, PNAs can be coupled to cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) that support PNA translocation over the cell membrane. In bacteria, the efficiency of CPP-mediated PNA uptake is species specific. Previously, HIV-1 transactivator of transcription (HIV-1 TAT) peptide-coupled anti-gyrA PNA was shown to inhibit growth of S. pyogenes. Here, we investigate the effect of 18 CPP-coupled anti-gyrA PNAs on S. pyogenes growth and virulence. HIV-1 TAT, oligolysine (K8), and (RXR)4XB peptide-coupled anti-gyrA PNAs efficiently abolished bacterial growth in vitro. Consistently, treatment with these three CPP-PNAs increased survival of larvae in a Galleria mellonella infection model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gina Barkowsky
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, Virology and Hygiene, University Medicine Rostock, 18057 Rostock, Germany
| | - Anna-Lena Lemster
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, Virology and Hygiene, University Medicine Rostock, 18057 Rostock, Germany
| | - Roberto Pappesch
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, Virology and Hygiene, University Medicine Rostock, 18057 Rostock, Germany
| | - Anette Jacob
- Peps4LS GmbH, INF 583, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany; Functional Genome Analysis, Deutsches Krebsforschungszentrum, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Selina Krüger
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, Virology and Hygiene, University Medicine Rostock, 18057 Rostock, Germany
| | - Anne Schröder
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, Virology and Hygiene, University Medicine Rostock, 18057 Rostock, Germany
| | - Bernd Kreikemeyer
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, Virology and Hygiene, University Medicine Rostock, 18057 Rostock, Germany
| | - Nadja Patenge
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, Virology and Hygiene, University Medicine Rostock, 18057 Rostock, Germany.
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9
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Peptide-conjugate antisense based splice-correction for Duchenne muscular dystrophy and other neuromuscular diseases. EBioMedicine 2019; 45:630-645. [PMID: 31257147 PMCID: PMC6642283 DOI: 10.1016/j.ebiom.2019.06.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2019] [Revised: 05/31/2019] [Accepted: 06/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is an X-linked disorder characterized by progressive muscle degeneration, caused by the absence of dystrophin. Exon skipping by antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs) has recently gained recognition as therapeutic approach in DMD. Conjugation of a peptide to the phosphorodiamidate morpholino backbone (PMO) of ASOs generated the peptide-conjugated PMOs (PPMOs) that exhibit a dramatically improved pharmacokinetic profile. When tested in animal models, PPMOs demonstrate effective exon skipping in target muscles and prolonged duration of dystrophin restoration after a treatment regime. Herein we summarize the main pathophysiological features of DMD and the emergence of PPMOs as promising exon skipping agents aiming to rescue defective gene expression in DMD and other neuromuscular diseases. The listed PPMO laboratory findings correspond to latest trends in the field and highlight the obstacles that must be overcome prior to translating the animal-based research into clinical trials tailored to the needs of patients suffering from neuromuscular diseases.
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10
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Hu WW, Huang SC, Jin SLC. A novel antimicrobial peptide-derived vehicle for oligodeoxynucleotide delivery to inhibit TNF-α expression. Int J Pharm 2019; 558:63-71. [PMID: 30639220 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2018.12.082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2018] [Revised: 12/17/2018] [Accepted: 12/23/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Indolicidin (IL), an antimicrobial peptide, was investigated as a vehicle to promote oligodeoxynucleotides (ODNs) delivery. To increase charge density, IL was dimerized by adding a cysteine to its C or N terminus, which was denoted as ILC or CIL, respectively. In contrast to IL, cytotoxicity of ILC and CIL was significantly reduced because these dimeric peptides were longer than IL, which restricted their insertions to cell membrane. In contrast to ILC, CIL displayed well loading efficiency. These peptides were applied to deliver ODNs against tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) because TNF-α is a pro-inflammatory cytokine which plays an important role in immunological diseases. Although IL/ODN slightly reduced TNF-α expression, the high cytotoxicity restricted its application window. Furthermore, ILC/ODN was incapable of inducing gene silence due to its low encapsulation efficiency and poor endosomal escape. In contrast, CIL exhibited excellent ODN transportation and the internalized CIL/ODN complexes may escape from endosomes. Therefore, TNF-α expression can be specifically reduced by CIL/ODN complexes, and the silence effect was maintained longer than 14 h. This study provides a useful strategy of peptide vehicle design, which may facilitate the delivery of not only ODN but also other oligonucleotides, including siRNA and miRNA, to promote gene silence application.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei-Wen Hu
- Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, National Central University, Zhongli District, Taoyuan City, Taiwan; Center for Biocellular Engineering, National Central University, Zhongli District, Taoyuan City, Taiwan.
| | - Shih-Chun Huang
- Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, National Central University, Zhongli District, Taoyuan City, Taiwan
| | - Shiow-Lian Catherine Jin
- Department of Life Sciences, National Central University, Zhongli District, Taoyuan City, Taiwan
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11
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Domljanovic I, Hansen AH, Hansen LH, Klitgaard JK, Taskova M, Astakhova K. Studies of Impending Oligonucleotide Therapeutics in Simulated Biofluids. Nucleic Acid Ther 2018; 28:348-356. [PMID: 30106665 DOI: 10.1089/nat.2017.0704] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Synthetic oligonucleotides, their complexes and conjugates with other biomolecules represent valuable research tools and therapeutic agents. In spite of growing applications in basic research and clinical science, only few studies have addressed the issue of such compounds' stability in biological media. Herein, we studied the stability of two therapeutically relevant oligonucleotide probes in simulated biofluids; the 21 nucleotide-long DNA/locked nucleic acid oligonucleotide ON targeted toward cancer-associated BRAF V600E mutation, and a longer DNA analog (TTC) originating from BRAF gene. We found that stability of peptide-oligonucleotide conjugates (POCs) in human serum (HS) was superior compared with the naked or complexed 21mer oligonucleotide, whereas stability of POCs in simulated gastric juice (GJ) was dependent on the peptide sequence. Addition of pepstatin A in general increased the stability of oligonucleotides after 24 h digestion in HS and simulated GJ. Similarly, complexation with optimal amounts of histone proteins was found to rescue oligonucleotide stability after 24 h digestion in hydrochloric acid.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivana Domljanovic
- 1 Department of Chemistry, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | | | - Lykke H Hansen
- 2 Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
| | - Janne Kudsk Klitgaard
- 2 Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark.,3 Institute of Clinical Research, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
| | - Maria Taskova
- 1 Department of Chemistry, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Kira Astakhova
- 1 Department of Chemistry, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
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12
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Wolfe J, Fadzen CM, Choo ZN, Holden RL, Yao M, Hanson GJ, Pentelute BL. Machine Learning To Predict Cell-Penetrating Peptides for Antisense Delivery. ACS CENTRAL SCIENCE 2018; 4:512-520. [PMID: 29721534 PMCID: PMC5920612 DOI: 10.1021/acscentsci.8b00098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2018] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) can facilitate the intracellular delivery of large therapeutically relevant molecules, including proteins and oligonucleotides. Although hundreds of CPP sequences are described in the literature, predicting efficacious sequences remains difficult. Here, we focus specifically on predicting CPPs for the delivery of phosphorodiamidate morpholino oligonucleotides (PMOs), a compelling type of antisense therapeutic that has recently been FDA approved for the treatment of Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Using literature CPP sequences, 64 covalent PMO-CPP conjugates were synthesized and evaluated in a fluorescence-based reporter assay for PMO activity. Significant discrepancies were observed between the sequences that performed well in this assay and the sequences that performed well when conjugated to only a small-molecule fluorophore. As a result, we envisioned that our PMO-CPP library would be a useful training set for a computational model to predict CPPs for PMO delivery. We used the PMO activity data to fit a random decision forest classifier to predict whether or not covalent attachment of a given peptide would enhance PMO activity at least 3-fold. To validate the model experimentally, seven novel sequences were generated, synthesized, and tested in the fluorescence reporter assay. All computationally predicted positive sequences were positive in the assay, and one sequence performed better than 80% of the tested literature CPPs. These results demonstrate the power of machine learning algorithms to identify peptide sequences with particular functions and illustrate the importance of tailoring a CPP sequence to the cargo of interest.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justin
