MIP genes are down-regulated under drought stress in Nicotiana glauca

Genome-wide identification, characterization, and expression analysis of MIPS family genes in legume species

BACKGROUND

Evolutionarily conserved in plants, the enzyme D-myo-inositol-3-phosphate synthase (MIPS; EC 5.5.1.4) regulates the initial, rate-limiting reaction in the phytic acid biosynthetic pathway. They are reported to be transcriptional regulators involved in various physiological functions in the plants, growth, and biotic/abiotic stress responses. Even though the genomes of most legumes are fully sequenced and available, an all-inclusive study of the MIPS family members in legumes is still ongoing.

RESULTS

We found 24 MIPS genes in ten legumes: Arachis hypogea, Cicer arietinum, Cajanus cajan, Glycine max, Lablab purpureus, Medicago truncatula, Pisum sativum, Phaseolus vulgaris, Trifolium pratense and Vigna unguiculata. The total number of MIPS genes found in each species ranged from two to three. The MIPS genes were classified into five clades based on their evolutionary relationships with Arabidopsis genes. The structural patterns of intron/exon and the protein motifs that were conserved in each gene were highly group-specific. In legumes, MIPS genes were inconsistently distributed across their genomes. A comparison of genomes and gene sequences showed that this family was subjected to purifying selection and the gene expansion in MIPS family in legumes was mainly caused by segmental duplication. Through quantitative PCR, expression patterns of MIPS in response to various abiotic stresses, in the vegetative tissues of various legumes were studied. Expression pattern shows that MIPS genes control the development and differentiation of various organs, and have significant responses to salinity and drought stress.

CONCLUSION

The MIPS genes in the genomes of legumes have been identified, characterized and their expression was analysed. The findings pave way for understanding their molecular functions and evolution, and lead to identify the putative MIPS genes associated with different cell and tissue development.

Genome-wide identification of potassium channels in maize showed evolutionary patterns and variable functional responses to abiotic stresses

Potassium (K) channels are essential components of plant biology, mediating not only K ion (K+) homeostasis but also regulating several physiological processes and stress tolerance. In the current investigation, we identified 27 K+ channels in maize and deciphered the evolution and divergence pattern with four monocots and five dicot species. Chromosomal localization and expansion of K+ channel genes showed uneven distribution and were independent of genome size. The dispersed duplication is the major force in expanding K+ channels in the target genomes. The mean Ka/Ks ratio of <0.5 in paralogs and orthologs indicates horizontal and vertical expansions of K+ channel genes under strong purifying selection. The one-to-one K+ channel orthologs were prominent among the closely related species, with higher synteny between maize and the rest of the monocots. Comprehensive K+ channels promoter analysis revealed various cis-regulatory elements mediating stress tolerance with the predominance of MYB and STRE binding sites. The regulatory network showed AP2-EREBP TFs, miR164 and miR399 are prominent regulatory elements of K+ channels. The qRT-PCR analysis of K+ channels and regulatory miRNAs showed significant expressions in response to drought and waterlogging stresses. The present study expanded the knowledge on K+ channels in maize and will serve as a basis for an in-depth functional analysis.

Impact of Terminal Heat and Combined Heat-Drought Stress on Plant Growth, Yield, Grain Size, and Nutritional Quality in Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.)

Chickpea is the third most consumed pulse and provides a kit of essential nutrients for an exponential population. High temperatures and drought stress are two major abiotic stresses that cause serious effects on chickpea growth and development. The comprehension of abiotic stresses' impact on chickpea productivity and nutritional quality will permit the selection of promising genotypes. The current study aimed to assess the impact of heat and drought stresses on plant growth, grain yield and its components, grain size, and nutritional quality in chickpea. For this purpose, 43 international chickpea genotypes were evaluated under normal, heat, and combined heat-drought stress conditions. The findings revealed a significant decrease of over 50% in plant height, biological yield, and seed yield under both stress conditions. Grain size and hundred-seed weight were the most heritable traits under normal, heat, and combined heat-drought stress. Proteins were accumulated under both stresses, evolving from 20.26% for normal conditions to 22.19% for heat stress and to 21.94% for combined heat-drought stress. For minerals, significant variation between treatments was observed for Mn, Mg, and Na. Our results also showed a significant impact of genotype and genotype-environment interaction factors only on K content. Using selection indices, 22 genotypes were identified as highly tolerant to the combined heat-drought stress, while eleven genotypes were heat-tolerant. Mineral profile analysis according to the contrasting tolerance clusters revealed decreased potassium content in susceptible genotypes, indicating genetic potential in the studied chickpea collection, ensuring tolerance to both stresses while maintaining good grain quality.

Coordination of hydraulic and leaf-level gas exchange traits during water-deficit acclimation in apple rootstocks

Water deficit episodes impact apple (Malus domestica) productivity through challenging the trees' water status, the influence of extreme high temperature climate has become increasingly prominent in recent years. Rootstocks can bestow specific properties on the fruit trees such as the resistance to drought stress. However, the related hydraulic mechanisms in response to water deficit have not been fully understood. Herein, five rootstocks (SH6, GM256, M9, M26, and MM106) were examined under water limitation. The hydraulic conductance of root (Kroot), shoots (Kshoot), and stems (Kstem-shoot) in the five rootstocks reduced slightly during drought stress. Whereas the leaf water potential and photosynthesis of five rootstocks decreased dramatically when they were exposed to drought stress. Additionally, the Kshoot and Kstem-shoot were strongly correlated with the total plant leaf area. Aquaporins (AQPs) involved in the symplastic water transport pathway, the PIP2:1, TIP1:1, and TIP2:2 mRNA levels of all genotypic rootstocks showed significant regulation under drought stress. We examined the relationships among photosynthesis, apoplastic, and symplastic water movement pathways to achieve a comprehensive understanding of rootstocks' hydraulic strategy for improving drought adaptation. The PIP2:1 and TIP2:1 in leaves were more sensitive to root hydraulic conductance in response to drought stress. Furthermore, the coordinated relationship existed in leaf-specific conductance of shoot (Kl -shoot) and transpiration rate (Tr) under drought stress in the rootstocks. Overall, the drought resistance in the five dwarfing rootstocks is associated with the rapid re-establishment of water-related traits, and the effect of the canopy on the drought resistance in apple rootstocks merits much more attention.

Identification and Characterization of Salt- and Drought-Responsive AQP Family Genes in Medicagosativa L

Aquaporins (AQP) are distributed ubiquitously in plants, and they play important roles in multiple aspects of plant growth and development, as well as in plant resistance to various environmental stresses. In this study, 43 MsAQP genes were identified in the forage crop Medicago sativa. All the MsAQP proteins were clustered into four subfamilies based on sequence similarity and phylogenetic relationship, including 17 TIPs, 14 NIPs, 9 PIPs and 3 SIPs. Analyses of gene structure and conserved domains indicated that the majority of the deduced MsAQP proteins contained the signature transmembrane domains and the NPA motifs. Analyses on cis-acting elements in the promoter region of MsAQP genes revealed the presence of multiple and diverse stress-responsive and hormone-responsive cis-acting elements. In addition, by analyzing the available and comprehensive gene expression data of M. truncatula, we screened ten representative MtAQP genes that were responsive to NaCl or drought stress. By analyzing the sequence similarity and phylogenetic relationship, we finally identified the corresponding ten salt- or drought-responsive AQP genes in M. sativa, including three MsTIPs, three MsPIPs and four MsNIPs. The qPCRs showed that the relative expression levels of these ten selected MsAQP genes responded differently to NaCl or drought treatment in M. sativa. Gene expression patterns showed that most MsAQP genes were preferentially expressed in roots or in leaves, which may reflect their tissue-specific functions associated with development. Our results lay an important foundation for the future characterization of the functions of MsAQP genes, and provide candidate genes for stress resistance improvement through genetic breeding in M. sativa.

