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Ahmad MI, Ab. Rahim MH, Nordin R, Mohamed F, Abu-Samah A, Abdullah NF. Ionizing Radiation Monitoring Technology at the Verge of Internet of Things. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2021; 21:7629. [PMID: 34833705 PMCID: PMC8619633 DOI: 10.3390/s21227629] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2021] [Revised: 11/08/2021] [Accepted: 11/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/05/2022]
Abstract
As nuclear technology evolves, and continues to be used in various fields since its discovery less than a century ago, radiation safety has become a major concern to humans and the environment. Radiation monitoring plays a significant role in preventive radiological nuclear detection in nuclear facilities, hospitals, or in any activities associated with radioactive materials by acting as a tool to measure the risk of being exposed to radiation while reaping its benefit. Apart from in occupational settings, radiation monitoring is required in emergency responses to radiation incidents as well as outdoor radiation zones. Several radiation sensors have been developed, ranging from as simple as a Geiger-Muller counter to bulkier radiation systems such as the High Purity Germanium detector, with different functionality for use in different settings, but the inability to provide real-time data makes radiation monitoring activities less effective. The deployment of manned vehicles equipped with these radiation sensors reduces the scope of radiation monitoring operations significantly, but the safety of radiation monitoring operators is still compromised. Recently, the Internet of Things (IoT) technology has been introduced to the world and offered solutions to these limitations. This review elucidates a systematic understanding of the fundamental usage of the Internet of Drones for radiation monitoring purposes. The extension of essential functional blocks in IoT can be expanded across radiation monitoring industries, presenting several emerging research opportunities and challenges. This article offers a comprehensive review of the evolutionary application of IoT technology in nuclear and radiation monitoring. Finally, the security of the nuclear industry is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Ikmal Ahmad
- Nuclear Science Programme, Department of Applied Physics, Faculty of Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi 43600, Selangor, Malaysia; (M.I.A.); (F.M.)
| | - Mohd Hafizi Ab. Rahim
- Technical Support Division, Atomic Energy Licensing Board (AELB), Jalan Dengkil, Batu 24, Dengkil 43000, Selangor, Malaysia;
| | - Rosdiadee Nordin
- Department of Electrical, Electronic & Systems Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi 43600, Selangor, Malaysia; (A.A.-S.); (N.F.A.)
| | - Faizal Mohamed
- Nuclear Science Programme, Department of Applied Physics, Faculty of Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi 43600, Selangor, Malaysia; (M.I.A.); (F.M.)
| | - Asma’ Abu-Samah
- Department of Electrical, Electronic & Systems Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi 43600, Selangor, Malaysia; (A.A.-S.); (N.F.A.)
| | - Nor Fadzilah Abdullah
- Department of Electrical, Electronic & Systems Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi 43600, Selangor, Malaysia; (A.A.-S.); (N.F.A.)
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An effectively nondestructive method for dose assessment from accidental exposure using PCBs from electronic watches. RADIAT MEAS 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.radmeas.2021.106648] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Sholom S, McKeever S. A non-destructive, high-sensitivity, emergency dosimetry method using OSL from protective back-glasses from smartphones. RADIAT MEAS 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.radmeas.2021.106646] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Kim H, Discher M, Kim MC, Woda C, Lee J. Thermally assisted optically stimulated luminescence protocol of mobile phone substrate glasses for accident dosimetry. RADIAT MEAS 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.radmeas.2021.106625] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Waldner L, Bernhardsson C, Woda C, Trompier F, Van Hoey O, Kulka U, Oestreicher U, Bassinet C, Rääf C, Discher M, Endesfelder D, Eakins JS, Gregoire E, Wojcik A, Ristic Y, Kim H, Lee J, Yu H, Kim MC, Abend M, Ainsbury E. The 2019-2020 EURADOS WG10 and RENEB Field Test of Retrospective Dosimetry Methods in a Small-Scale Incident Involving Ionizing Radiation. Radiat Res 2021; 195:253-264. [PMID: 33347576 DOI: 10.1667/rade-20-00243.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2020] [Accepted: 11/23/2020] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