M. Wolfe
- Department
of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Colin M. Fadzen
- Department
of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Zi-Ning Choo
- Department
of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Rebecca L. Holden
- Department
of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Monica Yao
- Research
Chemistry, Sarepta Therapeutics, Inc., Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States
| | - Gunnar J. Hanson
- Research
Chemistry, Sarepta Therapeutics, Inc., Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States
| | - Bradley L. Pentelute
- Department
of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
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13
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Nan Y, Zhang YJ. Antisense Phosphorodiamidate Morpholino Oligomers as Novel Antiviral Compounds. Front Microbiol 2018; 9:750. [PMID: 29731743 PMCID: PMC5920040 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.00750] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2018] [Accepted: 04/03/2018] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Phosphorodiamidate morpholino oligomers (PMO) are short single-stranded DNA analogs that are built upon a backbone of morpholine rings connected by phosphorodiamidate linkages. As uncharged nucleic acid analogs, PMO bind to complementary sequences of target mRNA by Watson–Crick base pairing to block protein translation through steric blockade. PMO interference of viral protein translation operates independently of RNase H. Meanwhile, PMO are resistant to a variety of enzymes present in biologic fluids, a characteristic that makes them highly suitable for in vivo applications. Notably, PMO-based therapy for Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) has been approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration which is now a hallmark for PMO-based antisense therapy. In this review, the development history of PMO, delivery methods for improving cellular uptake of neutrally charged PMO molecules, past studies of PMO antagonism against RNA and DNA viruses, PMO target selection, and remaining questions of PMO antiviral strategies are discussed in detail and new insights are provided.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuchen Nan
- Department of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, China.,Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine and Maryland Pathogen Research Institute, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, United States
| | - Yan-Jin Zhang
- Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine and Maryland Pathogen Research Institute, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, United States
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14
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Bhosle GS, Fernandes M. (R-X-R)4
-Motif Peptides Containing Conformationally Constrained Cyclohexane-Derived Spacers: Effect on Cellular Uptake. ChemMedChem 2017; 12:1743-1747. [DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.201700498] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2017] [Revised: 09/22/2017] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Govind S. Bhosle
- Organic Chemistry Division; CSIR - National Chemical Laboratory (CSIR-NCL); Dr. Homi Bhabha Road Pune 411008 India
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research, AcSIR; CSIR-NCL Campus Pune India
| | - Moneesha Fernandes
- Organic Chemistry Division; CSIR - National Chemical Laboratory (CSIR-NCL); Dr. Homi Bhabha Road Pune 411008 India
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research, AcSIR; CSIR-NCL Campus Pune India
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15
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Bartnicki F, Bonarek P, Kowalska E, Strzalka W. The Argi system: one-step purification of proteins tagged with arginine-rich cell-penetrating peptides. Sci Rep 2017; 7:2619. [PMID: 28572575 PMCID: PMC5453957 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-02432-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2017] [Accepted: 04/11/2017] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
The discovery of cell penetrating peptides (CPPs) opened new perspectives for the delivery of proteins into human cells. It is considered that in the future CPP-mediated transport of therapeutic proteins may find applications in the treatment of human diseases. Despite this fact a fast and simple method for the purification of CPP-tagged proteins, free of additional tags, was not available to date. To fill this gap we developed the Argi system for one-step purification of proteins tagged with arginine rich CPPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Filip Bartnicki
- Department of Plant Biotechnology, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland
| | - Piotr Bonarek
- Department of Physical Biochemistry, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland
| | - Ewa Kowalska
- Department of Plant Biotechnology, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland
| | - Wojciech Strzalka
- Department of Plant Biotechnology, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland.
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16
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Yadav AK, Dey N, Chattopadhyay S, Ganguli M, Fernandes M. Dendrimeric amide- and carbamate-linked lysine-based efficient molecular transporters. Org Biomol Chem 2017; 15:9579-9584. [DOI: 10.1039/c7ob02552a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Carbamate- and amide-linked lysine-based generation-2 dendrimeric oligomers transport pDNA into cells very efficiently when complexed by incubation overnight.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amit Kumar Yadav
- Organic Chemistry Division
- CSIR-National Chemical Laboratory (CSIR-NCL)
- Pune 411008
- India
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR)
| | - Namit Dey
- CSIR-Institute of Genomics and Integrative Biology
- New Delhi 110020
- India
| | | | - Munia Ganguli
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR)
- Pune
- India
- CSIR-Institute of Genomics and Integrative Biology
- New Delhi 110020
| | - Moneesha Fernandes
- Organic Chemistry Division
- CSIR-National Chemical Laboratory (CSIR-NCL)
- Pune 411008
- India
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR)
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17
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Lehto T, Ezzat K, Wood MJA, El Andaloussi S. Peptides for nucleic acid delivery. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2016; 106:172-182. [PMID: 27349594 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2016.06.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 144] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2016] [Revised: 06/08/2016] [Accepted: 06/15/2016] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Nucleic acids and their synthetic oligonucleotide (ON) analogs are a group of gene therapeutic compounds which hold enormous clinical potential. Despite their undoubted potential, clinical translation of these molecules, however, has been largely held back by their limited bioavailability in the target tissues/cells. To overcome this, many different drug delivery systems have been devised. Among others, short delivery peptides, called cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs), have been demonstrated to allow for efficient delivery of nucleic acids and their ON analogs, in both cell culture and animal models. In this review, we provide brief overview of the latest advances in nucleic acid delivery with CPPs, covering the two main vectorization strategies, covalent conjugation and nanoparticle formation-based approach. In conclusion, CPP-based drug delivery systems have the capacity to overcome the hurdle of delivery and thus have the potential to facilitate the clinical translation of nucleic acid-based therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taavi Lehto
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm SE-171 77, Sweden; Institute of Technology, University of Tartu, Nooruse 1, 50411 Tartu, Estonia.
