Browsing affects intra-ring carbon allocation in species with contrasting wood anatomy

Host-specific growth responses of Larix kaempferi and Quercus acutissima to Asian gypsy moth defoliation in central Korea

As the risk of gypsy moth outbreaks that have detrimental effects on forest ecosystem in the Northern Hemisphere increase due to climate change, a quantitative evaluation of the impact of gypsy moth defoliation is needed to support the adaptive forest management. To evaluate the host-specific impact of gypsy moth defoliation, radial growth and annual carbon accumulation were compared for one severely defoliated (Larix kaempferi (Lamb.) Carrière) and one moderate defoliated (Quercus acutissima Carruth.) host, in defoliated and non-defoliated site using tree-ring analysis. Finally, the resilience indices of radial growth variables were calculated to assess the ability of sampled trees to withstand defoliation. Gypsy moth defoliation mainly decreased latewood width and caused reduction in annual carbon absorption more than 40% for both tree species. However, L. kaempferi, showed the reduced growth until the year following defoliation, while Q. acutissima, showed no lagged growth depression and rapid growth recover. The findings show how each species reacts differently to gypsy moth defoliation and highlight the need of managing forests in a way that takes resilient tree species into account.

If self-shading is so bad, why is there so much? Short shoots reconcile costs and benefits

If trees minimize self-shading, new foliage in shaded parts of the crown should remain minimal. However, many species have abundant foliage on short shoots inside their crown. In this paper, we test the hypothesis that short shoots allow trees to densify their foliage in self-shaded parts of the crown thanks to reduced costs. Using 30 woody species in Mediterranean and tropical biomes, we estimated the contribution of short shoots to total plant foliage, calculated their costs relative to long shoots including wood cost and used 3D plant simulations calibrated with field measurements to quantify their light interception, self-shading and yield. In species with short shoots, leaves on short shoots account for the majority of leaf area. The reduced cost of short stems enables the production of leaf area with 36% less biomass. Simulations show that although short shoots are more self-shaded, they benefit the plant because they cost less. Lastly, the morphological properties of short shoots have major implications for whole plant architecture. Taken together, our results question the validity of only assessing leaf costs to understand leaf economics and call for more integrated observations at the crown scale to understand light capture strategies in woody plants.

Contrasting Carbon Allocation Strategies of Ring-Porous and Diffuse-Porous Species Converge Toward Similar Growth Responses to Drought

Extreme climatic events that are expected under global warming expose forest ecosystems to drought stress, which may affect the growth and productivity. We assessed intra-annual growth responses of trees to soil water content in species belonging to different functional groups of tree-ring porosity. We pose the hypothesis that species with contrasting carbon allocation strategies, which emerge from different relationships between wood traits and canopy architecture, display divergent growth responses to drought. We selected two diffuse-porous species (Acer saccharum and Betula alleghaniensis) and two ring-porous species (Quercus rubra and Fraxinus americana) from the mixed forest of Quebec (Canada). We measured anatomical wood traits and canopy architecture in eight individuals per species and assessed tree growth sensitivity to water balance during 2008-2017 using the standardized precipitation evapotranspiration index (SPEI). Stem elongation in diffuse-porous species mainly depended upon the total number of ramifications and hydraulic diameter of the tree-ring vessels. In ring-porous species, stem elongation mainly depended upon the productivity of the current year, i.e., number of vessels and basal area increment. Diffuse-porous and ring-porous species had similar responses to soil water balance. The effect of soil water balance on tree growth changed during the growing season. In April, decreasing soil temperature linked to wet conditions could explain the negative relationship between SPEI and tree growth. In late spring, greater water availability affected carbon partitioning, by promoting the formation of larger xylem vessels in both functional groups. Results suggest that timings and duration of drought events affect meristem growth and carbon allocation in both functional groups. Drought induces the formation of fewer xylem vessels in ring-porous species, and smaller xylem vessels in diffuse-porous species, the latter being also prone to a decline in stem elongation due to a reduced number of ramifications. Indeed, stem elongation of diffuse-porous species is influenced by environmental conditions of the previous year, which determine the total number of ramifications during the current year. Drought responses in different functional groups are thus characterized by different drivers, express contrasting levels of resistance or resilience, but finally result in an overall similar loss of productivity.