Unravelling the treasure trove of drought-responsive genes in wild-type peanut through transcriptomics and physiological analyses of root

Peanut is one of the most valuable legumes, grown mainly in arid and semi-arid regions, where its production may be hindered by the lack of water. Therefore, breeding drought tolerant varieties is of great importance for peanut breeding programs around the world. Unlike cultivated peanuts, wild peanuts have greater genetic diversity and are an important source of alleles conferring tolerance/resistance to abiotic and biotic stresses. To decipher the transcriptome changes under drought stress, transcriptomics of roots of highly tolerant Arachis duranensis (ADU) and moderately susceptible A. stenosperma (AST) genotypes were performed. Transcriptome analysis revealed an aggregate of 1465 differentially expressed genes (DEGs), and among the identified DEGs, there were 366 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). Gene ontology and Mapman analyses revealed that the ADU genotype had a higher number of transcripts related to DNA methylation or demethylation, phytohormone signal transduction and flavonoid production, transcription factors, and responses to ethylene. The transcriptome analysis was endorsed by qRT-PCR, which showed a strong correlation value (R² = 0.96). Physio-biochemical analysis showed that the drought-tolerant plants produced more osmolytes, ROS phagocytes, and sugars, but less MDA, thus attenuating the effects of drought stress. In addition, three SNPs of the gene encoding transcription factor NFAY (Aradu.YE2F8), expansin alpha (Aradu.78HGD), and cytokinin dehydrogenase 1-like (Aradu.U999X) exhibited polymorphism in selected different genotypes. Such SNPs could be useful for the selection of drought-tolerant genotypes.

Marginal Lands to Grow Novel Bio-Based Crops: A Plant Breeding Perspective

The biomass demand to fuel a growing global bio-based economy is expected to tremendously increase over the next decades, and projections indicate that dedicated biomass crops will satisfy a large portion of it. The establishment of dedicated biomass crops raises huge concerns, as they can subtract land that is required for food production, undermining food security. In this context, perennial biomass crops suitable for cultivation on marginal lands (MALs) raise attraction, as they could supply biomass without competing for land with food supply. While these crops withstand marginal conditions well, their biomass yield and quality do not ensure acceptable economic returns to farmers and cost-effective biomass conversion into bio-based products, claiming genetic improvement. However, this is constrained by the lack of genetic resources for most of these crops. Here we first review the advantages of cultivating novel perennial biomass crops on MALs, highlighting management practices to enhance the environmental and economic sustainability of these agro-systems. Subsequently, we discuss the preeminent breeding targets to improve the yield and quality of the biomass obtainable from these crops, as well as the stability of biomass production under MALs conditions. These targets include crop architecture and phenology, efficiency in the use of resources, lignocellulose composition in relation to bio-based applications, and tolerance to abiotic stresses. For each target trait, we outline optimal ideotypes, discuss the available breeding resources in the context of (orphan) biomass crops, and provide meaningful examples of genetic improvement. Finally, we discuss the available tools to breed novel perennial biomass crops. These comprise conventional breeding methods (recurrent selection and hybridization), molecular techniques to dissect the genetics of complex traits, speed up selection, and perform transgenic modification (genetic mapping, QTL and GWAS analysis, marker-assisted selection, genomic selection, transformation protocols), and novel high-throughput phenotyping platforms. Furthermore, novel tools to transfer genetic knowledge from model to orphan crops (i.e., universal markers) are also conceptualized, with the belief that their development will enhance the efficiency of plant breeding in orphan biomass crops, enabling a sustainable use of MALs for biomass provision.

Drought stress and re-watering affect the abundance of TIP aquaporin transcripts in barley

Tonoplast Intrinsic Proteins (TIP) are plant aquaporins that are primarily localized in the tonoplast and play a role in the bidirectional flux of water and other substrates across a membrane. In barley, eleven members of the HvTIP gene subfamily have been identified. Here, we describe the transcription profile of the HvTIP genes in the leaves of barley seedlings being grown under optimal moisture conditions, drought stress and a re-watering phase. The applied drought stress caused a 55% decrease in the relative water content (RWC) in seedlings, while re-watering increased the RWC to 90% of the control. Our analysis showed that all HvTIP genes, except HvTIP3;2, HvTIP4;3 and HvTIP5.1, were expressed in leaves of ten-day-old barley seedlings under optimal water conditions with the transcripts of HvTIP2;3, HvTIP1;2 and HvTIP1;1 being the most abundant. We showed, for the first time in barley, a significant variation in the transcriptional activity between the analysed genes under drought stress. After drought treatment, five HvTIP genes, which are engaged in water transport, were down-regulated to varying degrees, while two, HvTIP3;1 and HvTIP4;1, were up-regulated. The HvTIP3;1 isoform, which is postulated as transporting hydrogen peroxide, expressed the highest increase of activity (ca. 5000x) under drought stress, thus indicating its importance in the response to this stress. Re-hydration caused the return of the expression of many genes to the level that was observed under optimal moisture conditions or, at least, a change in this direction Additionally, we examined the promotor regions of HvTIP and detected the presence of the cis-regulatory elements that are connected with the hormone and stress responses in all of the genes. Overall, our results suggest that 7 of 11 studied HvTIP (HvTIP1;1, HvTIP1;2, HvTIP2;1, HvTIP2;2, HvTIP2;3, HvTIP3;1, HvTIP4;1) have an important function during the adaptation of barley to drought stress conditions. We discuss the identified drought-responsive HvTIP in terms of their function in the adaptation of barley to this stress.

Distinct leaf transcriptomic response of water deficient Eucalyptus grandis submitted to potassium and sodium fertilization

While potassium fertilization increases growth yield in Brazilian eucalyptus plantations, it could also increase water requirements, making trees more vulnerable to drought. Sodium fertilization, which has been shown to promote eucalyptus growth compared to K-deficient trees, could partially mitigate this adverse effect of potassium. However, little is known about the influence of K and Na fertilization on the tree metabolic response to water deficit. The aim of the present study was thus to analyze the transcriptome of leaves sampled from Eucalyptus grandis trees subjected to 37% rainfall reduction, and fertilized with potassium (K), sodium (Na), compared to control trees (C). The multifactorial experiment was set up in a field with a throughfall exclusion system. Transcriptomic analysis was performed on leaves from two-year-old trees, and data analyzed using multifactorial statistical analysis and weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA). Significant sets of genes were seen to respond to rainfall reduction, in interaction with K or Na fertilization, or to fertilization only (regardless of the water supply regime). The genes were involved in stress signaling, primary and secondary metabolism, secondary cell wall formation and photosynthetic activity. Our focus on key genes related to cation transporters and aquaporins highlighted specific regulation of ion homeostasis, and plant adjustment to water deficit. While water availability significantly affects the transcriptomic response of eucalyptus species, this study points out that the transcriptomic response is highly dependent on the fertilization regime. Our study is based on the first large-scale field trial in a tropical region, specifically designed to study the interaction between water availability and nutrition in eucalyptus. To our knowledge, this is the first global transcriptomic analysis to compare the influence of K and Na fertilization on tree adaptive traits in water deficit conditions.

Engineering Drought Resistance in Forest Trees

Climatic stresses limit plant growth and productivity. In the past decade, tree improvement programs were mainly focused on yield but it is obvious that enhanced stress resistance is also required. In this review we highlight important drought avoidance and tolerance mechanisms in forest trees. Genomes of economically important trees species with divergent resistance mechanisms can now be exploited to uncover the mechanistic basis of long-term drought adaptation at the whole plant level. Molecular tree physiology indicates that osmotic adjustment, antioxidative defense and increased water use efficiency are important targets for enhanced drought tolerance at the cellular and tissue level. Recent biotechnological approaches focused on overexpression of genes involved in stress sensing and signaling, such as the abscisic acid core pathway, and down-stream transcription factors. By this strategy, a suite of defense systems was recruited, generally enhancing drought and salt stress tolerance under laboratory conditions. However, field studies are still scarce. Under field conditions trees are exposed to combinations of stresses that vary in duration and magnitude. Variable stresses may overrule the positive effect achieved by engineering an individual defense pathway. To assess the usability of distinct modifications, large-scale experimental field studies in different environments are necessary. To optimize the balance between growth and defense, the use of stress-inducible promoters may be useful. Future improvement programs for drought resistance will benefit from a better understanding of the intricate networks that ameliorate molecular and ecological traits of forest trees.