With the use of ionizing radiation comes the risk of accidents and malevolent misuse. When unplanned exposures occur, there are several methods which can be used to retrospectively reconstruct individual radiation exposures; biological methods include analysis of aberrations and damage of chromosomes and DNA, while physical methods rely on luminescence (TL/OSL) or EPR signals. To ensure the quality and dependability of these methods, they should be evaluated under realistic exposure conditions. In 2019, EURADOS Working Group 10 and RENEB organized a field test with the purpose of evaluating retrospective dosimetry methods as carried out in potential real-life exposure scenarios. A 1.36 TBq 192Ir source was used to irradiate anthropomorphic phantoms in different geometries at doses of several Gy in an outdoor open-air geometry. Materials intended for accident dosimetry (including mobile phones and blood) were placed on the phantoms together with reference dosimeters (LiF, NaCl, glass). The objective was to estimate radiation exposures received by individuals as measured using blood and fortuitous materials, and to evaluate these methods by comparing the estimated doses to reference measurements and Monte Carlo simulations. Herein we describe the overall planning, goals, execution and preliminary outcomes of the 2019 field test. Such field tests are essential for the development of new and existing methods. The outputs from this field test include useful experience in terms of planning and execution of future exercises, with respect to time management, radiation protection, and reference dosimetry to be considered to obtain relevant data for analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Waldner
- Lund University, Department of Translational Medicine, Medical Radiation Physics, Malmö, Sweden
| | - C Bernhardsson
- Lund University, Department of Translational Medicine, Medical Radiation Physics, Malmö, Sweden
| | - C Woda
- Helmholtz Zentrum München, Institute of Radiation Medicine, Neuherberg, Germany
| | - F Trompier
- Lund University, Department of Translational Medicine, Medical Radiation Physics, Malmö, Sweden
| | - O Van Hoey
- Institute for Environment, Health and Safety, Belgian Nuclear Research Center (SCK•CEN), Belgium
| | - U Kulka
- Bundesamt für Strahlenschutz, BfS, Department of Radiation Protection and Health, Oberschleissheim, Germany
| | - U Oestreicher
- Bundesamt für Strahlenschutz, BfS, Department of Radiation Protection and Health, Oberschleissheim, Germany
| | - C Bassinet
- Institut de Radioprotection et de Sûreté Nucléaire, Fontenay-aux-Roses, France
| | - C Rääf
- Lund University, Department of Translational Medicine, Medical Radiation Physics, Malmö, Sweden
| | - M Discher
- Paris-Lodron-University of Salzburg, Department of Geography and Geology, Salzburg, Austria
| | - D Endesfelder
- Lund University, Department of Translational Medicine, Medical Radiation Physics, Malmö, Sweden
| | - J S Eakins
- Public Health England, CRCE, Chilton, Didcot, Oxon, United Kingdom
| | - E Gregoire
- Lund University, Department of Translational Medicine, Medical Radiation Physics, Malmö, Sweden
| | - A Wojcik
- Stockholm University, Department of Molecular Biosciences, The Wenner-Gren Institute, Sweden and Institute of Biology, Jan Kochanowski University, Kielce, Poland
| | - Y Ristic
- Lund University, Department of Translational Medicine, Medical Radiation Physics, Malmö, Sweden
| | - H Kim
- Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute, Division of Radiation Safety Management, Daejeon, South Korea
| | - J Lee
- Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute, Division of Radiation Safety Management, Daejeon, South Korea
| | - H Yu
- Korea Institute of Nuclear Safety, Department of Radiological Emergency Preparedness, Daejeon, South Korea
| | - M C Kim
- Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute, Division of Radiation Safety Management, Daejeon, South Korea
| | - M Abend
- Bundeswehr Institute of Radiobiology, Munich, Germany
| | - E Ainsbury
- Public Health England, CRCE, Chilton, Didcot, Oxon, United Kingdom