| | - Kariem Ezzat
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm SE-171 77, Sweden
| | - Matthew J A Wood
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy, and Genetics, University of Oxford, OX13QX Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Samir El Andaloussi
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm SE-171 77, Sweden; Department of Physiology, Anatomy, and Genetics, University of Oxford, OX13QX Oxford, United Kingdom
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18
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Vij M, Natarajan P, Yadav AK, Patil KM, Pandey T, Gupta N, Santhiya D, Kumar VA, Fernandes M, Ganguli M. Efficient Cellular Entry of (r-x-r)-Type Carbamate–Plasmid DNA Complexes and Its Implication for Noninvasive Topical DNA Delivery to Skin. Mol Pharm 2016; 13:1779-90. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.5b00915] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Manika Vij
- Department
of Structural Biology, CSIR-Institute of Genomics and Integrative Biology, South
Campus, Mathura Road, New Delhi, India 110020
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Anusandhan Bhawan, 2 Rafi Marg, New Delhi, India 110001
| | - Poornemaa Natarajan
- Department
of Structural Biology, CSIR-Institute of Genomics and Integrative Biology, South
Campus, Mathura Road, New Delhi, India 110020
| | - Amit K. Yadav
- CSIR-National Chemical Laboratory, Pune, Maharashtra, India 411008
| | - Kiran M. Patil
- CSIR-National Chemical Laboratory, Pune, Maharashtra, India 411008
| | - Tanuja Pandey
- Department
of Structural Biology, CSIR-Institute of Genomics and Integrative Biology, South
Campus, Mathura Road, New Delhi, India 110020
| | - Nidhi Gupta
- Delhi Technological University, Shahbad Daulatpur, Main Bawana Road, New Delhi, India 110042
| | - Deenan Santhiya
- Delhi Technological University, Shahbad Daulatpur, Main Bawana Road, New Delhi, India 110042
| | | | | | - Munia Ganguli
- Department
of Structural Biology, CSIR-Institute of Genomics and Integrative Biology, South
Campus, Mathura Road, New Delhi, India 110020
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Anusandhan Bhawan, 2 Rafi Marg, New Delhi, India 110001
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19
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Cell penetrating peptides as an innovative approach for drug delivery; then, present and the future. JOURNAL OF PHARMACEUTICAL INVESTIGATION 2016. [DOI: 10.1007/s40005-016-0253-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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20
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Hansen AM, Bonke G, Larsen CJ, Yavari N, Nielsen PE, Franzyk H. Antibacterial Peptide Nucleic Acid-Antimicrobial Peptide (PNA-AMP) Conjugates: Antisense Targeting of Fatty Acid Biosynthesis. Bioconjug Chem 2016; 27:863-7. [PMID: 26938833 DOI: 10.1021/acs.bioconjchem.6b00013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Antisense peptide nucleic acid (PNA) oligomers constitute a novel class of potential antibiotics that inhibit bacterial growth via specific knockdown of essential gene expression. However, discovery of efficient, nontoxic delivery vehicles for such PNA oligomers has remained a challenge. In the present study we show that antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) with an intracellular mode of action can be efficient vehicles for bacterial delivery of an antibacterial PNA targeting the essential acpP gene. The results demonstrate that buforin 2-A (BF2-A), drosocin, oncocin 10, Pep-1-K, KLW-9,13-a, (P59→W59)-Tat48-60, BF-2A-RXR, and drosocin-RXR are capable of transporting PNA effectively into E. coli (MICs of 1-4 μM). Importantly, presence of the inner-membrane peptide transporter SbmA was not required for antibacterial activity of PNA-AMP conjugates containing Pep-1-K, KLW-9,13-a, or drosocin-RXR (MICs of 2-4 μM).
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Mette Hansen
- Department of Drug Design and Pharmacology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen , Universitetsparken 2, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Gitte Bonke
- Department of Drug Design and Pharmacology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen , Universitetsparken 2, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Camilla Josephine Larsen
- Department of Drug Design and Pharmacology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen , Universitetsparken 2, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Niloofar Yavari
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, Panum Institute, University of Copenhagen , Blegdamsvej 3, DK-2200 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Peter E Nielsen
- Department of Drug Design and Pharmacology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen , Universitetsparken 2, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark.,Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, Panum Institute, University of Copenhagen , Blegdamsvej 3, DK-2200 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Henrik Franzyk
- Department of Drug Design and Pharmacology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen , Universitetsparken 2, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
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21
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Efficient entry of cell-penetrating peptide nona-arginine into adherent cells involves a transient increase in intracellular calcium. Biochem J 2015; 471:221-30. [PMID: 26272944 PMCID: PMC4613506 DOI: 10.1042/bj20150272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2015] [Accepted: 08/13/2015] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Mechanisms by which drug-delivery vehicles based on cationic peptides cross cell membranes remain unknown. We report that an increase in intracellular calcium triggered by temperature drop or high peptide concentrations transiently permeabilizes the plasma membrane for nona-arginine (R9) and delivers it to the cytosol. Understanding the mechanism of entry of cationic peptides such as nona-arginine (R9) into cells remains an important challenge to their use as efficient drug-delivery vehicles. At nanomolar to low micromolar R9 concentrations and at physiological temperature, peptide entry involves endocytosis. In contrast, at a concentration ≥10 μM, R9 induces a very effective non-endocytic entry pathway specific for cationic peptides. We found that a similar entry pathway is induced at 1–2 μM concentrations of R9 if peptide application is accompanied by a rapid temperature drop to 15°C. Both at physiological and at sub-physiological temperatures, this entry mechanism was inhibited by depletion of the intracellular ATP pool. Intriguingly, we found that R9 at 10–20 μM and 37°C induces repetitive spikes in intracellular Ca2+ concentration. This Ca2+ signalling correlated with the efficiency of the peptide entry. Pre-loading cells with the Ca2+ chelator BAPTA (1,2-bis(o-aminophenoxy)ethane-N,N,N′,N′-tetraacetic acid) inhibited both Ca2+ spikes and peptide entry, suggesting that an increase in intracellular Ca2+ precedes and is required for peptide entry. One of the hallmarks of Ca2+ signalling is a transient cell-surface exposure of phosphatidylserine (PS), a lipid normally residing only in the inner leaflet of the plasma membrane. Blocking the accessible PS with the PS-binding domain of lactadherin strongly inhibited non-endocytic R9 entry, suggesting the importance of PS externalization in this process. To conclude, we uncovered a novel mechanistic link between calcium signalling and entry of cationic peptides. This finding will enhance our understanding of the properties of plasma membrane and guide development of future drug-delivery vehicles.
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22
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Ming X, Laing B. Bioconjugates for targeted delivery of therapeutic oligonucleotides. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2015; 87:81-9. [PMID: 25689735 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2015.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2014] [Revised: 02/04/2015] [Accepted: 02/06/2015] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Bioconjugates have been used to deliver therapeutic oligonucleotides to their pharmacological targets in diseased cells. Molecular-scale conjugates can be prepared by directly linking targeting ligands with oligonucleotides and the resultant conjugates can selectively bind to cell surface receptors in target cells in diseased tissues. Besides targeted delivery, additional functionality can be incorporated in the conjugates by utilization of carrier molecules, and these larger conjugates are called carrier-associated conjugates. Both molecular and carrier-associated conjugates have achieved initial successes in clinical trials for treating liver diseases; therefore, currently the greater challenge is to deliver oligonucleotides to extrahepatic tissues such as tumors. This review will provide an update on the application of oligonucleotide conjugates for targeted delivery during the last decade. By identifying key elements for successful delivery, it is suggested that oligonucleotide conjugates with intermediate size, cell targeting ability, and endosomal release functionality are superior systems to advance oligonucleotides to achieve their full therapeutic potentials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Ming
- Division of Molecular Pharmaceutics, UNC Eshelman School of Pharmacy, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA.
| | - Brian Laing
- Division of Molecular Pharmaceutics, UNC Eshelman School of Pharmacy, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
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23
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Boisguérin P, Deshayes S, Gait MJ, O'Donovan L, Godfrey C, Betts CA, Wood MJA, Lebleu B. Delivery of therapeutic oligonucleotides with cell penetrating peptides. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2015; 87:52-67. [PMID: 25747758 PMCID: PMC7102600 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2015.02.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 184] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2015] [Revised: 02/23/2015] [Accepted: 02/25/2015] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Oligonucleotide-based drugs have received considerable attention for their capacity to modulate gene expression very specifically and as a consequence they have found applications in the treatment of many human acquired or genetic diseases. Clinical translation has been often hampered by poor biodistribution, however. Cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) appear as a possibility to increase the cellular delivery of non-permeant biomolecules such as nucleic acids. This review focuses on CPP-delivery of several classes of oligonucleotides (ONs), namely antisense oligonucleotides, splice switching oligonucleotides (SSOs) and siRNAs. Two main strategies have been used to transport ONs with CPPs: covalent conjugation (which is more appropriate for charge-neutral ON analogues) and non-covalent complexation (which has been used for siRNA delivery essentially). Chemical synthesis, mechanisms of cellular internalization and various applications will be reviewed. A comprehensive coverage of the enormous amount of published data was not possible. Instead, emphasis has been put on strategies that have proven to be effective in animal models of important human diseases and on examples taken from the authors' own expertise.