Engineering Drought Resistance in Forest Trees

Climatic stresses limit plant growth and productivity. In the past decade, tree improvement programs were mainly focused on yield but it is obvious that enhanced stress resistance is also required. In this review we highlight important drought avoidance and tolerance mechanisms in forest trees. Genomes of economically important trees species with divergent resistance mechanisms can now be exploited to uncover the mechanistic basis of long-term drought adaptation at the whole plant level. Molecular tree physiology indicates that osmotic adjustment, antioxidative defense and increased water use efficiency are important targets for enhanced drought tolerance at the cellular and tissue level. Recent biotechnological approaches focused on overexpression of genes involved in stress sensing and signaling, such as the abscisic acid core pathway, and down-stream transcription factors. By this strategy, a suite of defense systems was recruited, generally enhancing drought and salt stress tolerance under laboratory conditions. However, field studies are still scarce. Under field conditions trees are exposed to combinations of stresses that vary in duration and magnitude. Variable stresses may overrule the positive effect achieved by engineering an individual defense pathway. To assess the usability of distinct modifications, large-scale experimental field studies in different environments are necessary. To optimize the balance between growth and defense, the use of stress-inducible promoters may be useful. Future improvement programs for drought resistance will benefit from a better understanding of the intricate networks that ameliorate molecular and ecological traits of forest trees.

Potassium in the Grape (Vitis vinifera L.) Berry: Transport and Function

K+ is the most abundant cation in the grape berry. Here we focus on the most recent information in the long distance transport and partitioning of K+ within the grapevine and postulate on the potential role of K+ in berry sugar accumulation, berry water relations, cellular growth, disease resistance, abiotic stress tolerance and mitigating senescence. By integrating information from several different plant systems we have been able to generate new hypotheses on the integral functions of this predominant cation and to improve our understanding of how these functions contribute to grape berry growth and ripening. Valuable contributions to the study of K+ in membrane stabilization, turgor maintenance and phloem transport have allowed us to propose a mechanistic model for the role of this cation in grape berry development.

Plant and animal aquaporins crosstalk: what can be revealed from distinct perspectives

Aquaporins (AQPs) can be revisited from a distinct and complementary perspective: the outcome from analyzing them from both plant and animal studies. (1) The approach in the study. Diversity found in both kingdoms contrasts with the limited number of crystal structures determined within each group. While the structure of almost half of mammal AQPs was resolved, only a few were resolved in plants. Strikingly, the animal structures resolved are mainly derived from the AQP2-lineage, due to their important roles in water homeostasis regulation in humans. The difference could be attributed to the approach: relevance in animal research is emphasized on pathology and in consequence drug screening that can lead to potential inhibitors, enhancers and/or regulators. By contrast, studies on plants have been mainly focused on the physiological role that AQPs play in growth, development and stress tolerance. (2) The transport capacity. Besides the well-described AQPs with high water transport capacity, large amount of evidence confirms that certain plant AQPs can carry a large list of small solutes. So far, animal AQP list is more restricted. In both kingdoms, there is a great amount of evidence on gas transport, although there is still an unsolved controversy around gas translocation as well as the role of the central pore of the tetramer. (3) More roles than expected. We found it remarkable that the view of AQPs as specific channels has evolved first toward simple transporters to molecules that can experience conformational changes triggered by biochemical and/or mechanical signals, turning them also into signaling components and/or behave as osmosensor molecules.

Carbon dioxide and water transport through plant aquaporins

Aquaporins are channel proteins that function to increase the permeability of biological membranes. In plants, aquaporins are encoded by multigene families that have undergone substantial diversification in land plants. The plasma membrane intrinsic proteins (PIPs) subfamily of aquaporins is of particular interest given their potential to improve plant water relations and photosynthesis. Flowering plants have between 7 and 28 PIP genes. Their expression varies with tissue and cell type, through development and in response to a variety of factors, contributing to the dynamic and tissue specific control of permeability. There are a growing number of PIPs shown to act as water channels, but those altering membrane permeability to CO₂ are more limited. The structural basis for selective substrate specificities has not yet been resolved, although a few key amino acid positions have been identified. Several regions important for dimerization, gating and trafficking are also known. PIP aquaporins assemble as tetramers and their properties depend on the monomeric composition. PIPs control water flux into and out of veins and stomatal guard cells and also increase membrane permeability to CO₂ in mesophyll and stomatal guard cells. The latter increases the effectiveness of Rubisco and can potentially influence transpiration efficiency.

Genome-wide expression profiling of aquaporin genes confer responses to abiotic and biotic stresses in Brassica rapa

BACKGROUND

Plants contain a range of aquaporin (AQP) proteins, which act as transporter of water and nutrient molecules through living membranes. AQPs also participate in water uptake through the roots and contribute to water homeostasis in leaves.

RESULTS

In this study, we identified 59 AQP genes in the B. rapa database and Br135K microarray dataset. Phylogenetic analysis revealed four distinct subfamilies of AQP genes: plasma membrane intrinsic proteins (PIPs), tonoplast intrinsic proteins (TIPs), NOD26-like intrinsic proteins (NIPs) and small basic intrinsic proteins (SIPs). Microarray analysis showed that the majority of PIP subfamily genes had differential transcript abundance between two B. rapa inbred lines Chiifu and Kenshin that differ in their susceptibility to cold. In addition, all BrPIP genes showed organ-specific expression. Out of 22 genes, 12, 7 and 17 were up-regulated in response to cold, drought and salt stresses, respectively. In addition, 18 BrPIP genes were up-regulated under ABA treatment and 4 BrPIP genes were up-regulated upon F. oxysporum f. sp. conglutinans infection. Moreover, all BrPIP genes showed down-regulation under waterlogging stress, reflecting likely the inactivation of AQPs controlling symplastic water movement.

CONCLUSIONS

This study provides a comprehensive analysis of AQPs in B. rapa and details the expression of 22 members of the BrPIP subfamily. These results provide insight into stress-related biological functions of each PIP gene of the AQP family, which will promote B. rapa breeding programs.

Aquaporins and plant transpiration

Although transpiration and aquaporins have long been identified as two key components influencing plant water status, it is only recently that their relations have been investigated in detail. The present review first examines the various facets of aquaporin function in stomatal guard cells and shows that it involves transport of water but also of other molecules such as carbon dioxide and hydrogen peroxide. At the whole plant level, changes in tissue hydraulics mediated by root and shoot aquaporins can indirectly impact plant transpiration. Recent studies also point to a feedback effect of transpiration on aquaporin function. These mechanisms may contribute to the difference between isohydric and anisohydric stomatal regulation of leaf water status. The contribution of aquaporins to transpiration control goes far beyond the issue of water transport during stomatal movements and involves emerging cellular and long-distance signalling mechanisms which ultimately act on plant growth.