No preferential carbon-allocation to storage over growth in clipped birch and oak saplings

Herbivory is one of the most globally distributed disturbances affecting carbon (C)-cycling in trees, yet our understanding of how it alters tree C-allocation to different functions such as storage, growth or rhizodeposition is still limited. Prioritized C-allocation to storage replenishment vs growth could explain the fast recovery of C-storage pools frequently observed in growth-reduced defoliated trees. We performed continuous 13C-labeling coupled to clipping to quantify the effects of simulated browsing on the growth, leaf morphology and relative allocation of stored vs recently assimilated C to the growth (bulk biomass) and non-structural carbohydrate (NSC) stores (soluble sugars and starch) of the different organs of two tree species: diffuse-porous (Betula pubescens Ehrh.) and ring-porous (Quercus petraea [Matt.] Liebl.). Carbon-transfers from plants to bulk and rhizosphere soil were also evaluated. Clipped birch and oak trees shifted their C-allocation patterns above-ground as a means to recover from defoliation. However, such increased allocation to current-year stems and leaves did not entail reductions in the allocation to the rhizosphere, which remained unchanged between clipped and control trees of both species. Betula pubescens and Q. petraea showed differences in their vulnerability and recovery strategies to clipping, the ring-porous species being less affected in terms of growth and architecture by clipping than the diffuse-porous. These contrasting patterns could be partly explained by differences in their C cycling after clipping. Defoliated oaks showed a faster recovery of their canopy biomass, which was supported by increased allocation of new C, but associated with large decreases in their fine root biomass. Following clipping, both species recovered NSC pools to a larger extent than growth, but the allocation of 13C-labeled photo-assimilates into storage compounds was not increased as compared with controls. Despite their different response to clipping, our results indicate no preventative allocation into storage occurred during the first year after clipping in either of the species.

Forest carbon allocation modelling under climate change

Carbon allocation plays a key role in ecosystem dynamics and plant adaptation to changing environmental conditions. Hence, proper description of this process in vegetation models is crucial for the simulations of the impact of climate change on carbon cycling in forests. Here we review how carbon allocation modelling is currently implemented in 31 contrasting models to identify the main gaps compared with our theoretical and empirical understanding of carbon allocation. A hybrid approach based on combining several principles and/or types of carbon allocation modelling prevailed in the examined models, while physiologically more sophisticated approaches were used less often than empirical ones. The analysis revealed that, although the number of carbon allocation studies over the past 10 years has substantially increased, some background processes are still insufficiently understood and some issues in models are frequently poorly represented, oversimplified or even omitted. Hence, current challenges for carbon allocation modelling in forest ecosystems are (i) to overcome remaining limits in process understanding, particularly regarding the impact of disturbances on carbon allocation, accumulation and utilization of nonstructural carbohydrates, and carbon use by symbionts, and (ii) to implement existing knowledge of carbon allocation into defence, regeneration and improved resource uptake in order to better account for changing environmental conditions.

Phenological shifts in conifer species stressed by spruce budworm defoliation

Synchrony between host budburst and insect emergence greatly influences the time window for insect development and survival. A few alterations of bud phenology have been reported under defoliation without clear consensus regarding the direction of effects, i.e., advance or delay. Here, we compared budburst phenology between conifers in defoliation and control treatments, and measured carbon allocation as a potential mechanistic explanation of changes in phenology. In a 2-year greenhouse experiment, saplings of balsam fir, black spruce and white spruce of two different provenances (north and south) were subjected to either control (no larvae) or natural defoliation treatment (larvae added) by spruce budworm. Bud and instar phenology, primary and secondary growth, defoliation and non-structural carbohydrates were studied during the growing season. No differences were observed in bud phenology during the first year of defoliation. After 1 year of defoliation, bud phenology advanced by 6-7 days in black spruce and balsam fir and by 3.5 days in white spruce compared with the control. Because of this earlier bud break, apical and shoot growth exceeded 50% of its final length before mature instar defoliation occurred, which decreased the overall level of damage. A sugar-mediated response, via earlier starch breakdown, and higher sugar availability to buds explains the advanced budburst in defoliated saplings. The advanced phenological response to defoliation was consistent across the conifer species and provenances except for one species × provenance combination. Allocation of carbon to buds and shoots growth at the expense of wood growth in the stem and reserve accumulation represents a shift in the physiological resources priorities to ensure tree survival. This advancement in bud phenology could be considered as a physiological response to defoliation based on carbohydrate needs for primary growth, rather than a resistance trait to spruce budworm.