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Affiliation(s)
- Prisca Boisguérin
- Centre de Recherche de Biochimie Macromoléculaire, UMR 5237 CNRS, 1919 Route de Mende, 34293 Montpellier, France.
| | - Sébastien Deshayes
- Centre de Recherche de Biochimie Macromoléculaire, UMR 5237 CNRS, 1919 Route de Mende, 34293 Montpellier, France
| | - Michael J Gait
- Medical Research Council, Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Francis Crick Avenue, Cambridge CB2 0QH, UK
| | - Liz O'Donovan
- Medical Research Council, Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Francis Crick Avenue, Cambridge CB2 0QH, UK
| | - Caroline Godfrey
- University of Oxford, Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3QX, UK
| | - Corinne A Betts
- University of Oxford, Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3QX, UK
| | - Matthew J A Wood
- University of Oxford, Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3QX, UK
| | - Bernard Lebleu
- UMR 5235 CNRS, Université Montpellier 2, Place Eugene Bataillon, Montpellier 34095, France
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24
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Nancy MM, Nora RM, Rebeca MC. Peptidic tools applied to redirect alternative splicing events. Peptides 2015; 67:1-11. [PMID: 25748022 DOI: 10.1016/j.peptides.2015.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2014] [Revised: 02/05/2015] [Accepted: 02/26/2015] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Peptides are versatile and attractive biomolecules that can be applied to modulate genetic mechanisms like alternative splicing. In this process, a single transcript yields different mature RNAs leading to the production of protein isoforms with diverse or even antagonistic functions. During splicing events, errors can be caused either by mutations present in the genome or by defects or imbalances in regulatory protein factors. In any case, defects in alternative splicing have been related to several genetic diseases including muscular dystrophy, Alzheimer's disease and cancer from almost every origin. One of the most effective approaches to redirect alternative splicing events has been to attach cell-penetrating peptides to oligonucleotides that can modulate a single splicing event and restore correct gene expression. Here, we summarize how natural existing and bioengineered peptides have been applied over the last few years to regulate alternative splicing and genetic expression. Under different genetic and cellular backgrounds, peptides have been shown to function as potent vehicles for splice correction, and their therapeutic benefits have reached clinical trials and patenting stages, emphasizing the use of regulatory peptides as an exciting therapeutic tool for the treatment of different genetic diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martínez-Montiel Nancy
- Laboratorio de Ecología Molecular Microbiana, Centro de Investigaciones en Ciencias Microbiológicas, Instituto de Ciencias, Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla, Mexico
| | - Rosas-Murrieta Nora
- Laboratorio de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Instituto de Ciencias, Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla, Mexico
| | - Martínez-Contreras Rebeca
- Laboratorio de Ecología Molecular Microbiana, Centro de Investigaciones en Ciencias Microbiológicas, Instituto de Ciencias, Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla, Mexico.
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25
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Di Pisa M, Chassaing G, Swiecicki JM. When cationic cell-penetrating peptides meet hydrocarbons to enhance in-cell cargo delivery. J Pept Sci 2015; 21:356-69. [PMID: 25787823 DOI: 10.1002/psc.2755] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2014] [Revised: 12/30/2014] [Accepted: 01/07/2015] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) are short sequences often rich in cationic residues with the remarkable ability to cross cell membranes. In the past 20 years, CPPs have gained wide interest and have found numerous applications in the delivery of bioactive cargoes to the cytosol and even the nucleus of living cells. The covalent or non-covalent addition of hydrocarbon moieties to cationic CPPs alters the hydrophobicity/hydrophilicity balance in their sequence. Such perturbation dramatically influences their interaction with the cell membrane, might induce self-assembling properties and modifies their intracellular trafficking. In particular, the introduction of lipophilic moieties changes the subcellular distribution of CPPs and might result in a dramatically increase of the internalization yield of the co-transported cargoes. Herein, we offer an overview of different aspects of the recent findings concerning the properties of CPPs covalently or non-covalently associated to hydrocarbons. We will focus on the impact of the hydrocarbon moieties on the delivery of various cargoes, either covalently or non-covalently bound to the modified CPPs. We will also provide some key elements to rationalize the influence of the hydrocarbons moieties on the cellular uptake. Furthermore, the recent in vitro and in vivo successful applications of acylated CPPs will be summarized to provide a broad view of the versatility of these modified CPPs as small-molecules and oligonucleotides vectors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margherita Di Pisa
- Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, UMR 7203, Laboratoire des Biomolécules, Paris, F-75005, France; CNRS, UMR 7203, Laboratoire des Biomolécules, Paris, F-75005, France; Ecole Normale Supérieure (ENS), UMR 7203, Laboratoire des Biomolécules, Département de Chimie, 24 Rue Lhomond, Paris, F-75005, France
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26
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Järver P, Zaghloul EM, Arzumanov AA, Saleh AF, McClorey G, Hammond SM, Hällbrink M, Langel Ü, Smith CIE, Wood MJA, Gait MJ, El Andaloussi S. Peptide nanoparticle delivery of charge-neutral splice-switching morpholino oligonucleotides. Nucleic Acid Ther 2015; 25:65-77. [PMID: 25594433 PMCID: PMC4376484 DOI: 10.1089/nat.2014.0511] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Oligonucleotide analogs have provided novel therapeutics targeting various disorders. However, their poor cellular uptake remains a major obstacle for their clinical development. Negatively charged oligonucleotides, such as 2′-O-Methyl RNA and locked nucleic acids have in recent years been delivered successfully into cells through complex formation with cationic polymers, peptides, liposomes, or similar nanoparticle delivery systems. However, due to the lack of electrostatic interactions, this promising delivery method has been unsuccessful to date using charge-neutral oligonucleotide analogs. We show here that lipid-functionalized cell-penetrating peptides can be efficiently exploited for cellular transfection of the charge-neutral oligonucleotide analog phosphorodiamidate morpholino. The lipopeptides form complexes with splice-switching phosphorodiamidate morpholino oligonucleotide and can be delivered into clinically relevant cell lines that are otherwise difficult to transfect while retaining biological activity. To our knowledge, this is the first study to show delivery through complex formation of biologically active charge-neutral oligonucleotides by cationic peptides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Järver
- 1 Medical Research Council , Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Cambridge, United Kingdom
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27
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Zeller S, Choi CS, Uchil PD, Ban HS, Siefert A, Fahmy TM, Mothes W, Lee SK, Kumar P. Attachment of cell-binding ligands to arginine-rich cell-penetrating peptides enables cytosolic translocation of complexed siRNA. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014; 22:50-62. [PMID: 25544044 DOI: 10.1016/j.chembiol.2014.11.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2014] [Revised: 10/15/2014] [Accepted: 11/03/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs), such as nona-arginine (9R), poorly translocate siRNA into cells. Our studies demonstrate that attaching 9R to ligands that bind cell surface receptors quantitatively increases siRNA uptake and importantly, allows functional delivery of complexed siRNA. The mechanism involved accumulation of ligand-9R:siRNA microparticles on the cell membrane, which induced transient membrane inversion at the site of ligand-9R binding and rapid siRNA translocation into the cytoplasm. siRNA release also occurred late after endocytosis when the ligand was attached to the L isoform of 9R, but not the protease-resistant 9DR, prolonging mRNA knockdown. This critically depended on endosomal proteolytic activity, implying that partial CPP degradation is required for endosome-to-cytosol translocation. The data demonstrate that ligand attachment renders simple polycationic CPPs effective for siRNA delivery by restoring their intrinsic property of translocation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Skye Zeller
- Department of Internal Medicine, Section of Infectious Diseases, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
| | - Chang Seon Choi
- Department of Internal Medicine, Section of Infectious Diseases, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, USA; Department of Bioengineering and Institute of Nanoscience and Technology, Hanyang University, Seoul 133-791, South Korea
| | - Pradeep D Uchil
- Department of Microbial Pathogenesis, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
| | - Hong-Seok Ban
- Department of Internal Medicine, Section of Infectious Diseases, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, USA; Department of Bioengineering and Institute of Nanoscience and Technology, Hanyang University, Seoul 133-791, South Korea
| | - Alyssa Siefert
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
| | - Tarek M Fahmy
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
| | - Walther Mothes
- Department of Microbial Pathogenesis, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
| | - Sang-Kyung Lee
- Department of Bioengineering and Institute of Nanoscience and Technology, Hanyang University, Seoul 133-791, South Korea.
