Activity Concentration of 137Cs in soil samples from Punjab province (Pakistan) and estimation of gamma-ray dose rate for external exposure

Radiological risk assessment from the Gamma spectrometry of soil samples in the vicinity of a research centre in Nilore, Pakistan

Measurements of radionuclides' activities in air, water, and soil give clues about the anthropogenic activities in the region, and imperative to assess the overall radiological risk for individuals. Such an investigation was carried out to characterize the soil activities in the region hosting a research center, and to calculate the associated elements of radiological risk in terms of radiation doses and hazard indices. The soil samples were collected within the radius of 10 km in local area, Nilore, and analysed for activity using a high-purity germanium (HPGe) gamma spectrometric system. In all samples, only the basic nuclides, contributing to terrestrial activity, i.e., ⁴⁰ K, ²³²Th, ²²⁶Ra, and ¹³⁷Cs, were observed within the detectable limits of activity. The distribution of the data set and the correlation between the measured activities were studied with the use of the principal component analysis (PCA). The measured average specific activities of ²²⁶Ra, ²³²Th, ⁴⁰ K, and ¹³⁷Cs were 40.65 ± 9.84 Bq/kg, 59.31 ± 16.53 Bq/kg, 528.24 ± 131.18 Bq/kg, and 5.16 ± 4.56 Bq/kg respectively. The corresponding dose rate in air was found to be 76.63 ± 18.39 nGy/h, which is slightly higher than the world median value of 51 nGy/h calculated from concentration of terrestrial radionuclides in soil but falls within the world average value range of outdoor external exposure of 18-93 nGy/h obtained through direct measurement, and therefore not harmful for the living species. The standard hazard indices for all soil samples such as radium equivalent activity ([Formula: see text]), external hazard index (H_ex), and internal hazard index (H_in) were also found within safe limits for the soil to be used as construction of building material. This investigation led to conclusion that the soil activities are consistent with the usual background level of terrestrial activities, and their associated dose rates are well within the safe limits for public.

Imaging Plate Autoradiography for Ingested Anthropogenic Cesium-137 in Butterfly Bodies: Implications for the Biological Impacts of the Fukushima Nuclear Accident

The Fukushima nuclear accident in March 2011 caused biological impacts on the pale grass blue butterfly Zizeeria maha. At least some of the impacts are likely mediated by the host plant, resulting in "field effects". However, to obtain the whole picture of the impacts, direct exposure effects should also be evaluated. Here, we examined the distribution of experimentally ingested anthropogenic cesium-137 (¹³⁷Cs) in adult butterfly bodies using imaging plate autoradiography. We showed that ¹³⁷Cs ingested by larvae was incorporated into adult bodies and was biased to females, although the majority of ingested ¹³⁷Cs was excreted in the pupal cuticle and excretory material during eclosion. ¹³⁷Cs accumulation in adult bodies was the highest in the abdomen, followed by the thorax and other organs. These results suggest that ¹³⁷Cs accumulation in reproductive organs may cause adverse transgenerational or maternal effects mediated by reactive oxygen species (ROS) on germ cells. ¹³⁷Cs accumulation was detected in field individuals collected in September 2011 and September 2016 but not in May 2011, which is consistent with the abnormality dynamics known from previous studies. Taken together, these results contribute to an integrative understanding of the multifaceted biological effects of the Fukushima nuclear accident in the field.

Ingestional Toxicity of Radiation-Dependent Metabolites of the Host Plant for the Pale Grass Blue Butterfly: A Mechanism of Field Effects of Radioactive Pollution in Fukushima