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Discher M, Woda C, Ekendahl D, Rojas-Palma C, Steinhäusler F. Evaluation of physical retrospective dosimetry methods in a realistic accident scenario: Results of a field test. RADIAT MEAS 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.radmeas.2021.106544] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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McKeever SWS, Sholom S, Chandler JR. DEVELOPMENTS IN THE USE OF THERMOLUMINESCENCE AND OPTICALLY STIMULATED LUMINESCENCE FROM MOBILE PHONES IN EMERGENCY DOSIMETRY. RADIATION PROTECTION DOSIMETRY 2020; 192:205-235. [PMID: 33406531 DOI: 10.1093/rpd/ncaa208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2020] [Revised: 10/15/2020] [Accepted: 11/23/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Proposed physical dosimetry methods for emergency dosimetry in radiological, mass-casualty incidents include both thermoluminescence (TL) and optically stimulated luminescence (OSL). Potential materials that could feasibly be used for TL and OSL dosimetry include clothing, shoes and personal accessories. However, the most popular target of study has been personal electronics, especially different components from smartphones. Smartphones have been a focus because they are widely available and, in principle, may be viewed as surrogates for commercial TL or OSL dosimeters. The components of smartphones that have been studied include surface mount devices (such as resistors, capacitors and inductors) and glass materials, including front protective glass, display glass and (with more modern devices) back protective glass. This paper reviews the most recent developments in the use of TL and OSL with these materials and guides the way to future, and urgently needed, research.
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Affiliation(s)
- S W S McKeever
- Radiation Dosimetry Group, Department of Physics, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74074, USA
| | - S Sholom
- Radiation Dosimetry Group, Department of Physics, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74074, USA
| | - J R Chandler
- Department of Nuclear Engineering, University of Tennessee, TN 87996, USA
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Sholom S, McKeever SW, Chandler JR. OSL dosimetry with protective glasses of modern smartphones: A fiber-optic, non-destructive approach. RADIAT MEAS 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.radmeas.2020.106382] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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10
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Bassinet C, Le Bris W. TL investigation of glasses from mobile phone screen protectors for radiation accident dosimetry. RADIAT MEAS 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.radmeas.2020.106384] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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Kim H, Kim MC, Lee J, Discher M, Woda C, Lim S, Chang I, Lee SK, Kim JL, Chung K. Characterization of thermoluminescence of chip cards for emergency dosimetry. RADIAT MEAS 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.radmeas.2020.106321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Use of molecularly-cloned haematopoietic growth factors in persons exposed to acute high-dose, high-dose rate whole-body ionizing radiations. Blood Rev 2020; 45:100690. [PMID: 32273121 DOI: 10.1016/j.blre.2020.100690] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2020] [Revised: 03/02/2020] [Accepted: 03/30/2020] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Exposure to acute, high-dose, high dose-rate whole-body ionizing radiations damages the bone marrow resulting in rapid decreases in concentrations of blood cells, especially lymphocytes, granulocytes and platelets with associated risks of infection and bleeding. In several experimental models including non-human primate radiation exposure models giving molecularly cloned haematopoietic growth factor including granulocyte/macrophage colony-stimulating factor (G/M-CSF; sargramostim) and granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF; filgrastim and pegylated G-CSF [peg-filgrastim]) accelerates bone marrow recovery and increases survival. Based on these data these molecules are US FDA approved for treating victims of radiation and nuclear incidents, accident and events such as nuclear terrorism and are included in the US National Strategic Stockpile. We discuss the immediate medical response to these events including how to estimate radiation dose and uniformity and which interventions are appropriate in different radiation exposures settings. We also discuss similarities and differences between molecularly cloned haematopoietic growth factors.