Growth reduction after defoliation is independent of CO2 supply in deciduous and evergreen young oaks

Reduced productivity of trees after defoliation might be caused by limited carbon (C) availability. We investigated the combined effect of different atmospheric CO₂ concentrations (160, 280 and 560 ppm) and early season defoliation on the growth and C reserves (nonstructural carbohydrates (NSC)) of saplings of two oak species with different leaf habits (deciduous Quercus petraea and evergreen Quercus ilex). In both species, higher CO₂ supply significantly enhanced growth. Defoliation had a strong negative impact on growth (stronger for Q. ilex), but the relative reduction of growth caused by defoliation within each CO₂ treatment was very similar across all three CO₂ concentrations. Low CO₂ and defoliation led to decreased NSC tissue concentrations mainly in the middle of the growing season in Q. ilex, but not in Q. petraea. However, also in Q. ilex, NSC increased in woody tissues in defoliated and low-CO₂ saplings towards the end of the growing season. Although the saplings were C limited under these specific experimental conditions, growth reduction after defoliation was not directly caused by C limitation. Rather, growth of trees followed a strong allometric relationship between total leaf area and conductive woody tissue, which did not change across species, CO₂ concentrations and defoliation treatments.

Carbon Allocation into Different Fine-Root Classes of Young Abies alba Trees Is Affected More by Phenology than by Simulated Browsing

Abies alba (European silver fir) was used to investigate possible effects of simulated browsing on C allocation belowground by ¹³CO₂ pulse-labelling at spring, summer or autumn, and by harvesting the trees at the same time point of the labelling or at a later season for biomass and for ¹³C-allocation into the fine-root system. Before budburst in spring, the leader shoots and 50% of all lateral shoots of half of the investigated 5-year old Abies alba saplings were clipped to simulate browsing. At harvest, different fine-root classes were separated, and starch as an important storage compartment was analysed for concentrations. The phenology had a strong effect on the allocation of the ¹³C-label from shoots to roots. In spring, shoots did not supply the fine-roots with high amounts of the ¹³C-label, because the fine-roots contained less than 1% of the applied ¹³C. In summer and autumn, however, shoots allocated relatively high amounts of the ¹³C-label to the fine roots. The incorporation of the ¹³C-label as structural C or as starch into the roots is strongly dependent on the root type and the root diameter. In newly formed fine roots, 3–5% of the applied ¹³C was incorporated, whereas 1–3% in the ≤0.5 mm root class and 1–1.5% in the >0.5–1.0 mm root class were recorded. Highest ¹³C-enrichment in the starch was recorded in the newly formed fine roots in autumn. The clipping treatment had a significant positive effect on the amount of allocated ¹³C-label to the fine roots after the spring labelling, with high relative ¹³C-contents observed in the ≤0.5 mm and the >0.5–1.0 mm fine-root classes of clipped trees. No effects of the clipping were observed after summer and autumn labelling in the ¹³C-allocation patterns. Overall, our data imply that the season of C assimilation and, thus, the phenology of trees is the main determinant of the C allocation from shoots to roots and is clearly more important than browsing.