Biological effects of the Fukushima nuclear accident have been reported in various organisms, including the pale grass blue butterfly Zizeeria maha and its host plant Oxalis corniculata. This plant upregulates various secondary metabolites in response to low-dose radiation exposure, which may contribute to the high mortality and abnormality rates of the butterfly in Fukushima. However, this field effect hypothesis has not been experimentally tested. Here, using an artificial diet for larvae, we examined the ingestional toxicity of three radiation-dependent plant metabolites annotated in a previous metabolomic study: lauric acid (a saturated fatty acid), alfuzosin (an adrenergic receptor antagonist), and ikarugamycin (an antibiotic likely from endophytic bacteria). Ingestion of lauric acid or alfuzosin caused a significant decrease in the pupation, eclosion (survival), and normality rates, indicating toxicity of these compounds. Lauric acid made the egg-larval days significantly longer, indicating larval growth retardation. In contrast, ikarugamycin caused a significant increase in the pupation and eclosion rates, probably due to the protection of the diet from fungi and bacteria. These results suggest that at least some of the radiation-dependent plant metabolites, such as lauric acid, contribute to the deleterious effects of radioactive pollution on the butterfly in Fukushima, providing experimental evidence for the field effect hypothesis.

Metabolomic Profiles of the Creeping Wood Sorrel Oxalis corniculata in Radioactively Contaminated Fields in Fukushima: Dose-Dependent Changes in Key Metabolites

The biological impacts of the Fukushima nuclear accident, in 2011, on wildlife have been studied in many organisms, including the pale grass blue butterfly and its host plant, the creeping wood sorrel Oxalis corniculata. Here, we performed an LC–MS-based metabolomic analysis on leaves of this plant collected in 2018 from radioactively contaminated and control localities in Fukushima, Miyagi, and Niigata prefectures, Japan. Using 7967 peaks detected by LC–MS analysis, clustering analyses showed that nine Fukushima samples and one Miyagi sample were clustered together, irrespective of radiation dose, while two Fukushima (Iitate) and two Niigata samples were not in this cluster. However, 93 peaks were significantly different (FDR < 0.05) among the three dose-dependent groups based on background, low, and high radiation dose rates. Among them, seven upregulated and 15 downregulated peaks had single annotations, and their peak intensity values were positively and negatively correlated with ground radiation dose rates, respectively. Upregulated peaks were annotated as kudinoside D (saponin), andrachcinidine (alkaloid), pyridoxal phosphate (stress-related activated vitamin B6), and four microbe-related bioactive compounds, including antibiotics. Additionally, two peaks were singularly annotated and significantly upregulated (K₁R₁H₁; peptide) or downregulated (DHAP(10:0); decanoyl dihydroxyacetone phosphate) most at the low dose rates. Therefore, this plant likely responded to radioactive pollution in Fukushima by upregulating and downregulating key metabolites. Furthermore, plant-associated endophytic microbes may also have responded to pollution, suggesting their contributions to the stress response of the plant.

Metabolomic Response of the Creeping Wood Sorrel Oxalis corniculata to Low-Dose Radiation Exposure from Fukushima's Contaminated Soil

The biological consequences of the Fukushima nuclear accident have been intensively studied using the pale grass blue butterfly Zizeeria maha and its host plant, the creeping wood sorrel Oxalis corniculata. Here, we performed metabolomic analyses of Oxalis leaves from Okinawa to examine the plant metabolites that were upregulated or downregulated in response to low-dose radiation exposure from Fukushima's contaminated soil. The cumulative dose of radiation to the plants was 5.7 mGy (34 μGy/h for 7 days). The GC-MS analysis revealed a systematic tendency of downregulation among the metabolites, some of which were annotated as caproic acid, nonanoic acid, azelaic acid, and oleic acid. Others were annotated as fructose, glucose, and citric acid, involved in the carbohydrate metabolic pathways. Notably, the peak annotated as lauric acid was upregulated. In contrast, the LC-MS analysis detected many upregulated metabolites, some of which were annotated as either antioxidants or stress-related chemicals involved in defense pathways. Among them, only three metabolite peaks had a single annotation, one of which was alfuzosin, an antagonist of the α₁-adrenergic receptor. We conclude that this Oxalis plant responded metabolically to low-dose radiation exposure from Fukushima's contaminated soil, which may mediate the ecological "field effects" of the developmental deterioration of butterflies in Fukushima.