| | - Priti Kumar
- Department of Internal Medicine, Section of Infectious Diseases, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, USA.
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O'Donovan L, Okamoto I, Arzumanov AA, Williams DL, Deuss P, Gait MJ. Parallel synthesis of cell-penetrating peptide conjugates of PMO toward exon skipping enhancement in Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Nucleic Acid Ther 2014; 25:1-10. [PMID: 25412073 DOI: 10.1089/nat.2014.0512] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
We describe two new methods of parallel chemical synthesis of libraries of peptide conjugates of phosphorodiamidate morpholino oligonucleotide (PMO) cargoes on a scale suitable for cell screening prior to in vivo analysis for therapeutic development. The methods represent an extension of the SELection of PEPtide CONjugates (SELPEPCON) approach previously developed for parallel peptide-peptide nucleic acid (PNA) synthesis. However, these new methods allow for the utilization of commercial PMO as cargo with both C- and N-termini unfunctionalized. The synthetic methods involve conjugation in solution phase, followed by rapid purification via biotin-streptavidin immobilization and subsequent reductive release into solution, avoiding the need for painstaking high-performance liquid chromatography purifications. The synthesis methods were applied for screening of PMO conjugates of a 16-member library of variants of a 10-residue ApoE peptide, which was suggested for blood-brain barrier crossing. In this work the conjugate library was tested in an exon skipping assay using skeletal mouse mdx cells, a model of Duchene's muscular dystrophy where higher activity peptide-PMO conjugates were identified compared with the starting peptide-PMO. The results demonstrate the power of the parallel synthesis methods for increasing the speed of optimization of peptide sequences in conjugates of PMO for therapeutic screening.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liz O'Donovan
- Medical Research Council, Laboratory of Molecular Biology , Cambridge, United Kingdom
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29
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Second generation, arginine-rich (R–X′–R)4-type cell-penetrating α–ω–α-peptides with constrained, chiral ω-amino acids (X′) for enhanced cargo delivery into cells. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2014; 24:4198-202. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2014.07.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2014] [Revised: 07/02/2014] [Accepted: 07/15/2014] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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30
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Sun X, Marque LO, Cordner Z, Pruitt JL, Bhat M, Li PP, Kannan G, Ladenheim EE, Moran TH, Margolis RL, Rudnicki DD. Phosphorodiamidate morpholino oligomers suppress mutant huntingtin expression and attenuate neurotoxicity. Hum Mol Genet 2014; 23:6302-17. [PMID: 25035419 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddu349] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Huntington's disease (HD) is a neurodegenerative disorder caused by a CAG trinucleotide repeat expansion in the huntingtin (HTT) gene. Disease pathogenesis derives, at least in part, from the long polyglutamine tract encoded by mutant HTT. Therefore, considerable effort has been dedicated to the development of therapeutic strategies that significantly reduce the expression of the mutant HTT protein. Antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs) targeted to the CAG repeat region of HTT transcripts have been of particular interest due to their potential capacity to discriminate between normal and mutant HTT transcripts. Here, we focus on phosphorodiamidate morpholino oligomers (PMOs), ASOs that are especially stable, highly soluble and non-toxic. We designed three PMOs to selectively target expanded CAG repeat tracts (CTG22, CTG25 and CTG28), and two PMOs to selectively target sequences flanking the HTT CAG repeat (HTTex1a and HTTex1b). In HD patient-derived fibroblasts with expanded alleles containing 44, 77 or 109 CAG repeats, HTTex1a and HTTex1b were effective in suppressing the expression of mutant and non-mutant transcripts. CTGn PMOs also suppressed HTT expression, with the extent of suppression and the specificity for mutant transcripts dependent on the length of the targeted CAG repeat and on the CTG repeat length and concentration of the PMO. PMO CTG25 reduced HTT-induced cytotoxicity in vitro and suppressed mutant HTT expression in vivo in the N171-82Q transgenic mouse model. Finally, CTG28 reduced mutant HTT expression and improved the phenotype of Hdh(Q7/Q150) knock-in HD mice. These data demonstrate the potential of PMOs as an approach to suppressing the expression of mutant HTT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Sun
- Division of Neurobiology, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences
| | - Leonard O Marque
- Division of Neurobiology, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences
| | - Zachary Cordner
- Behavioral Neuroscience Laboratory, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences
| | - Jennifer L Pruitt
- Division of Neurobiology, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences
| | - Manik Bhat
- Division of Neurobiology, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences
| | - Pan P Li
- Division of Neurobiology, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences
| | - Geetha Kannan
- Division of Neurobiology, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences
| | - Ellen E Ladenheim
- Behavioral Neuroscience Laboratory, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences
| | - Timothy H Moran
- Behavioral Neuroscience Laboratory, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences
| | - Russell L Margolis
- Division of Neurobiology, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Department of Neurology, and Program of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21287, USA
| | - Dobrila D Rudnicki
- Division of Neurobiology, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Program of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21287, USA
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31
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Wang F, Wang Y, Zhang X, Zhang W, Guo S, Jin F. Recent progress of cell-penetrating peptides as new carriers for intracellular cargo delivery. J Control Release 2013; 174:126-36. [PMID: 24291335 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2013.11.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 281] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2013] [Revised: 11/22/2013] [Accepted: 11/22/2013] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The plasma membrane as a selectively permeable barrier of living cells is essential to cell survival and function. In many cases, however, the efficient passage of exogenous bioactive molecules through the plasma membrane remains a major hurdle for intracellular delivery of cargoes. During the last two decades, the potential of peptides for drug delivery into cells has been highlighted by the discovery of numerous cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs). CPPs serving as carriers can successfully intracellular transport cargoes such as siRNA, nucleic acids, proteins, small molecule therapeutic agents, quantum dots and MRI contrast agents. This review mainly introduces recent advances of CPPs as new carriers for the development of cellular imaging, nuclear localization, pH-sensitive and thermally targeted delivery systems. In particular, we highlight the exploiting of the synergistic effects of targeting ligands and CPPs. What's more, the classification and cellular uptake mechanisms of CPPs are briefly discussed as well.