Effects of Invasive Winter Moth Defoliation on Tree Radial Growth in Eastern Massachusetts, USA

Winter moth, Operophtera brumata L. (Lepidoptera: Geometridae), has been defoliating hardwood trees in eastern Massachusetts since the 1990s. Native to Europe, winter moth has also been detected in Rhode Island, Connecticut, eastern Long Island (NY), New Hampshire, and Maine. Individual tree impacts of winter moth defoliation in New England are currently unknown. Using dendroecological techniques, this study related annual radial growth of individual host (Quercus spp. and Acer spp.) trees to detailed defoliation estimates. Winter moth defoliation was associated with up to a 47% reduction in annual radial growth of Quercus trees. Latewood production of Quercus was reduced by up to 67% in the same year as defoliation, while earlywood production was reduced by up to 24% in the year following defoliation. Winter moth defoliation was not a strong predictor of radial growth in Acer species. This study is the first to document impacts of novel invasions of winter moth into New England.

Combined effects of defoliation and water stress on pine growth and non-structural carbohydrates

Climate change is expected to increase both pest insect damage and the occurrence of severe drought. There is therefore a need to better understand the combined effects of biotic and abiotic damage on tree growth in order to predict the multi-factorial effect of climate change on forest ecosystem productivity. Indeed, the effect of stress interactions on tree growth is an increasingly important topic that greatly lacks experiments and data, and it is unlikely that the impact of combined stresses can be extrapolated from the outcomes of studies that focused on a single stress. We developed an original manipulative study under real field conditions where we applied artificial defoliation and induced water stress on 10-year-old (∼10 m high) maritime pine trees (Pinus pinaster Ait.). Tree response to combined stresses was quantitatively assessed following tree secondary growth and carbohydrate pools. Such a design allowed us to address the crucial question of combined stresses on trees under stand conditions, sharing soil supplies with neighboring trees. Our initial hypotheses were that (i) moderate defoliation can limit the impact of water stress on tree growth through reduced transpiration demand by a tree canopy partly defoliated and that (ii) defoliation results in reduced non-structural carbohydrate (NSC) pools, affecting tree tolerance to drought. Our results showed additive effects of defoliation and water stress on tree growth and contradict our initial hypothesis. Indeed, under stand conditions, we found that partial defoliation does not limit the impact of water stress through reduced transpiration. Our study also highlighted that, even if NSC in all organs were affected by defoliation, tree response to water stress was not triggered. We found that stem NSC were maintained or increased during the entire growing season, supporting literature-based hypotheses such as an active maintenance of the hydraulic system or another limiting resource for tree growth under defoliation. We also observed a significant decrease in root carbohydrates, which suggests a shift in the root carbon balance under defoliation. The decrease in carbohydrate supply under defoliation may not counterbalance the carbon use for mineral and water uptakes or a translocation to other tissues.

Contrasting trait syndromes in angiosperms and conifers are associated with different responses of tree growth to temperature on a large scale

Recent large-scale studies of tree growth in the Iberian Peninsula reported contrasting positive and negative effects of temperature in Mediterranean angiosperms and conifers. Here we review the different hypotheses that may explain these trends and propose that the observed contrasting responses of tree growth to temperature in this region could be associated with a continuum of trait differences between angiosperms and conifers. Angiosperm and conifer trees differ in the effects of phenology in their productivity, in their growth allometry, and in their sensitivity to competition. Moreover, angiosperms and conifers significantly differ in hydraulic safety margins, sensitivity of stomatal conductance to vapor-pressure deficit (VPD), xylem recovery capacity or the rate of carbon transfer. These differences could be explained by key features of the xylem such as non-structural carbohydrate content (NSC), wood parenchymal fraction or wood capacitance. We suggest that the reviewed trait differences define two contrasting ecophysiological strategies that may determine qualitatively different growth responses to increased temperature and drought. Improved reciprocal common garden experiments along altitudinal or latitudinal gradients would be key to quantify the relative importance of the different hypotheses reviewed. Finally, we show that warming impacts in this area occur in an ecological context characterized by the advance of forest succession and increased dominance of angiosperm trees over extensive areas. In this context, we examined the empirical relationships between the responses of tree growth to temperature and hydraulic safety margins in angiosperm and coniferous trees. Our findings suggest a future scenario in Mediterranean forests characterized by contrasting demographic responses in conifer and angiosperm trees to both temperature and forest succession, with increased dominance of angiosperm trees, and particularly negative impacts in pines.