External Cesium-137 doses to humans from soil influenced by the Fukushima and Chernobyl nuclear power plants accidents: a comparative study

External exposure to gamma-photon irradiation from soil contamination due to nuclear power plant (NPP) accidents has significant contribution to human radiation exposure in the proximity of the NPP. Detailed absorbed doses in human organs are rarely reported in the literature. We applied the Monte Carlo Neutron Particle (MCNP) transport code to calculate and compare the absorbed doses in different human organs. The absorbed doses by gamma-photon radiation were from cesium-137 (137Cs) in soil contaminated by the two major NPP accidents. More serious and wide-spread impacts of the Chernobyl NPP accident on soil contamination in Ukraine, Belarus, Russia and countries as far as Sweden and Greece were due to the inland location, radiative plume transport pathway and high 137Cs emission strength (9 times the Fukushima emission). Based on our MCNP calculations, the largest absorbed dose was found in skin. The maximum calculated external 137Cs annual effective dose received from the Chernobyl accident was 10 times higher relative to the Fukushima accident. Our calculated effective doses at various influenced areas were comparable to those available in the literature. The calculated annual effective doses at areas near the Fukushima and Chernobyl NPPs exceeded the ICRP recommendation of 1 mSv yr-1.

Effects of fly ash and boric acid on Y2O3-stabilized tetragonal ZrO2 dispersed with MgAl2O4: An experimental study on rat subcutaneous tissue

The aim of this study was to evaluate the subcutaneous tissue reaction around zirconia-based materials. Forty-eight male Wistar Albino rats were used in this study. Disk-shaped (1mm height and 5mm diameter) samples composed of 67% spinel (MgAl2O4), 27% tetragonal zirconia polycrystal, 4% (m/m) fly ash and 2% (m/m) boric acid were inserted into dorsal muscles of rats. After 1, 4, 8 and 16 weeks, the animals were sacrificed and zirconia materials were removed with the surrounding tissue. Tissue sections were made with a microtome and then stained with hematoxylin and eosin. Sections were evaluated for the intensity of inflammation. Additionally, the somatic and visceral lymph nodes were evaluated. Data were submitted to one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Tukey HSD tests at a significant level of p < 0.05. There were statistically significant differences between mean inflammatory scores in different experimental periods (p <0.05). In addition, the inflammatory reaction decreased over time. The tested materials had no damaging effect on the rat lymph nodes and did not have a toxic action on the internal organs. Therefore, zirconia polycrystal tested in the present study may offer a promising treatment alternative after further mechanical and biological studies are performed.

Determination of the risk associated with the natural and anthropogenic radionuclides from the soil of Skardu in Central Karakoram

The radioactivity levels were determined in 39 soil samples from six towns of Skardu using gamma-ray spectrometry. The samples were collected at an average altitude of 2293 m above sea level in Central Karakoram. The activity concentration data were analysed by principal component analysis for outlier detection and data structure elucidation and for frequency distributions. The median activity concentrations of (226)Ra, (232)Th, (40)K and (137)Cs were found to be 49.8 ± 12.6, 80.9 ± 18.7, 977 ± 91 and 4.37 ± 4.08 Bq kg(-1), respectively. An uncertainty analysis showed that the main contribution to uncertainty budget was from the counting statistics and uncertainty in the reference activity of standard. The activity concentration data showed a positive significant correlation between (226)Ra and (232)Th. Three hazard indices named the radium equivalent activity, external hazard index and internal hazard index were calculated. In the total activity concentration, (40)K accounted for the most (87.5 %), whilst in the radium equivalent activity, (232)Th contributed the most (48.5 %). In the Skardu samples, the air-absorbed dose rate was found to be 112 ± 17 nGy h(-1), annual effective dose rate from terrestrial to be 243 ± 38 μSv y(-1), effective dose rate due to the deposition of (137)Cs on soil to be 1.1 ± 2.4 μSv y(-1) and dose rate from the cosmic radiations to be 1371 ± 107 μSv y(-1). The ratio of mass fractions of Th/U was 4.8 ± 0.6.The results were compared with the similar measurements made in other parts of the world. A comparison with the other cities of Pakistan revealed that the soil in Skardu presented the highest external exposure rate.