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Affiliation(s)
- Feihu Wang
- School of Pharmacy, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Shanghai 200240, PR China; Shanghai Institute of Pharmaceutical Industry, 1111 Zhongshan Beiyi Road, Shanghai 200437, PR China
| | - Yun Wang
- School of Pharmacy, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Shanghai 200240, PR China
| | - Xiao Zhang
- School of Pharmacy, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Shanghai 200240, PR China
| | - Wenjun Zhang
- School of Pharmacy, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Shanghai 200240, PR China
| | - Shengrong Guo
- School of Pharmacy, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Shanghai 200240, PR China.
| | - Fang Jin
- Shanghai Institute of Pharmaceutical Industry, 1111 Zhongshan Beiyi Road, Shanghai 200437, PR China.
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Xu QH, Shi JY, Zhang J, Sun YF, Chang AH, Zhao YM, Cai WJ, Liu D, Zhou CC, Fan LH, Su B. Comparison of tumor neovasculature-targeted paramagnetic nanoliposomes for MRI in mice xenograft models. Clin Transl Oncol 2013; 16:395-401. [DOI: 10.1007/s12094-013-1091-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2013] [Accepted: 07/17/2013] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
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Marianecci C, Rinaldi F, Di Marzio L, Pozzi D, Caracciolo G, Manno D, Dini L, Paolino D, Celia C, Carafa M. Interaction of pH-sensitive non-phospholipid liposomes with cellular mimetic membranes. Biomed Microdevices 2013; 15:299-309. [PMID: 23239124 DOI: 10.1007/s10544-012-9731-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Surfactant nanocarriers have received considerable attention in the last several years as interesting alternative to classic liposomes. Different pH-sensitive vesicular colloidal carriers based on Tween 20 derivatives, obtained after functionalization of the head groups of the surfactant with natural, or simply modified, amino acids, were proposed as drug nanocarriers. Dynamic light scattering, Small Angle X-ray Scattering, Trasmission Electron Microscopy and fluorescence studies were used for the physico-chemical characterization of vesicles and mean size, size distribution, zeta potential, vesicle morphology and bilayer properties were evaluated. The pH-sensitivity and the stability of formulations, in absence and in presence of foetal bovine serum, were also evaluated. Moreover, the contact between surfactant vesicles and liposomes designed to model the cellular membrane was investigated by fluorescence studies to preliminary explore the potential interaction between vesicle and cell membranes. Experimental findings showed that physico-chemical and technological features of pH-sensitive vesicles were influenced by the composition of the carriers. Furthermore, proposed carriers are able to interact with mimetic cell membrane and it is reasonable to attribute the observed differences in interaction to the architectural/structural properties of Tween 20 derivatives. The findings reported in this investigation showed that a deep and extensive physico-chemical characterization of the carrier is a fundamental step, according to the evidence that the knowledge of nanocarrier properties is necessary to translate its potentiality to in vitro/in vivo applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlotta Marianecci
- Department of Drug Chemistry and Technologies, University of Rome "Sapienza", Rome, Italy
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34
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Alam MR, Ming X, Nakagawa O, Jin J, Juliano RL. Covalent conjugation of oligonucleotides with cell-targeting ligands. Bioorg Med Chem 2013; 21:6217-23. [PMID: 23777829 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2013.05.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2013] [Revised: 04/30/2013] [Accepted: 05/17/2013] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
A continuing problem in the area of oligonucleotide-based therapeutics is the poor access of these molecules to their sites of action in the nucleus or cytosol. A number of approaches to this problem have emerged. One of the most interesting is the use of ligand-oligonucleotide conjugates to promote receptor mediated cell uptake and delivery. Here we provide an overview of recent developments regarding targeted conjugates, including use of peptides, carbohydrates and small molecules as ligands. Additionally we discuss our own experience with this approach and point out both advantages and limitations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Md Rowshon Alam
- Division of Molecular Pharmaceutics, UNC Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, United States; NITTO DENKO Avecia, 8560 Reading Road, Cincinnati, OH 45215, United States
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35
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Diaminopropionic acid lipopeptides: characterization studies of polyplexes aimed at pDNA delivery. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2012; 22:5635-8. [PMID: 22858100 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2012.06.103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2012] [Revised: 06/27/2012] [Accepted: 06/29/2012] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Here we report a novel class of peptides-d-diaminopropionic acids (Dap)-for gene delivery. These peptides have attractive properties for gene delivery, and the advantage that they can be easily manipulated in relation to their composition, abiding with tailored-design. We characterized the toxicological and biophysical properties of DNA particles resulting from the interaction of the nucleic acid with a series of Dap(8) peptides conjugated to different alkyl groups. These peptides formed small and homogenous DNA particle populations that protected against DNase I degradation at non-toxic concentrations. However, despite the similarity between these peptides and others that are arginine-rich, and efficient vectors, functional studies suggest the need for additional modifications in the carriers to improve their DNA delivery efficiency. Taken together, these studies underscore the relevance of the overall structure of the carrier and the complexity of designing from scratch a carrier.
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36
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Betts C, Saleh AF, Arzumanov AA, Hammond SM, Godfrey C, Coursindel T, Gait MJ, Wood MJ. Pip6-PMO, A New Generation of Peptide-oligonucleotide Conjugates With Improved Cardiac Exon Skipping Activity for DMD Treatment. MOLECULAR THERAPY. NUCLEIC ACIDS 2012; 1:e38. [PMID: 23344180 PMCID: PMC3438601 DOI: 10.1038/mtna.2012.30] [Citation(s) in RCA: 146] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Antisense oligonucleotides (AOs) are currently the most promising therapeutic intervention for Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD). AOs modulate dystrophin pre-mRNA splicing, thereby specifically restoring the dystrophin reading frame and generating a truncated but semifunctional dystrophin protein. Challenges in the development of this approach are the relatively poor systemic AO delivery and inefficient dystrophin correction in affected non-skeletal muscle tissues, including the heart. We have previously reported impressive heart activity including high-splicing efficiency and dystrophin restoration following a single administration of an arginine-rich cell-penetrating peptide (CPPs) conjugated to a phosphorodiamidate morpholino oligonucleotide (PMO): Pip5e-PMO. However, the mechanisms underlying this activity are poorly understood. Here, we report studies involving single dose administration (12.5 mg/kg) of derivatives of Pip5e-PMO, consecutively assigned as Pip6-PMOs. These peptide-PMOs comprise alterations to the central hydrophobic core of the Pip5e peptide and illustrate that certain changes to the peptide sequence improves its activity; however, partial deletions within the hydrophobic core abolish its efficiency. Our data indicate that the hydrophobic core of the Pip sequences is critical for PMO delivery to the heart and that specific modifications to this region can enhance activity further. The results have implications for therapeutic PMO development for DMD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Corinne Betts
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
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37
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Juliano RL, Ming X, Nakagawa O. The chemistry and biology of oligonucleotide conjugates. Acc Chem Res 2012; 45:1067-76. [PMID: 22353142 DOI: 10.1021/ar2002123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Short DNA or RNA oligonucleotides have tremendous potential as therapeutic agents. Because of their ability to engage in Watson-Crick base pairing, they can interact with mRNA or pre-mRNA targets with high selectivity. As a result, they could precisely manipulate gene expression. This possibility has engendered extensive efforts to develop oligonucleotides as drugs, and many candidates are already in clinical trials. However, a major impediment to the maturation of this field of oligonucleotide-based therapeutics remains: these relatively large and often highly charged molecules don't easily cross cellular membranes, making it difficult for them to reach their sites of action in the cytosol or nucleus. In this Account, we summarize some basic features of the biology of antisense and siRNA oligonucleotides. We then discuss chemical conjugation as an approach to improving the intracellular delivery and therapeutic potential of these agents. Instead of focusing on the details of conjugation chemistry, we emphasize the pharmacological ramifications of oligonucleotide conjugates. In one important approach to improving delivery and efficacy, researchers have conjugated oligonucleotides with ligands designed to bind to particular receptors and thus provide specific interactions with cells. In another strategy, researchers have coupled antisense or siRNA with agents such as cell penetrating peptides that are designed to provoke escape of the conjugate from intracellular vesicular compartments. Although both of these strategies have had some success, further research is needed before oligonucleotide conjugates can find an important place in human therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- R. L. Juliano