Plasma Membrane Intrinsic Proteins SlPIP2;1, SlPIP2;7 and SlPIP2;5 Conferring Enhanced Drought Stress Tolerance in Tomato

The function of aquaporin (AQP) protein in transporting water is crucial for plants to survive in drought stress. With 47 homologues in tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) were reported, but the individual and integrated functions of aquaporins involved in drought response remains unclear. Here, three plasma membrane intrinsic protein genes, SlPIP2;1, SlPIP2;7 and SlPIP2;5, were identified as candidate aquaporins genes because of highly expressed in tomato roots. Assay on expression in Xenopus oocytes demonstrated that SlPIP2s protein displayed water channel activity and facilitated water transport into the cells. With real-time PCR and in situ hybridization analysis, SlPIP2s were considered to be involved in response to drought treatment. To test its function, transgenic Arabidopsis and tomato lines overexpressing SlPIP2;1, SlPIP2;7 or SlPIP2;5 were generated. Compared with wild type, the over-expression of SlPIP2;1, SlPIP2;7 or SlPIP2;5 transgenic Arabidopsis and tomato plants all showed significantly higher hydraulic conductivity levels and survival rates under both normal and drought conditions. Taken together, this study concludes that aquaporins (SlPIP2;1, SlPIP2;7 and SlPIP2;5) contribute substantially to root water uptake in tomato plants through improving plant water content and maintaining osmotic balance.

Genome-Wide Analysis of the Aquaporin Gene Family in Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.)

Aquaporins (AQPs) are essential membrane proteins that play critical role in the transport of water and many other solutes across cell membranes. In this study, a comprehensive genome-wide analysis identified 40 AQP genes in chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.). A complete overview of the chickpea AQP (CaAQP) gene family is presented, including their chromosomal locations, gene structure, phylogeny, gene duplication, conserved functional motifs, gene expression, and conserved promoter motifs. To understand AQP's evolution, a comparative analysis of chickpea AQPs with AQP orthologs from soybean, Medicago, common bean, and Arabidopsis was performed. The chickpea AQP genes were found on all of the chickpea chromosomes, except chromosome 7, with a maximum of six genes on chromosome 6, and a minimum of one gene on chromosome 5. Gene duplication analysis indicated that the expansion of chickpea AQP gene family might have been due to segmental and tandem duplications. CaAQPs were grouped into four subfamilies including 15 NOD26-like intrinsic proteins (NIPs), 13 tonoplast intrinsic proteins (TIPs), eight plasma membrane intrinsic proteins (PIPs), and four small basic intrinsic proteins (SIPs) based on sequence similarities and phylogenetic position. Gene structure analysis revealed a highly conserved exon-intron pattern within CaAQP subfamilies supporting the CaAQP family classification. Functional prediction based on conserved Ar/R selectivity filters, Froger's residues, and specificity-determining positions suggested wide differences in substrate specificity among the subfamilies of CaAQPs. Expression analysis of the AQP genes indicated that some of the genes are tissue-specific, whereas few other AQP genes showed differential expression in response to biotic and abiotic stresses. Promoter profiling of CaAQP genes for conserved cis-acting regulatory elements revealed enrichment of cis-elements involved in circadian control, light response, defense and stress responsiveness reflecting their varying pattern of gene expression and potential involvement in biotic and abiotic stress responses. The current study presents the first detailed genome-wide analysis of the AQP gene family in chickpea and provides valuable information for further functional analysis to infer the role of AQP in the adaptation of chickpea in diverse environmental conditions.

Localized and non-localized effects of arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis on accumulation of osmolytes and aquaporins and on antioxidant systems in maize plants subjected to total or partial root drying

The arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) symbiosis alters host plant physiology under drought stress, but no information is available on whether or not the AM affects respond to drought locally or systemically. A split-root system was used to obtain AM plants with total or only half root system colonized as well as to induce physiological drought affecting the whole plant or non-physiological drought affecting only the half root system. We analysed the local and/or systemic nature of the AM effects on accumulation of osmoregulatory compounds and aquaporins and on antioxidant systems. Maize plants accumulated proline both, locally in roots affected by drought and systemically when the drought affected the whole root system, being the last effect ampler in AM plants. PIPs (plasma membrane intrinsic proteins) aquaporins were also differently regulated by drought in AM and non-AM root compartments. When the drought affected only the AM root compartment, the rise of lipid peroxidation was restricted to such compartment. On the contrary, when the drought affected the non-AM root fraction, the rise of lipid peroxidation was similar in both root compartments. Thus, the benefits of the AM symbiosis not only rely in a lower oxidative stress in the host plant, but it also restricts locally such oxidative stress.

Heterologous Expression of Two Jatropha Aquaporins Imparts Drought and Salt Tolerance and Improves Seed Viability in Transgenic Arabidopsis thaliana

Drought and high salinity are environmental conditions that cause adverse effects on the growth and productivity of crops. Aquaporins are small integral membrane proteins that belong to the family of the major intrinsic proteins (MIPs), with members in animals, plants and microbes, where they facilitate the transport of water and/or small neutral solutes thereby affecting water balance. In this study we characterized two aquaporin genes namely, plasma membrane intrinsic protein (PIP2;7) and tonoplast intrinsic protein TIP1;3 from Jatropha curcas that are localised to the plasma membrane and vacuole respectively. Transgenic Arabidopsis thaliana lines over-expressing JcPIP2;7 and JcTIP1;3 under a constitutive promoter show improved germination under high salt and mannitol compared to control seeds. These transgenic plants also show increased root length under abiotic stress conditions compared to wild type Col-0 plants. Transgenic lines exposed to drought conditions by withholding water for 20 days, were able to withstand water stress and attained normal growth after re-watering unlike control plants which could not survive. Transgenic lines also had better seed yield than control under salt stress. Importantly, seed viability of transgenic plants grown under high salt concentration was 35%-45% compared to less than 5% for control seeds obtained from plants growing under salt stress. The effect of JcPIP2;7 and JcTIP1;3 on improving germination and seed viability in drought and salinity make these important candidates for genetic manipulation of plants for growth in saline soils.

Regulation of potassium transport in plants under hostile conditions: implications for abiotic and biotic stress tolerance

Intracellular potassium homeostasis is a prerequisite for the optimal operation of plant metabolic machinery and plant's overall performance. It is controlled by K(+) uptake, efflux and intracellular and long-distance relocation, mediated by a large number of K(+) -selective and non-selective channels and transporters located at both plasma and vacuolar membranes. All abiotic and biotic stresses result in a significant disturbance to intracellular potassium homeostasis. In this work, we discuss molecular mechanisms and messengers mediating potassium transport and homeostasis focusing on four major environmental stresses: salinity, drought, flooding and biotic factors. We argue that cytosolic K(+) content may be considered as one of the 'master switches' enabling plant transition from the normal metabolism to 'hibernated state' during first hours after the stress exposure and then to a recovery phase. We show that all these stresses trigger substantial disturbance to K(+) homeostasis and provoke a feedback control on K(+) channels and transporters expression and post-translational regulation of their activity, optimizing K(+) absorption and usage, and, at the extreme end, assisting the programmed cell death. We discuss specific modes of regulation of the activity of K(+) channels and transporters by membrane voltage, intracellular Ca(2+) , reactive oxygen species, polyamines, phytohormones and gasotransmitters, and link this regulation with plant-adaptive responses to hostile environments.

The Thellungiella salsuginea tonoplast aquaporin TsTIP1;2 functions in protection against multiple abiotic stresses

Examination of aquaporin (AQP) membrane channels in extremophile plants may increase our understanding of plant tolerance to high salt, drought or other conditions. Here, we cloned a tonoplast AQP gene (TsTIP1;2) from the halophyte Thellungiella salsuginea and characterized its biological functions. TsTIP1;2 transcripts accumulate to high levels in several organs, increasing in response to multiple external stimuli. Ectopic overexpression of TsTIP1;2 in Arabidopsis significantly increased plant tolerance to drought, salt and oxidative stresses. TsTIP1;2 had water channel activity when expressed in Xenopus oocytes. TsTIP1;2 was also able to conduct H₂O₂ molecules into yeast cells in response to oxidative stress. TsTIP1;2 was not permeable to Na(+) in Xenopus oocytes, but it could facilitate the entry of Na(+) ions into plant cell vacuoles by an indirect process under high-salinity conditions. Collectively, these data showed that TsTIP1;2 could mediate the conduction of both H₂O and H₂O₂ across membranes, and may act as a multifunctional contributor to survival of T. salsuginea in highly stressful habitats.