Spatial distribution and vertical migration of (137)Cs in soils of Belgrade (Serbia) 25 years after the Chernobyl accident

In this study, the specific activity of (137)Cs was determined by gamma-ray spectrometry in 72 surface soil samples and 11 soil profiles collected from the territory of Belgrade 25 years after the Chernobyl accident. Based on the data obtained the external effective gamma dose rates due to (137)Cs were assessed and geographically mapped. The influence of pedogenic factors (pH, specific electrical conductivity, cation exchange capacity, organic matter content, soil particle size and carbonate content) on the spatial and vertical distribution of (137)Cs in soil was estimated through Pearson correlations. The specific activity of (137)Cs in surface soil samples ranged from 1.00 to 180 Bq kg(-1), with a mean value of 29.9 Bq kg(-1), while in soil profiles they ranged from 0.90 to 58.0 Bq kg(-1), with a mean value of 15.3 Bq kg(-1). The mean external effective gamma dose at 1 m above the ground due to (137)Cs in the soil was calculated to be 1.96 nSv h(-1). Geographic mapping of the external effective gamma dose rates originating from (137)Cs revealed much higher dose rates in southern parts of Belgrade city and around the confluence of the Sava and Danube. Negative Pearson correlation coefficients were found between pH, cation exchange capacity and (137)Cs specific activity in surface soil. There were positive correlations between organic matter and (137)Cs specific activity in surface soil; and between specific electrical conductivity, organic matter, silt content and (137)Cs specific activity in soil profiles.

Soil radioactivity levels and radiological risk assessment in the highlands of Hunza, Pakistan

This paper deals with the determination of (226)Ra, (232)Th, (40)K and (137)Cs in 42 soil samples collected from eight towns of Hunza district, at an average altitude of 2267 m, using gamma-ray spectrometry. The activity concentration data were analysed for frequency distribution and other descriptive measures. Risk assessment was done by calculating the hazard indices, air absorbed dose rate and external annual effective dose rate due to cosmic radiations, terrestrial radionuclides and (137)Cs deposited on the surface of the earth. Both indoor and outdoor occupancy factors were taken into account. The average dose rate due to cosmic radiation was estimated as 828 ± 87 µSv y(-1), from external terrestrial radiation as 97 ± 20 µSv y(-1) and from (137)Cs as 1.05 µSv y(-1) for a total annual effective dose rate of 926 ± 92 µSv. The results of the present study were discussed and compared with other similar studies performed in East Asia. The present study indicates that Hunza can be ranked among those areas having a high level of dose rate not only from cosmic rays but also from terrestrial radionuclides. This paper also proposes another measure of radiation hazard called 'radium equivalent for internal exposure'.

Assessment of radionuclide level in topsoil samples for partial areas of Tibet, China

By using high-purity germanium gamma spectroscopy, specific activities of naturally occurring and man-made radionuclides were determined in topsoil samples collected from Nyingch, Lhasa and Xigazê of Tibet Autonomous Region, China. The average activity concentrations of (226)Ra, (232)Th and (40)K were 25.1 ± 0.7, 67.1 ± 2.8 and 608.6 ± 12.9 Bq kg(-1), respectively. The activity concentration of (137)Cs was found to vary from <0.3 (minimum detection concentration) to 46.2 Bq kg(-1) with an average of 4.3 ± 0.5 Bq kg(-1). By using the results of (226)Ra, (232)Th and (40)K in the sampled soils, the average outdoor gamma dose rate in air was calculated as 77.5 ± 23.2 nGy h(-1). Furthermore, the average outdoor annual effective dose from terrestrial radiation was 0.10 mSv. The external hazard index in this work varied from 0.20 to 0.70 with an average of 0.40 ± 0.14. The external exposure from terrestrial radiation will not pose any significant radiological threat to the population resident in the studied areas.