- Division of Molecular Pharmaceutics, UNC Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
| | - Xin Ming
- Division of Molecular Pharmaceutics, UNC Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
| | - Osamu Nakagawa
- Division of Molecular Pharmaceutics, UNC Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
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38
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Järver P, Coursindel T, Andaloussi SEL, Godfrey C, Wood MJA, Gait MJ. Peptide-mediated Cell and In Vivo Delivery of Antisense Oligonucleotides and siRNA. MOLECULAR THERAPY. NUCLEIC ACIDS 2012; 1:e27. [PMID: 23344079 PMCID: PMC3390225 DOI: 10.1038/mtna.2012.18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2012] [Revised: 04/26/2012] [Accepted: 04/26/2012] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Peter Järver
- Medical Research Council Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge, UK
| | | | - Samir EL Andaloussi
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Karolinska Institute, Hudidnge, Sweden
| | - Caroline Godfrey
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Matthew JA Wood
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Michael J Gait
- Medical Research Council Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge, UK
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39
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Lehto T, Kurrikoff K, Langel Ü. Cell-penetrating peptides for the delivery of nucleic acids. Expert Opin Drug Deliv 2012; 9:823-36. [PMID: 22594635 DOI: 10.1517/17425247.2012.689285] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Different gene therapy approaches have gained extensive interest lately and, after many initial hurdles, several promising approaches have reached to the clinics. Successful implementation of gene therapy is heavily relying on finding efficient measures to deliver genetic material to cells. Recently, non-viral delivery of nucleic acids and their analogs has gained significant interest. Among non-viral vectors, cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) have been extensively used for the delivery of nucleic acids both in vitro and in vivo. AREAS COVERED In this review we will discuss recent advances of CPP-mediated delivery of nucleic acid-based cargo, concentrating on the delivery of plasmid DNA, splice-correcting ONs, and small-interfering RNAs. EXPERT OPINION CPPs have proved their potential as carriers for nucleic acids. However, similarly to other non-viral vectors, CPPs require further development, as efficient systemic delivery is still seldom achieved. To achieve this, CPPs should be modified with entities that would allow better endosomal escape, targeting of specific tissues and cells, and shielding agents that increase the half-life of the vehicles. Finally, to understand the clinical potential of CPPs, they require more thorough investigations in clinically relevant disease models and in pre-clinical and clinical studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taavi Lehto
- University of Tartu, Institute of Technology, Laboratory of Molecular Biotechnology, Tartu, Estonia.
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40
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Gorrea E, Carbajo D, Gutiérrez-Abad R, Illa O, Branchadell V, Royo M, Ortuño RM. Searching for new cell-penetrating agents: hybrid cyclobutane-proline γ,γ-peptides. Org Biomol Chem 2012; 10:4050-7. [PMID: 22514076 DOI: 10.1039/c2ob25220a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Two generations of hybrid γ,γ-peptides containing cyclobutane amino acids and cis-γ-amino-L-proline joined in alternation have been synthesized and their capacity to cross the eukaryotic cell membrane has been evaluated. The first generation consists of di-, tetra- and hexapeptides, and their properties have been analyzed as well as the influence of peptide length and chirality of the cyclobutane residues. Results have shown that the absolute configuration of the cyclobutane amino acid does not have a relevant influence. The second generation consists of hybrid γ,γ-hexapeptides with a common backbone and distinct side chains introduced with different linkage types through the α-amino group (N(α)) of the proline monomers. These peptides have been shown to be non-toxic towards HeLa cells and to internalize them effectively, the best results being obtained for the peptides with a spacer of five carbons between the N(α) atom and the guanidinium group. The introduction of cyclobutane residues inside the sequence affords a good balance between charge and hydrophobicity, reducing the number of positive charges. This results in lower toxicity and similar cell-uptake properties when compared to previously described peptide agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Esther Gorrea
- Departament de Química, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Cerdanyola del Vallès, Spain
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41
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Takayama K, Hirose H, Tanaka G, Pujals S, Katayama S, Nakase I, Futaki S. Effect of the Attachment of a Penetration Accelerating Sequence and the Influence of Hydrophobicity on Octaarginine-Mediated Intracellular Delivery. Mol Pharm 2012; 9:1222-30. [DOI: 10.1021/mp200518n] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Kentaro Takayama
- Institute for Chemical Research, Kyoto University, Uji, Kyoto 611-0011, Japan
| | - Hisaaki Hirose
- Institute for Chemical Research, Kyoto University, Uji, Kyoto 611-0011, Japan
| | - Gen Tanaka
- Institute for Chemical Research, Kyoto University, Uji, Kyoto 611-0011, Japan
| | - Sílvia Pujals
- Institute for Chemical Research, Kyoto University, Uji, Kyoto 611-0011, Japan
| | - Sayaka Katayama
- Institute for Chemical Research, Kyoto University, Uji, Kyoto 611-0011, Japan
| | - Ikuhiko Nakase
- Institute for Chemical Research, Kyoto University, Uji, Kyoto 611-0011, Japan
| | - Shiroh Futaki
- Institute for Chemical Research, Kyoto University, Uji, Kyoto 611-0011, Japan
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42
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Patil KM, Naik RJ, Rajpal, Fernandes M, Ganguli M, Kumar VA. Highly Efficient (R-X-R)-Type Carbamates as Molecular Transporters for Cellular Delivery. J Am Chem Soc 2012; 134:7196-9. [DOI: 10.1021/ja210026m] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Kiran M. Patil
- Organic Chemistry
Division, National Chemical Laboratory,
Dr. Homi Bhabha Road,
Pune 411 008, India
| | - Rangeetha J. Naik
- Lab
No. 203, Institute of Genomics and Integrative Biology, Mall Road, Delhi
110 007, India
| | - Rajpal
- Lab
No. 203, Institute of Genomics and Integrative Biology, Mall Road, Delhi
110 007, India
| | - Moneesha Fernandes
- Organic Chemistry
Division, National Chemical Laboratory,
Dr. Homi Bhabha Road,
Pune 411 008, India
| | - Munia Ganguli
- Lab
No. 203, Institute of Genomics and Integrative Biology, Mall Road, Delhi
110 007, India
| | - Vaijayanti A. Kumar
- Organic Chemistry
Division, National Chemical Laboratory,
Dr. Homi Bhabha Road,
Pune 411 008, India
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43
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Warren TK, Shurtleff AC, Bavari S. Advanced morpholino oligomers: a novel approach to antiviral therapy. Antiviral Res 2012; 94:80-8. [PMID: 22353544 PMCID: PMC7114334 DOI: 10.1016/j.antiviral.2012.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2011] [Revised: 01/31/2012] [Accepted: 02/01/2012] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Phosphorodiamidate morpholino oligomers (PMOs) are synthetic antisense oligonucleotide analogs that are designed to interfere with translational processes by forming base-pair duplexes with specific RNA sequences. Positively charged PMOs (PMOplus™) are effective for the postexposure protection of two fulminant viral diseases, Ebola and Marburg hemorrhagic fever in nonhuman primates, and this class of antisense agent may also have possibilities for treatment of other viral diseases. PMOs are highly stable, are effective by a variety of routes of administration, can be readily formulated in common isotonic delivery vehicles, and can be rapidly designed and synthesized. These are properties which may make PMOs good candidates for use during responses to emerging or reemerging viruses that may be insensitive to available therapies or for use during outbreaks, especially in regions that lack a modern medical infrastructure. While the efficacy of sequence-specific therapies can be limited by target-site sequence variations that occur between variants or by the emergence of resistant mutants during infections, various PMO design strategies can minimize these impacts. These strategies include the use of promiscuous bases such as inosine to compensate for predicted base-pair mismatches, the use of sequences that target conserved sites between viral strains, and the use of sequences that target host products that viruses utilize for infection.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Sina Bavari
- Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 301 619 4246.