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Gale RP, Armitage JO, Hashmi SK. Emergency response to radiological and nuclear accidents and incidents. Br J Haematol 2019; 192:968-972. [PMID: 31388987 DOI: 10.1111/bjh.16138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Bone marrow damage is an important consequence of exposure to acute high-dose whole-body radiation. As such, haematologists can play an important role in managing this complication. However, these accident and incident scenarios are complex and often involve injuries to other organs and tissues from heat, projectiles and chemicals. In the case of a large-scale event there will likely be severe infrastructure disruptions and injury or death to medical personnel. Accurate estimates of dose and uniformity of exposure are needed to intelligently direct appropriate interventions, which range from antibiotics, antifungals and anti-virus drugs, molecularly-cloned haematopoietic growth factors and, in rare instances, haematopoietic cell transplants. These therapies are ones that haematologists often use in the context of anti-cancer therapy, especially therapy of haematological cancers like leukaemia. However, most haematologists have little knowledge of radiation biology and should consider updating this aspect of their expertise in continuing medical education. As in other areas of medicine, prevention is better than cure and haematologists should be active in decreasing risks of a nuclear war.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert P Gale
- Division of Experimental Medicine, Department of Medicine, Centre for Haematology Research, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - James O Armitage
- Division of Hematology and Oncology, Department of Medicine, University of Nebraska, Omaha, NE, USA
| | - Shahrukh K Hashmi
- Department of Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA.,Oncology Centre, King Faisal Specialist Hospital Research Centre, Riyadh, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert P Gale
- From the Haematology Research Centre, Division of Experimental Medicine, Department of Medicine, Imperial College London, London (R.P.G.); and the Department of Medicine, Division of Hematology and Oncology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha (J.O.A.)
| | - James O Armitage
- From the Haematology Research Centre, Division of Experimental Medicine, Department of Medicine, Imperial College London, London (R.P.G.); and the Department of Medicine, Division of Hematology and Oncology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha (J.O.A.)
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Ainsbury EA, Samaga D, Della Monaca S, Marrale M, Bassinet C, Burbidge CI, Correcher V, Discher M, Eakins J, Fattibene P, Güçlü I, Higueras M, Lund E, Maltar-Strmecki N, McKeever S, Rääf CL, Sholom S, Veronese I, Wieser A, Woda C, Trompier F. UNCERTAINTY ON RADIATION DOSES ESTIMATED BY BIOLOGICAL AND RETROSPECTIVE PHYSICAL METHODS. RADIATION PROTECTION DOSIMETRY 2018; 178:382-404. [PMID: 28981844 DOI: 10.1093/rpd/ncx125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2017] [Accepted: 08/09/2017] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
Biological and physical retrospective dosimetry are recognised as key techniques to provide individual estimates of dose following unplanned exposures to ionising radiation. Whilst there has been a relatively large amount of recent development in the biological and physical procedures, development of statistical analysis techniques has failed to keep pace. The aim of this paper is to review the current state of the art in uncertainty analysis techniques across the 'EURADOS Working Group 10-Retrospective dosimetry' members, to give concrete examples of implementation of the techniques recommended in the international standards, and to further promote the use of Monte Carlo techniques to support characterisation of uncertainties. It is concluded that sufficient techniques are available and in use by most laboratories for acute, whole body exposures to highly penetrating radiation, but further work will be required to ensure that statistical analysis is always wholly sufficient for the more complex exposure scenarios.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth A Ainsbury
- Public Health England, Centre for Radiation, Chemical and Environmental Hazards, Chilton, Didcot, Oxford OX11 ORQ, UK
| | - Daniel Samaga
- Bundesamt für Strahlenschutz, Ingolstaedter Landstr. 1, 85764 Oberschleissheim, Germany
| | - Sara Della Monaca
- Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Viale Regina Elena 299, 00161 Rome, Italy
| | - Maurizio Marrale
- Department of Physics and Chemistry and Advanced Technologies Network Center, University of Palermo, Viale delle Scienze Edificio 18, 90128 Palermo, Italy
| | - Celine Bassinet
- Institut de radioprotection et de sûreté nucléaire, BP 17 - 92262 Fontenay-aux-Roses Cedex 31, Avenue de la Division Leclerc 92260 Fontenay-aux-Roses, Paris, France