Radiometric analysis of samples of domestic fish species and radiological implications

Radiometric analysis of samples of commonly sold fish species in Pakistan were carried out for the measurement of concentrations of naturally occurring and artificial radionuclides. For this purpose, a high resolution Ge detector was employed. Mean concentrations of (226)Ra, (228)Ra, and (40)K in fish samples were 1.3 +/- 0.3, 1.0 +/- 0.2, and 90 +/- 15 Bq kg, respectively, whereas concentration of (137)Cs was not detected. The annual effective dose due to ingestion of these radionuclides through fish diet was evaluated to be 2.3 microSv y(-1). This value of effective dose is found much below the average radiation dose of 0.29 mSv y(-1) received per capita worldwide through ingestion of natural radionuclides during the consumption of food assessed by the United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation. It is concluded that fish supplies in the markets from the domestic fish farms are free from radiological risks. These results may contribute to the national and regional data regarding radioactivity levels in domestic fish species.

Determination of the natural and anthropogenic radioactivity in the soil of Gilgit--a town in the foothills of Hindukush range

The activity concentration of terrestrial (226Ra, 232Th, and 40K) and anthropogenic gamma-emitting radionuclide (137Cs) have been analyzed in 48 soil samples collected from Gilgit, a famous city for mountaineers and tourists in northern Pakistan, at an average altitude of 1,550 m, using gamma-ray spectrometry. The data analysis includes descriptive statistics, radium equivalent activity and its principal component analysis, air absorbed dose rate, annual effective dose rate, and collective effective dose equivalent. It is found that the level of cosmic exposure is high in Gilgit relative to the world average values, but the average outdoor annual effective dose rate from terrestrial radionuclides is lower as compared to its value in the soil of Punjab, Pakistan, and the world average values found in United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR) for the general public. The median annual effective dose rate produced by 137Cs was 0.11 microSv y-1.

Study of contents of 226Ra, 232Th and 40K in fertilisers

In this study concentrations of naturally occurring radionuclides (226)Ra, (232)Th and (40)K were measured in the fertiliser samples in Pakistan using a high-resolution and high-purity germanium detector. Samples were collected from main fertiliser depots located in 10 big cities in the Punjab province. Gamma spectrometric analysis revealed that concentrations of (226)Ra, (232)Th and (40)K existed in the ranges from 232 to 511 Bq kg(-1), 21 to 58 Bq kg(-1) and 556 to 1302 Bq kg(-1) with average values of 386 +/- 92, 38 +/- 14 and 885 +/- 220 Bq kg(-1), respectively. Average values of the three natural radionuclides measured in this study were within the range of reported values from some of the other countries of the world. Correlations drawn between measured concentrations were not significant.

Environmental gamma radiation measurement in district Swat, Pakistan

External exposure to environmental gamma ray sources is an important component of exposure to the public. A survey was carried out to determine activity concentration levels and associated doses from (226)Ra, (232)Th, (40)K and (137)Cs by means of high-resolution gamma ray spectrometry in the Swat district, famous for tourism. The mean concentrations for (226)Ra, (232)Th and (40)K were found to be 50.4 +/- 0.7, 34.8 +/- 0.7 and 434.5 +/- 7.4 Bq kg(-1), respectively, in soil samples, which are slightly more than the world average values. However, (137)Cs was only found in the soil sample of Barikot with an activity concentration of 34 +/- 1.2 Bq kg(-1). Only (40)K was determined in vegetation samples with an average activity of 172.2 +/- 1.7 Bq kg(-1), whereas in water samples, all radionuclides were found below lower limits of detection. The radium equivalent activity in all soil samples is lower than the limit set in the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development report (370 Bq kg(-1)). The value of the external exposure dose has been determined from the content of these radionuclides in soil. The average terrestrial gamma air absorbed dose rate was observed to be 62.4 nGy h(-1), which yields an annual effective dose of 0.08 mSv. The average value of the annual effective dose lies close to the global range of outdoor radiation exposure given in United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation. However, the main component of the radiation dose to the population residing in the study area arises from cosmic ray due to high altitude.

Assessment of 7Be concentration in outdoor ambient air

7Be is a cosmogenic radionuclide with a half-life of 53.3 d produced mostly in the stratosphere by cosmic ray spallation of nitrogen and oxygen and entering the lower troposphere by atmospheric circulation processes. 7Be emits gamma rays of energy 477.6 keV and its concentration in the ambient air can be measured by gamma spectrometry. In the present study, the activity concentration of 7Be in outdoor ambient air of Lahore city, Pakistan, has been measured employing two air samplers and using a high purity germanium [HP(Ge)] detector. The 7Be activity concentration was found in the range from 1.6 to 11.3 mBq m(-3) with a mean value of 5.4 mBq m(-3).