Aquaporins and leaf hydraulics: poplar sheds new light

To help understand leaf hydraulic conductance (Kleaf) modulation under high irradiance, well-watered poplars (Populus trichocarpa Torr. & Gray ex Hook and Populus nigra L.) were studied diurnally at molecular and ecophysiological scales. Transcriptional and translational modulations of plasma membrane intrinsic protein (PIP) aquaporins were evaluated in leaf samples during diurnal time courses. Among the 15 poplar PIP genes, a subset of two PIP1s and seven PIP2s are precociously induced within the first hour of the photoperiod concomitantly with a Kleaf increase. Since expression patterns were cyclic and reproducible over several days, we hypothesized that endogenous signals could be involved in PIP transcriptional regulation. To address this question, plants were submitted to forced darkness during their subjective photoperiod and compared with their control counterparts, which showed that some PIP1s and PIP2s have circadian regulation while others did not. Promoter analysis revealed that a large number of hormone, light, stress response and circadian elements are present. Finally, involvement of aquaporins is supported by the reduction of Kleaf by HgCl2 treatment.

The critical role of potassium in plant stress response

Agricultural production continues to be constrained by a number of biotic and abiotic factors that can reduce crop yield quantity and quality. Potassium (K) is an essential nutrient that affects most of the biochemical and physiological processes that influence plant growth and metabolism. It also contributes to the survival of plants exposed to various biotic and abiotic stresses. The following review focuses on the emerging role of K in defending against a number of biotic and abiotic stresses, including diseases, pests, drought, salinity, cold and frost and waterlogging. The availability of K and its effects on plant growth, anatomy, morphology and plant metabolism are discussed. The physiological and molecular mechanisms of K function in plant stress resistance are reviewed. This article also evaluates the potential for improving plant stress resistance by modifying K fertilizer inputs and highlights the future needs for research about the role of K in agriculture.

Variation in embolism occurrence and repair along the stem in drought-stressed and re-watered seedlings of a poplar clone

Root pressure and plasma membrane intrinsic protein (PIP) availability in the xylem have been recognized to participate in the refilling of embolized conduits, yet integration of the two mechanisms has not been reported in the same plant. In this study, 4-month-old seedlings of a hybrid poplar (Populus alba × Populus glandulosa) clone 84K were subjected to two contrasting soil-water treatments, with the drought treatment involving withholding of water for 17 days to reduce the soil-water content to 10% of the saturated field capacity, followed by a re-watering cycle. The percentage loss of stem hydraulic conductance (PLC) sharply increased, and stomatal conductance and photosynthesis declined in response to drought stress; these processes were gradually restored following the subsequent re-watering. Embolism was most severe in the middle portions of the stem, followed by the basal and top portions of the stems of seedlings subjected to drought stress and subsequent re-watering. Although drought stress eliminated root pressure, re-watering partially restored it in a short period of time. The expression of PIP genes in the xylem was activated by drought stress, and some PIP genes were further stimulated in the top portion after re-watering. The dynamics of root pressure and differential expression of PIP genes along the stem coincided with changes in PLC, suggesting that root pressure and PIPs work together to refill the embolized vessels. On the basis of the recovery dynamics in PLC and g(smax) (maximum stomatal conductance) after re-watering, the stomatal closure and xylem cavitation exhibited fatigue due to drought stress.

A cotton gene encoding a plasma membrane aquaporin is involved in seedling development and in response to drought stress

Cotton (Gossypium hirsutum), the most important textile crop worldwide, often encounters abiotic stress such as drought and waterlog during its growth season (summer), and its productivity is significantly limited by adverse factors. To investigate the molecular adaptation mechanisms of this plant species to abiotic stress, a gene encoding the plasma membrane intrinsic protein (PIP) was isolated in cotton, and designated as GhPIP2;7. Quantitative reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction analysis indicated that GhPIP2;7 was preferentially expressed in cotyledons and leaves, and its expression was up-regulated in leaves after drought treatments. Strong expression of GUS gene driven by GhPIP2;7 promoter was detected in leaves of 5- to 10-day-old transgenic Arabidopsis seedlings, but GUS activity gradually became weak as the seedlings further developed. GhPIP2;7 promoter activity was also remarkably induced by mannitol treatment. Furthermore, yeast cells over-expressing GhPIP2;7 displayed relatively higher drought tolerance, compared with controls. Over-expression of GhPIP2;7 in Arabidopsis enhanced plant tolerance to drought stress. Collectively, these data suggested that GhPIP2;7 gene may be involved in leaf development and in response to drought stress.

Microarray analysis and scale-free gene networks identify candidate regulators in drought-stressed roots of loblolly pine (P. taeda L.)

BACKGROUND

Global transcriptional analysis of loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.) is challenging due to limited molecular tools. PtGen2, a 26,496 feature cDNA microarray, was fabricated and used to assess drought-induced gene expression in loblolly pine propagule roots. Statistical analysis of differential expression and weighted gene correlation network analysis were used to identify drought-responsive genes and further characterize the molecular basis of drought tolerance in loblolly pine.

RESULTS

Microarrays were used to interrogate root cDNA populations obtained from 12 genotype × treatment combinations (four genotypes, three watering regimes). Comparison of drought-stressed roots with roots from the control treatment identified 2445 genes displaying at least a 1.5-fold expression difference (false discovery rate = 0.01). Genes commonly associated with drought response in pine and other plant species, as well as a number of abiotic and biotic stress-related genes, were up-regulated in drought-stressed roots. Only 76 genes were identified as differentially expressed in drought-recovered roots, indicating that the transcript population can return to the pre-drought state within 48 hours. Gene correlation analysis predicts a scale-free network topology and identifies eleven co-expression modules that ranged in size from 34 to 938 members. Network topological parameters identified a number of central nodes (hubs) including those with significant homology (E-values ≤ 2 × 10-30) to 9-cis-epoxycarotenoid dioxygenase, zeatin O-glucosyltransferase, and ABA-responsive protein. Identified hubs also include genes that have been associated previously with osmotic stress, phytohormones, enzymes that detoxify reactive oxygen species, and several genes of unknown function.

CONCLUSION

PtGen2 was used to evaluate transcriptome responses in loblolly pine and was leveraged to identify 2445 differentially expressed genes responding to severe drought stress in roots. Many of the genes identified are known to be up-regulated in response to osmotic stress in pine and other plant species and encode proteins involved in both signal transduction and stress tolerance. Gene expression levels returned to control values within a 48-hour recovery period in all but 76 transcripts. Correlation network analysis indicates a scale-free network topology for the pine root transcriptome and identifies central nodes that may serve as drivers of drought-responsive transcriptome dynamics in the roots of loblolly pine.

Genetic and environmental effects influencing fruit colour and QTL analysis in raspberry

Raspberry (Rubus idaeus) fruit colour was assessed in the Latham x Glen Moy mapping population using a colour meter and visual scores over three seasons and three environments. The colour measurements were found to be significantly associated with pigment content, have high heritability, and stable QTL were identified across environments and seasons. Anthocyanin content has previously been shown to be the major contributor to fruit colour in red raspberry. Major structural genes (F3'H, FLS, DFR, IFR, OMT and GST) and transcription factors (bZIP, bHLH and MYB) influencing flavonoid biosynthesis have been identified, mapped and shown to underlie QTL for quantitative and qualitative anthocyanin composition. Favourable alleles for the selected traits were identified for the aspects of fruit colour and partitioning of individual pigments.