| | - Christopher I Burbidge
- Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Radiological Protection, 3 Clonskeagh Square, Clonskeagh Road, Dublin 14, Ireland
| | - Virgilio Correcher
- Centro de Investigaciones Energéticas, Medioambientales y Tecnológicas, Centro de la Moncloa, Complutense, 40, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - Michael Discher
- University of Salzburg, Department of Geography and Geology, Hellbrunnerstraße 34, 5020 Salzburg, Austria
| | - Jon Eakins
- Public Health England, Centre for Radiation, Chemical and Environmental Hazards, Chilton, Didcot, Oxford OX11 ORQ, UK
| | - Paola Fattibene
- Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Viale Regina Elena 299, 00161 Rome, Italy
| | - Inci Güçlü
- Turkish Atomic Energy Authority, Mustafa Kemal Mahallesi, Dumlupinar Bulvari, No: 192, 06510, Çankaya - Ankara, Turkey
| | - Manuel Higueras
- Basque Center for Applied Mathematics, Alameda de Mazarredo 14, E-48009 Bilbao, Basque Country, Spain
| | - Eva Lund
- Department of Medical and Health Sciences, Linköping University, SE-581 85 Linköping, Sweden
| | - Nadica Maltar-Strmecki
- Ruder Boškovic Institute, Division of Physical Chemistry, Laboratory for Magnetic Resonances, Bijenicka cesta 54,10000 Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Stephen McKeever
- Oklahoma State University, 145 Physical Sciences, Campus, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA
| | - Christopher L Rääf
- Medicinsk strålningsfysik, Institutionen för Translationell Medicin, Lunds universitet, Skånes universitetssjukhus SUS, SE-205 02 Malmö, Sweden
| | - Sergey Sholom
- Oklahoma State University, 145 Physical Sciences, Campus, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA
| | - Ivan Veronese
- Università degli Studi di Milano, Department of Physics and National Institute of Nuclear Physics, Section of Milan, Via Celoria 16, 20133 - Milano, Italy
| | - Albrecht Wieser
- Helmholtz Zentrum München, Deutsches Forschungszentrum für Gesundheit und Umwelt, Institute of Radiation Protection, Ingolstädter Landstraße 1, D-85764 Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Clemens Woda
- Helmholtz Zentrum München, Deutsches Forschungszentrum für Gesundheit und Umwelt, Institute of Radiation Protection, Ingolstädter Landstraße 1, D-85764 Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Francois Trompier
- Institut de radioprotection et de sûreté nucléaire, BP 17 - 92262 Fontenay-aux-Roses Cedex 31, Avenue de la Division Leclerc 92260 Fontenay-aux-Roses, Paris, France
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McKeever S, Minniti R, Sholom S. Phototransferred thermoluminescence (PTTL) dosimetry using Gorilla® glass from mobile phones. RADIAT MEAS 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.radmeas.2017.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Mrozik A, Marczewska B, Bilski P, Książek M. OSL signal of IC chips from mobile phones for dose assessment in accidental dosimetry. RADIAT MEAS 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.radmeas.2017.01.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Sholom S, McKeever SWS. Emergency EPR and OSL dosimetry with table vitamins and minerals. RADIATION PROTECTION DOSIMETRY 2016; 172:139-144. [PMID: 27412508 DOI: 10.1093/rpd/ncw177] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Several table vitamins, minerals and L-lysine amino acid have been preliminarily tested as potential emergency dosemeters using electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) and optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) techniques. Radiation-induced EPR signals were detected in samples of vitamin B2 and L-lysine while samples of multivitamins of different brands as well as mineral Mg demonstrated prominent OSL signals after exposure to ionizing radiation doses. Basic dosimetric properties of the radiation-sensitive substances were studied, namely dose response, fading of the EPR or OSL signals and values of minimum measurable doses (MMDs). For EPR-sensitive samples, the EPR signal is converted into units of dose using a linear dose response and correcting for fading using the measured fading dependence. For OSL-sensitive materials, a multi-aliquot, enhanced-temperature protocol was developed to avoid the problem of sample sensitization and to minimize the influence of signal fading. The sample dose in this case is also evaluated using the dose response and fading curves. MMDs of the EPR-sensitive samples were below 2 Gy while those of the OSL-sensitive materials were below 500 mGy as long as the samples are analyzed within 1 week after exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Sholom
- Radiation Dosimetry Group, Department of Physics, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA
| | - S W S McKeever
- Radiation Dosimetry Group, Department of Physics, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA
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