Radioactivity concentrations and dose assessment for soil samples around nuclear power plant IV in Taiwan

Activity concentrations and distributions of natural and man-made radionuclides in soil samples collected around nuclear power plant IV, Taiwan, were investigated for five years to assess the environmental radioactivity and characterisation of radiological hazard prior to commercial operation. The activity concentrations of radionuclides were determined via gamma-ray spectrometry using an HPGe detector. Data obtained show that the average concentrations of the (238)U and (232)Th series, and (40)K, were within world median ranges in the UNSCEAR report. The (137)Cs ranged from 2.46 +/- 0.55 to 12.13 +/- 1.31 Bq kg(-1). The terrestrial absorbed dose rate estimated by soil activity and directly measured with a thermoluminescence dosemeter (excluding cosmic rays), and the annual effective doses, were 45.63, 57.34 nGy h(-1) and 57.19 microSv, respectively. Experimental results were compared with international recommended values. Since the soil in this area is an important building material, the mean radium equivalent activity, external and inhalation hazard indices and the representative level index using various models given in the literature for the study area were 98.18 Bq kg(-1), 0.27, 0.34 and 0.73, respectively, which were below the recommended limits. Analytical results demonstrate that no radiological anomaly exists. The baseline data will prove useful and important in estimating the collective dose near the new nuclear power plant under construction in Taiwan.

Determination of natural radioactivity in rock salt and radiation doses due to its ingestion

The Khewera Mines located in Pakistan contain the world's second largest reserves of rock salt. Rock salt is used in Pakistan in food recipes. It was decided to investigate the concentrations of naturally occurring radionuclides in rock salt from the Khewera Mines. Samples of rock salt were collected from 10 different locations and analysed by gamma spectrometry. The mean activity concentrations of 226Ra, 232Th and 40K were 790 +/- 262, 640 +/- 162 and 23 000 +/- 6000 mBq kg(-1), respectively. The mean annual effective dose due to the intake of natural radionuclides from rock salt for adults was estimated to be 0.0638 +/- 0.015 mSv, which is lower than the average annual effective dose of 0.29 mSv received per caput worldwide due to the ingestion of natural radionuclides, as reported by the United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation in 2000.

Radioactivity concentration in soil samples in the southern part of the West Bank, Palestine

The activity concentrations of naturally occurring radioactive materials such as (238)U, (232)Th and (40)K were measured for 38 soil samples collected from diverse zones in the southern area of West Bank, Palestine using gamma-ray spectroscopy. The measured activities of (238)U, (232)Th and (40)K were found to range from 32.9 to 104.7, 14.5 to 76.6 and 297 to 962 Bq kg(-1) with averages value of 68.7, 48.0 and 630 Bq kg(-1), respectively. The obtained values of activity concentrations are higher than the world average of 35, 30 and 500 Bq kg(-1) for (238)U, (232)Th and (40)K, respectively. The measured (137)Cs activity concentration was found to range from 1.8 to 36.1 Bq kg(-1) with an average value of 8.5 Bq kg(-1). The detected activities were attributed to the fallout of (137)Cs, which is the only man-made radionuclide. The calculated average of the total gamma-radiation dose rate of natural radionuclides, (137)Cs and cosmic radiation is 121.4 nGy h(-1). The radium equivalent activity (R(aeq)), dose rate (D(r)), external hazard index (H(ex)) and radioactivity level index (I(gamma)) in all samples are presented. Some values were found to be in the range of worldwide values, whereas others were above the worldwide values.