Induced systemic resistance and plant responses to fungal biocontrol agents

Biocontrol fungi (BCF) are agents that control plant diseases. These include the well-known Trichoderma spp. and the recently described Sebacinales spp. They have the ability to control numerous foliar, root, and fruit pathogens and even invertebrates such as nematodes. However, this is only a subset of their abilities. We now know that they also have the ability to ameliorate a wide range of abiotic stresses, and some of them can also alleviate physiological stresses such as seed aging. They can also enhance nutrient uptake in plants and can substantially increase nitrogen use efficiency in crops. These abilities may be more important to agriculture than disease control. Some strains also have abilities to improve photosynthetic efficiency and probably respiratory activities of plants. All of these capabilities are a consequence of their abilities to reprogram plant gene expression, probably through activation of a limited number of general plant pathways.

Differential effects of Pseudomonas mendocina and Glomus intraradices on lettuce plants physiological response and aquaporin PIP2 gene expression under elevated atmospheric CO2 and drought

Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) symbiosis and plant-growth-promoting rhizobacterium (PGPR) can alleviate the effects of water stress in plants, but it is unknown whether these benefits can be maintained at elevated CO2. Therefore, we carried out a study where seedlings of Lactuca sativa were inoculated with the AM fungus (AMF) Glomus intraradices N.C. Schenk & G.S. Sm. or the PGPR Pseudomonas mendocina Palleroni and subjected to two levels of watering and two levels of atmospheric CO2 to ascertain their effects on plant physiological parameters and gene expression of one PIP aquaporin in roots. The inoculation with PGPR produced the greatest growth in lettuce plants under all assayed treatments as well as the highest foliar potassium concentration and leaf relative water content under elevated [CO2] and drought. However, under such conditions, the PIP2 gene expression remained almost unchanged. G. intraradices increased significantly the AMF colonization, foliar phosphorus concentration and leaf relative water content in plants grown under drought and elevated [CO2]. Under drought and elevated [CO2], the plants inoculated with G. intraradices showed enhanced expression of the PIP2 gene as compared to P. mendocina or control plants. Our results suggest that both microbial inoculation treatments could help to alleviate drought at elevated [CO2]. However, the PIP2 gene expression was increased only by the AMF but not by the PGPR under these conditions.

The hydraulic conductance of Fraxinus ornus leaves is constrained by soil water availability and coordinated with gas exchange rates

Leaf hydraulic conductance (Kleaf) is known to be an important determinant of plant gas exchange and photosynthesis. Little is known about the long-term impact of different environmental factors on the hydraulic construction of leaves and its eventual consequences on leaf gas exchange. In this study, we investigate the impact of soil water availability on Kleaf of Fraxinus ornus L. as well as the influence of Kleaf on gas exchange rates and plant water status. With this aim, Kleaf, leaf conductance to water vapour (gL), leaf water potential (Psileaf) and leaf mass per area (LMA) were measured in F. ornus trees, growing in 21 different sites with contrasting water availability. Plants growing in arid sites had lower Kleaf, gL and Psileaf than those growing in sites with higher water availability. On the contrary, LMA was similar in the two groups. The Kleaf values recorded in sites with two different levels of soil water availability were constantly different from each other regardless of the amount of precipitation recorded over 20 days before measurements. Moreover, Kleaf was correlated with gL values. Our data suggest that down-regulation of Kleaf is a component of adaptation of plants to drought-prone habitats. Low Kleaf implies reduced gas exchange which may, in turn, influence the climatic conditions on a local/regional scale. It is concluded that leaf hydraulics and its changes in response to resource availability should receive greater attention in studies aimed at modelling biosphere-atmosphere interactions.

Role of aquaporins in leaf physiology

Playing a key role in plant growth and development, leaves need to be continuously supplied with water and carbon dioxide to fulfil their photosynthetic function. On its way through the leaf from the xylem to the stomata, water can either move through cell walls or pass from cell to cell to cross the different tissues. Although both pathways are probably used to some degree, evidence is accumulating that living cells contribute substantially to the overall leaf hydraulic conductance (K(leaf)). Transcellular water flow is facilitated and regulated by water channels in the membranes, named aquaporins (AQPs). This review addresses how AQP expression and activity effectively regulate the leaf water balance in normal conditions and modify the cell membrane water permeability in response to different environmental factors, such as irradiance, temperature, and water supply. The role of AQPs in leaf growth and movement, and in CO(2) transport is also discussed.

Acceleration of vacuolar regeneration and cell growth by overexpression of an aquaporin NtTIP1;1 in tobacco BY-2 cells

Aquaporin is a water channel that increases water permeability through membranous structures. In plants, vacuoles are essential organelles that undergo dynamic volume changes during cell growth. To understand the contribution of aquaporins to plant cell growth, we developed a transgenic tobacco BY-2 cell line overexpressing the tonoplast intrinsic protein (TIP), gammaTIP. Vacuolar membranes of isolated vacuoles from gammaTIP-overexpressing cells showed higher water permeation activities than those from wild-type cells. We then examined the role of gammaTIP in vacuolar regeneration of evacuolated tobacco BY-2 protoplasts (miniprotoplasts). Vacuolar regeneration from thin to thick tube-network vacuoles and subsequent development of large vacuoles was accelerated in miniprotoplasts of this cell line. A parallel increase in the rate of cell expansion indicated a tight relationship between vacuolar development and cellular volume increases. Interestingly, overexpression of tobacco gammaTIP also enhanced cell division. Thus, increased vacuolar aquaporin activity may accelerate both cell expansion and cell division by increasing water permeability through the vacuolar membrane.

Plant responses to drought stress and exogenous ABA application are modulated differently by mycorrhization in tomato and an ABA-deficient mutant (sitiens)

The aims of the present study are to find out whether the effects of arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) symbiosis on plant resistance to water deficit are mediated by the endogenous abscisic acid (ABA) content of the host plant and whether the exogenous ABA application modifies such effects. The ABA-deficient tomato mutant sitiens and its near-isogenic wild-type parental line were used. Plant development, physiology, and expression of plant genes expected to be modulated by AM symbiosis, drought, and ABA were studied. Results showed that only wild-type tomato plants responded positively to mycorrhizal inoculation, while AM symbiosis was not observed to have any effect on plant development in sitiens plants grown under well-watered conditions. The application of ABA to sitiens plants enhanced plant growth both under well-watered and drought stress conditions. In respect to sitiens plants subjected to drought stress, the addition of ABA had a cumulative effect in relation to that of inoculation with G. intraradices. Most of the genes analyzed in this study showed different regulation patterns in wild-type and sitiens plants, suggesting that their gene expression is modulated by the plant ABA phenotype. In the same way, the colonization of roots with the AM fungus G. intraradices differently regulated the expression of these genes in wild-type and in sitiens plants, which could explain the distinctive effect of the symbiosis on each plant ABA phenotype. This also suggests that the effects of the AM symbiosis on plant responses and resistance to water deficit are mediated by the plant ABA phenotype.

Drought stress alters water relations and expression of PIP-type aquaporin genes in Nicotiana tabacum plants

Plasma membrane intrinsic proteins (PIPs), a type of aquaporins, mediate water transport in many plant species. In this study, we investigated the relationship between the functions of PIP-type water channels and water relations of tobacco plants (Nicotiana tabacum cv. Samsun) under drought stress. Drought stress treatments have led to reductions in the stomatal conductance, transpiration, water potential and turgor pressure in leaves, and also the sap flow rate and osmotic hydraulic conductance in roots. In contrast, leaf osmotic pressure was increased in response to drought stress. Interestingly, the accumulation of NtPIP1;1 and NtPIP2;1 transcripts was significantly decreased, but only that of the NtAQP1 transcript was increased under drought stress. Functional analysis using Xenopus laevis oocytes revealed that NtPIP2;1 shows marked water transport activity, but the activities of NtAQP1 and NtPIP1;1 are weak or almost negligible, respectively, when expressed alone. However, co-expression of NtPIP1;1 with NtPIP2;1 significantly enhanced water transport activity compared with that of NtPIP1;1- or NtPIP2;1-expressing oocytes, suggesting that these two aquaporins may function as a water channel, forming a heterotetramer. Heteromerization of NtPIP1;1 and NtPIP2;1 was also suggested by co-expression analyses of NtPIP1;1-GFP (green fluorescent protein) and NtPIP2;1 in Xenopus oocytes. Re-watering treatments recovered water relation parameters and the accumulation of the three NtPIP transcripts to levels similar to control conditions. These results suggest that NtPIP1;1 and NtPIP2;1 play an important role in water transport in roots, and that expression of NtPIP1;1 and NtPIP2;1 is down-regulated in order to reduce osmotic hydraulic conductance in the roots of tobacco plants under drought stress.