Do elevations in temperature, CO2, and nutrient availability modify belowground carbon gain and root morphology in artificially defoliated silver birch seedlings?

Climate warming increases the risk of insect defoliation in boreal forests. Losses in photosynthetically active surfaces cause reduction in net primary productivity and often compromise carbon reserves of trees. The concurrent effects of climate change and removal of foliage on root growth responses and carbohydrate dynamics are poorly understood, especially in tree seedlings. We investigated if exposures to different combinations of elevated temperature, CO2, and nutrient availability modify belowground carbon gain and root morphology in artificially defoliated 1-year-old silver birches (Betula pendula). We quantified nonstructural carbohydrates (insoluble starch as a storage compound; soluble sucrose, fructose, and glucose) singly and in combination in fine roots of plants under winter dormancy. Also the total mass, fine root proportion, water content, and length of roots were defined. We hypothesized that the measured properties are lower in defoliated birch seedlings that grow with ample resources than with scarce resources. On average, fertilization markedly decreased both the proportion and the carbohydrate concentrations of fine roots in all seedlings, whereas the effect of fertilization on root water content and dry mass was the opposite. However, defoliation mitigated the effect of fertilization on the root water content, as well as on the proportion of fine roots and their carbohydrate concentrations by reversing the outcomes. Elevation in temperature decreased and elevation in CO2 increased the absolute contents of total nonstructural carbohydrates, whereas fertilization alleviated both these effects. Also the root length and mass increased by CO2 elevation. This confirms that surplus carbon in birch tissues is used as a substrate for storage compounds and for cell wall synthesis. To conclude, our results indicate that some, but not all elements of climate change alter belowground carbon gain and root morphology in defoliated silver birch seedlings.

Simulated browsing affects leaf shedding phenology and litter quality of oak and birch saplings

Herbivore effects on leaf litter can have a strong impact on ecosystem nutrient cycling. Although such effects are well described for insect herbivory, research on the impacts of browsing by mammalian herbivores on leaf litter dynamics and nutrient cycling has been more limited, particularly at the level of the individual plant. Clipping treatments (66% shoot removal twice, plus unclipped) were applied to analyse the effect of browsing on the phenology (start date and pattern of leaf shedding) and leaf litter quality (nitrogen (N), soluble sugars, starch and total non-structural carbohydrate concentrations, plus C : N ratios) of Betula pubescens Ehrh. and Quercus petraea [Matt.] Liebl. saplings. Clipping decreased leaf litter biomass and delayed leaf senescence and shedding, but did not change the phenological timing of litterfall between senescence and shedding. The quality of leaf litter of both species was increased by simulated browsing, through an increase in N and carbohydrate concentrations (mainly soluble sugars) and a decreased C : N ratio. This is the first evidence we are aware of that browsing may cause changes in leaf shedding phenology, delaying the process without altering its pattern. Our results also indicate that simulated browsing increases the quality of leaf litter. However, the potential positive effect of browsing on N cycling through litter quality may be offset by its negative impact on the amount of N shed per tree.

Metabolic and enzymatic changes associated with carbon mobilization, utilization and replenishment triggered in grain amaranth (Amaranthus cruentus) in response to partial defoliation by mechanical injury or insect herbivory

BACKGROUND

Amaranthus cruentus and A. hypochondriacus are crop plants grown for grain production in subtropical countries. Recently, the generation of large-scale transcriptomic data opened the possibility to study representative genes of primary metabolism to gain a better understanding of the biochemical mechanisms underlying tolerance to defoliation in these species. A multi-level approach was followed involving gene expression analysis, enzyme activity and metabolite measurements.