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44
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Abstract
The chemistry of the oligonucleotide backbone is crucial to obtaining high activity in vivo in exon skipping applications. Apart from the ability to bind strongly and sequence-specifically to pre-mRNA targets, the type of backbone also influences cell delivery, in vivo pharmacology, bio-distribution, toxicology, and ultimately the therapeutic use in humans. Reviewed here are classes of oligonucleotide commonly used for exon skipping applications, namely negatively charged backbones typified by RNA analogues having 2'-O-substitution and a phosphorothioate linkage and charge-neutral backbones such as PNA and PMO. Also discussed are peptide conjugates of PNA and PMO that enhance cellular and in vivo delivery and their potential for drug development. Finally, the prospects for development of other analogue types in exon skipping applications are outlined.
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45
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Lee JH, Song HS, Lee SG, Park TH, Kim BG. Screening of cell-penetrating peptides using mRNA display. Biotechnol J 2011; 7:387-96. [DOI: 10.1002/biot.201100220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2011] [Revised: 09/19/2011] [Accepted: 11/10/2011] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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46
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Preferential uptake of L- versus D-amino acid cell-penetrating peptides in a cell type-dependent manner. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011; 18:1000-10. [PMID: 21867915 DOI: 10.1016/j.chembiol.2011.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 114] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2009] [Revised: 06/03/2011] [Accepted: 06/10/2011] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
The use of protease-resistant D-peptides is a prominent strategy for overcoming proteolytic sensitivity in the use of cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) as delivery vectors. So far, no major differences have been reported for the uptake of L- and D-peptides. Here we report that cationic L-CPPs are taken up more efficiently than their D-counterparts in MC57 fibrosarcoma and HeLa cells but not in Jurkat T leukemia cells. Reduced uptake of D-peptides co-occurred with persistent binding to heparan sulfates (HS) at the plasma membrane. In vitro binding studies of L- and D-peptides with HS indicated similar binding affinities. Our results identify two key events in the uptake of CPPs: binding to HS chains and the initiation of internalization. Only the second event depends on the chirality of the CPP. This knowledge may be exploited for a stereochemistry-dependent preferential targeting of cells.
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Juliano RL, Ming X, Nakagawa O. Cellular uptake and intracellular trafficking of antisense and siRNA oligonucleotides. Bioconjug Chem 2011; 23:147-57. [PMID: 21992697 DOI: 10.1021/bc200377d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 145] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Significant progress is being made concerning the development of oligonucleotides as therapeutic agents. Studies with antisense, siRNA, and other forms of oligonucleotides have shown promise in cellular and animal models and in some clinical studies. Nonetheless, our understanding of how oligonucleotides function in cells and tissues is really quite limited. One major issue concerns the modes of uptake and intracellular trafficking of oligonucleotides, whether as "free" molecules or linked to various delivery moieties such as nanoparticles or targeting ligands. In this review, we examine the recent literature on oligonucleotide internalization and subcellular trafficking in the context of current insights into the basic machinery for endocytosis and intracellular vesicular traffic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rudolph L Juliano
- Division of Molecular Pharmaceutics, UNC Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, USA.
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El Andaloussi S, Said Hassane F, Boisguerin P, Sillard R, Langel U, Lebleu B. Cell-penetrating peptides-based strategies for the delivery of splice redirecting antisense oligonucleotides. Methods Mol Biol 2011; 764:75-89. [PMID: 21748634 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-61779-188-8_5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/19/2023]
Abstract
Progress in our understanding of the molecular pathogenesis of human malignancies has provided therapeutic targets amenable to oligonucleotide (ON)-based strategies. Antisense ON-mediated splicing regulation in particular offers promising prospects since the majority of human genes undergo alternative splicing and since splicing defects have been found in many diseases. However, their implementation has been hampered so far by the poor bioavailability of nucleic acids-based drugs. Cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) now appear as promising non-viral delivery vector for non-permeant biomolecules. We describe here new CPPs allowing the delivery of splice redirecting steric-block ON using either chemical conjugation or non-covalent complexation. We also describe a convenient and robust splice redirecting assay which allows the quantitative assessment of ON nuclear delivery.
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Structural rearrangements and chemical modifications in known cell penetrating peptide strongly enhance DNA delivery efficiency. J Control Release 2011; 157:260-71. [PMID: 21996011 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2011.09.081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2011] [Revised: 09/12/2011] [Accepted: 09/20/2011] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Amphipathic peptides with unusual cellular translocation properties have been used as carriers of different biomolecules. However, the parameters which control the delivery efficiency of a particular cargo by a peptide and the selectivity of cargo delivery are not very well understood. In this work, we have used the known cell penetrating peptide pVEC (derived from VE-cadherin) and systematically changed its amphipathicity (from primary to secondary) as well as the total charge and studied whether these changes influence the plasmid DNA condensation ability, cellular uptake of the peptide-DNA complexes and in turn the efficiency of DNA delivery of the peptide. Our results show that although the efficiency of DNA delivery of pVEC is poor, modification of the same peptide to create a combination of nine arginines along with secondary amphipathicity improves its plasmid DNA delivery efficiency, particularly in presence of an endosomotropic agent like chloroquine. In addition, presence of histidines along with 9 arginines and secondary amphipathicity shows efficient DNA delivery with low toxicity even in absence of chloroquine in multiple cell lines. We attribute these enhancements in transfection efficiency to the differences in the mechanism of complex formation by the different variants of the parent peptide which in turn are related to the chemical nature of the peptide itself. These results exhibit the importance of understanding the physicochemical parameters of the carrier and complex in modulating gene delivery efficiency. Such studies can be helpful in improving peptide design for delivery of different cargo molecules.
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Saleh AF, Arzumanov A, Abes R, Owen D, Lebleu B, Gait MJ. Synthesis and splice-redirecting activity of branched, arginine-rich peptide dendrimer conjugates of peptide nucleic acid oligonucleotides. Bioconjug Chem 2011; 21:1902-11. [PMID: 20879728 PMCID: PMC2963316 DOI: 10.1021/bc100275r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Arginine-rich cell-penetrating peptides have found excellent utility in cell and in vivo models for enhancement of delivery of attached charge-neutral PNA or PMO oligonucleotides. We report the synthesis of dendrimeric peptides containing 2- or 4-branched arms each having one or more R-Ahx-R motifs and their disulfide conjugation to a PNA705 splice-redirecting oligonucleotide. Conjugates were assayed in a HeLa pLuc705 cell assay for luciferase up-regulation and splicing redirection. Whereas 8-Arg branched peptide−PNA conjugates showed poor activity compared to a linear (R-Ahx-R)4−PNA conjugate, 2-branched and some 4-branched 12 and 16 Arg peptide−PNA conjugates showed activity similar to that of the corresponding linear peptide−PNA conjugates. Many of the 12- and 16-Arg conjugates retained significant activity in the presence of serum. Evidence showed that biological activity in HeLa pLuc705 cells of the PNA conjugates of branched and linear (R-Ahx-R) peptides is associated with an energy-dependent uptake pathway, predominantly clathrin-dependent, but also with some caveolae dependence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amer F Saleh
- Medical Research Council, Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge, United Kingdom
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