Ectopic Expression of a Foreign Aquaporin Disrupts the Natural Expression Patterns of Endogenous Aquaporin Genes and Alters Plant Responses to Different Stress Conditions

Although the number of reports demonstrating the roles of individual aquaporins in plants under diverse physiological conditions is expanding, the importance of interactions between different aquaporin isoforms and their integrated functions under stress conditions remain unclear. Here, we expressed one cucumber aquaporin gene, designated CsPIP1;1, and one figleaf gourd aquaporin gene, designated CfPIP2;1, in Arabidopsis thaliana, and investigated the effect of its expression on the natural expression patterns of endogenous PIP genes under stress conditions. The transcript levels of endogenous Arabidopsis PIP members were altered differently depending on stress conditions by the expression of CsPIP1;1 or CfPIP2;1. The transgenic Arabidopsis plants that constitutively express CfPIP2;1 displayed better growth compared with the wild-type plants under dehydration stress conditions, whereas CsPIP1;1 expression exerted a negative effect on the growth of Arabidopsis under dehydration stress conditions. CsPIP1;1 or CfPIP2;1 expression facilitated seed germination under high salt stress conditions, but had no influence on the growth of Arabidopsis under cold stress conditions. Our results indicate that the ectopic expression of a foreign aquaporin gene perturbs differently the natural expression patterns of endogenous aquaporin genes depending on particular stress conditions, and thereby influences the responses of plants to different stress conditions. This implies that the up- and/or down-regulation of aquaporins and their integrated functions are crucial to the maintenance of proper water balance under stress conditions.

Overexpression of a Panax ginseng tonoplast aquaporin alters salt tolerance, drought tolerance and cold acclimation ability in transgenic Arabidopsis plants

Water movement across cellular membranes is regulated largely by a family of water channel proteins called aquaporins (AQPs). Since several abiotic stresses such as, drought, salinity and freezing, manifest themselves via altering water status of plant cells and are linked by the fact that they all result in cellular dehydration, we overexpressed an AQP (tonoplast intrinsic protein) from Panax ginseng, PgTIP1, in transgenic Arabidopsis thaliana plants to test its role in plant's response to drought, salinity and cold acclimation (induced freezing tolerance). Under favorable conditions, PgTIP1 overexpression significantly increased plant growth as determined by the biomass production, and leaf and root morphology. PgTIP1 overexpression had beneficial effect on salt-stress tolerance as indicated by superior growth status and seed germination of transgenic plants under salt stress; shoots of salt-stressed transgenic plants also accumulated greater amounts of Na(+) compared to wild-type plants. Whereas PgTIP1 overexpression diminished the water-deficit tolerance of plants grown in shallow (10 cm deep) pots, the transgenic plants were significantly more tolerant to water stress when grown in 45 cm deep pots. The rationale for this contrasting response, apparently, comes from the differences in the root morphology and leaf water channel activity (speed of dehydration/rehydration) between the transgenic and wild-type plants. Plants overexpressed with PgTIP1 exhibited lower (relative to wild-type control) cold acclimation ability; however, this response was independent of cold-regulated gene expression. Our results demonstrate a significant function of PgTIP1 in growth and development of plant cells, and suggest that the water movement across tonoplast (via AQP) represents a rate-limiting factor for plant vigor under favorable growth conditions and also significantly affect responses of plant to drought, salt and cold stresses.

Transgenic Arabidopsis and tobacco plants overexpressing an aquaporin respond differently to various abiotic stresses

Despite the high isoform multiplicity of aquaporins in plants, with 35 homologues including 13 plasma membrane intrinsic proteins (PIPs) in Arabidosis thaliana, the individual and integrated functions of aquaporins under various physiological conditions remain unclear. To better understand aquaporin functions in plants under various stress conditions, we examined transgenic Arabidopsis and tobacco plants that constitutively overexpress Arabidopsis PIP1;4 or PIP2;5 under various abiotic stress conditions. No significant differences in growth rates and water transport were found between the transgenic and wild-type plants when grown under favorable growth conditions. The transgenic plants overexpressing PIP1;4 or PIP2;5 displayed a rapid water loss under dehydration stress, which resulted in retarded germination and seedling growth under drought stress. In contrast, the transgenic plants overexpressing PIP1;4 or PIP2;5 showed enhanced water flow and facilitated germination under cold stress. The expression of several PIPs was noticeably affected by the overexpression of PIP1;4 or PIP2;5 in Arabidopsis under dehydration stress, suggesting that the expression of one aquaporin isoform influences the expression levels of other aquaporins under stress conditions. Taken together, our results demonstrate that overexpression of an aquaporin affects the expression of endogenous aquaporin genes and thereby impacts on seed germination, seedling growth, and stress responses of the plants under various stress conditions.

Aquaporin expression in response to different water stress intensities and recovery in Richter-110 (Vitis sp.): relationship with ecophysiological status

Aquaporins seem essential for the regulation of plant water status and expenses. Richter-110 is a Vitis hybrid (Vitis berlandieri x rupestris) reputed to be strongly drought-tolerant. Three irrigation treatments were established in Richter-110 plants growing outdoors defined by the resulting maximum stomatal conductance (g (s)), and ensuring water stress situations not severe enough as to stop photosynthesis and growth: well-watered plants (g (s) about 250 mmol H(2)O m(-2) s(-1)), moderate water stress (g (s) about 150 mmol H(2)O m(-2) s(-1)) and severe water stress (g (s) about 50 mmol H(2)O m(-2) s(-1)). Plants under water stress were kept at constant water availability for 7 days to check for possible acclimation. Finally, plants were re-watered, and allowed to recover, for 3 days. Stomatal conductance, leaf water potential, xylem abscisic acid (ABA) content and root and stem hydraulic conductivity were determined. The relative amounts of expression of mRNA encoding seven putative aquaporins were determined in roots and leaves by RT-PCR. The decrease in stomatal conductance with moderate and severe water stress was associated with increasing ABA contents, but not with the leaf water potential and hydraulic conductivities, which remained unchanged during the entire experiment. Aquaporin gene expression varied depending on which aquaporin, water stress level and the plant organ. We suggest that aquaporin expression was responsive to water stress as part of the homeostasis, which resulted in constant leaf water potential and hydraulic conductivity.

Gradual soil water depletion results in reversible changes of gene expression, protein profiles, ecophysiology, and growth performance in Populus euphratica, a poplar growing in arid regions

The responses of Populus euphratica Oliv. plants to soil water deficit were assessed by analyzing gene expression, protein profiles, and several plant performance criteria to understand the acclimation of plants to soil water deficit. Young, vegetatively propagated plants originating from an arid, saline field site were submitted to a gradually increasing water deficit for 4 weeks in a greenhouse and were allowed to recover for 10 d after full reirrigation. Time-dependent changes and intensity of the perturbations induced in shoot and root growth, xylem anatomy, gas exchange, and water status were recorded. The expression profiles of approximately 6,340 genes and of proteins and metabolites (pigments, soluble carbohydrates, and oxidative compounds) were also recorded in mature leaves and in roots (gene expression only) at four stress levels and after recovery. Drought successively induced shoot growth cessation, stomatal closure, moderate increases in oxidative stress-related compounds, loss of CO2 assimilation, and root growth reduction. These effects were almost fully reversible, indicating that acclimation was dominant over injury. The physiological responses were paralleled by fully reversible transcriptional changes, including only 1.5% of the genes on the array. Protein profiles displayed greater changes than transcript levels. Among the identified proteins for which expressed sequence tags were present on the array, no correlation was found between transcript and protein abundance. Acclimation to water deficit involves the regulation of different networks of genes in roots and shoots. Such diverse requirements for protecting and maintaining the function of different plant organs may render plant engineering or breeding toward improved drought tolerance more complex than previously anticipated.