RESULTS

Defoliation by insect herbivory (HD) or mechanical damage (MD) led to a rapid and transient reduction of non-structural carbohydrates (NSC) in all tissues examined. This correlated with a short-term induction of foliar sucrolytic activity, differential gene expression of a vacuolar invertase and its inhibitor, and induction of a sucrose transporter gene. Leaf starch in defoliated plants correlated negatively with amylolytic activity and expression of a β-amylase-1 gene and positively with a soluble starch synthase gene. Fatty-acid accumulation in roots coincided with a high expression of a phosphoenolpyruvate/phosphate transporter gene. In all tissues there was a long-term replenishment of most metabolite pools, which allowed damaged plants to maintain unaltered growth and grain yield. Promoter analysis of ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase and vacuolar invertase genes indicated the presence of cis-regulatory elements that supported their responsiveness to defoliation. HD and MD had differential effects on transcripts, enzyme activities and metabolites. However, the correlation between transcript abundance and enzymatic activities was very limited. A better correlation was found between enzymes, metabolite levels and growth and reproductive parameters.

CONCLUSIONS

It is concluded that a rapid reduction of NSC reserves in leaves, stems and roots followed by their long-term recovery underlies tolerance to defoliation in grain amaranth. This requires the coordinate action of genes/enzymes that are differentially affected by the way leaf damage is performed. Defoliation tolerance in grain is a complex process that can't be fully explained at the transcriptomic level only.

Pulse-labelling trees to study carbon allocation dynamics: a review of methods, current knowledge and future prospects

Pulse-labelling of trees with stable or radioactive carbon (C) isotopes offers the unique opportunity to trace the fate of labelled CO(2) into the tree and its release to the soil and the atmosphere. Thus, pulse-labelling enables the quantification of C partitioning in forests and the assessment of the role of partitioning in tree growth, resource acquisition and C sequestration. However, this is associated with challenges as regards the choice of a tracer, the methods of tracing labelled C in tree and soil compartments and the quantitative analysis of C dynamics. Based on data from 47 studies, the rate of transfer differs between broadleaved and coniferous species and decreases as temperature and soil water content decrease. Labelled C is rapidly transferred belowground-within a few days or less-and this transfer is slowed down by drought. Half-lives of labelled C in phloem sap (transfer pool) and in mature leaves (source organs) are short, while those of sink organs (growing tissues, seasonal storage) are longer. (13)C measurements in respiratory efflux at high temporal resolution provide the best estimate of the mean residence times of C in respiratory substrate pools, and the best basis for compartmental modelling. Seasonal C dynamics and allocation patterns indicate that sink strength variations are important drivers for C fluxes. We propose a conceptual model for temperate and boreal trees, which considers the use of recently assimilated C versus stored C. We recommend best practices for designing and analysing pulse-labelling experiments, and identify several topics which we consider of prime importance for future research on C allocation in trees: (i) whole-tree C source-sink relations, (ii) C allocation to secondary metabolism, (iii) responses to environmental change, (iv) effects of seasonality versus phenology in and across biomes, and (v) carbon-nitrogen interactions. Substantial progress is expected from emerging technologies, but the largest challenge remains to carry out in situ whole-tree labelling experiments on mature trees to improve our understanding of the environmental and physiological controls on C allocation.

Consequences of resource limitation for recovery from repeated defoliation in Eucalyptus globulus Labilladière

Recovery following defoliation can be modified by co-occurring site resource limitations. The growth response of young Eucalyptus globulus saplings to two defoliation events was examined in an experimental plantation with combinations of low (-) or high (+) water (W) and nitrogen (N) resources. Artificial defoliation was applied at 3 and 9 months of age to remove ~40 and 55% of leaf area in the upper crown, respectively. At 18 months of age, height, stem diameter and leaf area were not significantly different between control and defoliated saplings, across all resource treatments. However, stem volume, bark volume and branch number were significantly increased in defoliated saplings, including a significant interaction with resource treatment. Total above-ground biomass of saplings in response to defoliation was significantly higher (almost double) than controls for the low water (N + W-) treatment only. Significantly increased foliar starch content (and a trend for increased soluble sugars) in the upper crown zone was found in the defoliated saplings of the N + W- treatment compared with the upper zone of control saplings. Foliar total non-structural carbohydrates were significantly correlated to stem biomass regardless of resource treatment or defoliation, and we suggest that foliar resources are most important for stem growth in E. globulus rather than stored carbon (C) from other tissues. After repeated defoliation and several months recovery, E. globulus saplings were generally not C limited in this study.