Exposures to 222Rn from consumption of underground municipal water supplies in Pakistan

This paper presents the results of radon ((222)Rn) concentration measurements in municipal supply drinking water in metropolitan Lahore city of Pakistan and evaluation of consequent radiological effects. In this respect, water samples were collected in all nine municipal towns of Lahore city and analysed employing a high-resolution gamma spectrometric system. Radon concentration varied from 2.0 +/- 0.3 to 7.9 +/- 2.1 Bq l(-1). Mean value of annual effective dose for an individual consumer was assessed to be 16.5 +/- 12.8 microSv y(-1). (222)Rn mean concentration measured in this study is comparable with the reported values for drinking water determined worldwide and found to be less than the limit of 100 Bq l(-1) recommended by the World Health Organisation for public water supplies. The results of this study may be helpful in establishing background levels of radon in drinking water that could be used not only to distinguish additional contributions when a contamination event occurs but also to implement water quality standards by the concerned authorities to maintain radioactive contamination free drinking water supplies for the population.

PB-210 concentrations in cigarettes tobaccos and radiation doses to the smokers

Cigarette smoking is a source of radiation exposure due to the concentrations of natural radionuclides in the tobacco leaves. From the health point of view, measurement of (210)Pb and (210)Po contents in cigarette tobacco is important to assess the radiological effects associated with the tobacco smoking for the smokers. In the present study, activity concentrations of (210)Pb, which is a (210)Po precursor in the (238)U-decay series, were measured in cigarette tobaccos. Samples of nine different commonly sold brands of cigarette tobaccos were analysed by employing a planar high purity germanium (HPGe) low background detector. Activity concentrations of (210)Pb were measured from its gamma peak at 47 keV. Mean activity concentration of (210)Pb was measured to be 13 +/- 4 Bq kg(-1) from all samples analysed. The annual committed effective dose for a smoker and the collective committed effective dose corresponding to annual cigarettes production were estimated to be 64 +/- 20 microSv and 0.6 x 10(2) man-Sv, respectively.

Measurement of natural radioactivity in bottled drinking water in Pakistan and consequent dose estimates

Natural radioactivity was determined in 11 different brands of commonly sold bottled drinking water in the federal capital Islamabad and Rawalpindi city of Pakistan using gamma spectrometry technique. Mean concentrations of 226Ra, 232Th and (40)K were found to be 11.3 +/- 2.3, 5.2 +/- 0.4 and 140.9 +/- 30.6 mBq l(-1), respectively. The annual cumulative effective doses due to all three natural radionuclides for different age groups of 1-5 y, 5-10 y, 10-15 y and adults (>or=18 y) were estimated to be 4.0, 3.4, 3.1 and 4.1 microSv y(-1), respectively. Among the three natural radionuclides, annual effective doses for all age groups from 226Ra were significant. Children in the age group of 1-5 y appeared to be at risk with respect to the annual effective doses from 226Ra as compared to the other age groups. Results obtained in this study are compared with the reported values from other countries of the world and it was observed that measured activity concentrations of three natural radionuclides in the bottled drinking water were lower than these values. Annual estimated effective doses for all four age groups from the intake of natural radionuclides in bottled drinking water were also found below the World Health Organisation (WHO) recommended limit of 0.1 mSv y(-1) as well as the average radiation dose of 0.29 mSv y(-1) received per head worldwide due to ingestion of natural radionuclides assessed by UNSCEAR (2000).

External doses to humans from 137Cs in soil

Calculations of absorbed doses in organs of the human body and the total effective dose due to Cs in soil as a source of external exposure are presented in this work. Calculations were done using the MCNP-4B software package. The assumption was made that photons with an energy of 662 keV are emitted in a cylindrical volumetric source in soil up to the depth of 20 cm. Depth distributions of Cs at 19 locations around Kragujevac (a city in central Serbia) were measured by a HPGe detector. An ORNL phantom of an adult human standing on the soil above the center of a cylindrical radioactive source was used to calculate the conversion coefficients, i.e., absorbed doses in an organ per unit specific activity. The conversion coefficients in organs are given as a function of the source depth in soil. The largest absorbed dose was found in skin. The annual effective dose in humans was estimated from these calculations and the measured activity depth profile of Cs in soil. The average effective dose was found to be 3.17 microSv y. This value was rather small in comparison with other sources of natural ionizing radiation. One may conclude that Cs was a negligible source of external exposure in the area around the city.