Upland rice and lowland rice exhibited different PIP expression under water deficit and ABA treatment

Aquaporins play a significant role in plant water relations. To further understand the aquaporin function in plants under water stress, the expression of a subgroup of aquaporins, plasma membrane intrinsic proteins (PIPs), was studied at both the protein and mRNA level in upland rice (Oryza sativa L. cv. Zhonghan 3) and lowland rice (Oryza sativa L. cv. Xiushui 63) when they were water stressed by treatment with 20% polyethylene glycol (PEG). Plants responded differently to 20% PEG treatment. Leaf water content of upland rice leaves was reduced rapidly. PIP protein level increased markedly in roots of both types, but only in leaves of upland rice after 10 h of PEG treatment. At the mRNA level, OsPIP1;2, OsPIP1;3, OsPIP2;1 and OsPIP2;5 in roots as well as OsPIP1;2 and OsPIP1;3 in leaves were significantly up-regulated in upland rice, whereas the corresponding genes remained unchanged or down-regulated in lowland rice. Meanwhile, we observed a significant increase in the endogenous abscisic acid (ABA) level in upland rice but not in lowland rice under water deficit. Treatment with 60 microM ABA enhanced the expression of OsPIP1;2, OsPIP2;5 and OsPIP2;6 in roots and OsPIP1;2, OsPIP2;4 and OsPIP2;6 in leaves of upland rice. The responsiveness of PIP genes to water stress and ABA were different, implying that the regulation of PIP genes involves both ABA-dependent and ABA-independent signaling pathways during water deficit.

Genetic variability for physiological traits under drought conditions and differential expression of water stress-associated genes in sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.)

Genotypic variation for water status and gas exchange parameters under different water treatments (well-watered and water-stressed plants before and after rehydration) were investigated in a population of recombinant inbred lines (RILs) of sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.). Afterwards, four RILs and parental lines presenting contrasting responses to dehydration and rehydration were selected to determine the differential expression of four water-stress associated genes: aquaporin, dehydrin, leafy cotyledon1-like protein and fructose-1,6 bisphosphatase. Water stress revealed a high genetic variability for water status and gas exchange parameters when compared with well-watered genotypes. Genetic gain when selected RILs were compared with the best parent was significant for most traits due to transgressive segregation. QTL mapping and graphical genotyping showed that RILs carrying different genomic regions for some QTLs presented also physiological different characteristics as well as gene expression patterns. The expression level of aquaporin genes in leaves of four RILs and their parents was down regulated by water stress and was associated with relative water content (RWC). Down-regulation was also associated with genomic regions having alleles with negative effects on plant water status. The level of dehydrin transcripts increased in leaves of all studied RILs in response to water stress. Transcript accumulations of dehydrin and leafy cotyledon1-like genes, likely involved in protective tolerance processes, were not correlated directly with plant water status or QTL effects. Down-regulation of fructose-1,6 bisphosphatase was observed under water stress. Net photosynthesis rate (P(n)) and the fructose-1,6 bisphosphatase gene expression levels were associated mainly after rehydration. This phenomenon indicates an association between physiological response to water stress and differential expression of water-stress related genes.

Putative role of aquaporins in variable hydraulic conductance of leaves in response to light

Molecular and physiological studies in walnut (Juglans regia) are combined to establish the putative role of leaf plasma membrane aquaporins in the response of leaf hydraulic conductance (K(leaf)) to irradiance. The effects of light and temperature on K(leaf) are described. Under dark conditions, K(leaf) was low, but increased by 400% upon exposure to light. In contrast to dark conditions, K(leaf) values of light-exposed leaves responded to temperature and 0.1 mm cycloheximide treatments. Furthermore, K(leaf) was not related to stomatal aperture. Data of real-time reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction showed that K(leaf) dynamics were tightly correlated with the transcript abundance of two walnut aquaporins (JrPIP2,1 and JrPIP2,2). Low K(leaf) in the dark was associated with down-regulation, whereas high K(leaf) in the light was associated with up-regulation of JrPIP2. Light responses of K(leaf) and aquaporin transcripts were reversible and inhibited by cycloheximide, indicating the importance of de novo protein biosynthesis in this process. Our results indicate that walnut leaves can rapidly change their hydraulic conductance and suggest that these changes can be explained by regulation of plasma membrane aquaporins. Model simulation suggests that variable leaf hydraulic conductance in walnut might enhance leaf gas exchanges while buffering leaf water status in response to ambient light fluctuations.

Isolation and functional characterization of three aquaporins from olive (Olea europaea L.)

To study the molecular bases of water transport in olive we characterized cDNAs from Olea europaea cv "Leccino" related to the aquaporin (AQP) gene family. A phylogenetic analysis of the corresponding polypeptides confirmed that they were part of water channel proteins localized in the plasma membrane and in the tonoplast. The full-length sequences were obtained by RACE-PCR and were named OePIP1.1, OePIP2.1 and OeTIP1.1. The OePIP2.1 and OeTIP1.1 encode functional water channel proteins, as indicated by expression assays in Xenopus laevis oocytes. OePIP1.1 and OePIP2.1 expression levels are high in roots and twigs and low in leaves. The highest hybridization signal of OeTIP1.1 was detected in twigs, while in roots and leaves the expression was low. To investigate the effect of abiotic stress on the transcript level of olive AQP genes, olive trees were subjected to drought treatment and the expression levels of the genes were measured by Northern-blot analysis. The transcript levels of each gene diminished strongly in plants submitted to drought stress, when soil moisture, twig water potential and twig hydraulic conductivity progressively decreased. The downregulation of AQP genes may result in reduced membrane water permeability and may limit loss of cellular water during periods of water stress. A possible role for AQPs on shoot embolism repair is discussed.

Fungal and plant gene expression during the colonization of cacao seedlings by endophytic isolates of four Trichoderma species

Endophytic isolates of Trichoderma species are being considered as biocontrol agents for diseases of Theobroma cacao (cacao). Gene expression was studied during the interaction between cacao seedlings and four endophytic Trichoderma isolates, T. ovalisporum-DIS 70a, T. hamatum-DIS 219b, T. harzianum-DIS 219f, and Trichoderma sp.-DIS 172ai. Isolates DIS 70a, DIS 219b, and DIS 219f were mycoparasitic on the pathogen Moniliophthora roreri, and DIS 172ai produced metabolites that inhibited growth of M. roreri in culture. ESTs (116) responsive to endophytic colonization of cacao were identified using differential display and their expression analyzed using macroarrays. Nineteen cacao ESTs and 17 Trichoderma ESTs were chosen for real-time quantitative PCR analysis. Seven cacao ESTs were induced during colonization by the Trichoderma isolates. These included putative genes for ornithine decarboxylase (P1), GST-like proteins (P4), zinc finger protein (P13), wound-induced protein (P26), EF-calcium-binding protein (P29), carbohydrate oxidase (P59), and an unknown protein (U4). Two plant ESTs, extensin-like protein (P12) and major intrinsic protein (P31), were repressed due to colonization. The plant gene expression profile was dependent on the Trichoderma isolate colonizing the cacao seedling. The fungal ESTs induced in colonized cacao seedlings also varied with the Trichoderma isolate used. The most highly induced fungal ESTs were putative glucosyl hydrolase family 2 (F3), glucosyl hydrolase family 7 (F7), serine protease (F11), and alcohol oxidase (F19). The pattern of altered gene expression suggests a complex system of genetic cross talk occurs between the cacao tree and Trichoderma isolates during the establishment of the endophytic association.