Adaptation of the endemic coronaviruses HCoV-OC43 and HCoV-229E to the human host

Terpenes and cannabidiol against human corona and influenza viruses-Anti-inflammatory and antiviral in vitro evaluation

The activity of the terpenes and Cannabidiol (CBD) against human coronavirus (HCoV) strain OC43 and influenza A (H1N1) was evaluated in human lung fibroblasts (MRC-5 cells). Also, we examined whether these ingredients inhibit pro-inflammatory cytokines in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC). The tested preparations exhibited both anti-inflammatory and antiviral effects. The combination of terpenes was effective against both HCoV-OC43 and influenza A (H1N1) virus. The addition of CBD improved the antiviral activity in some, but not all cases. This variation in activity may suggest an antiviral mechanism. In addition, there was a strong correlation between the quantitative results from a cell-viability assay and the cytopathic effect after 72 h, as observed under a microscope. The anti-inflammatory properties of terpenes were demonstrated using a pro-inflammatory cytokine-inhibition assay, which revealed significant cytokine inhibition and enhanced by the addition of CBD.

Corona- and Paramyxoviruses in Bats from Brazil: A Matter of Concern?

Chiroptera are one of the most diverse mammal orders. They are considered reservoirs of main human pathogens, where coronaviruses (CoVs) and paramyxoviruses (PMVs) may be highlighted. Moreover, the growing number of publications on CoVs and PMVs in wildlife reinforces the scientific community's interest in eco-vigilance, especially because of the emergence of important human pathogens such as the SARS-CoV-2 and Nipha viruses. Considering that Brazil presents continental dimensions, is biologically rich containing one of the most diverse continental biotas and presents a rich biodiversity of animals classified in the order Chiroptera, the mapping of CoV and PMV genetics related to human pathogens is important and the aim of the present work. CoVs can be classified into four genera: Alphacoronavirus, Betacoronavirus, Deltacoronavirus and Gammacoronavirus. Delta- and gammacoronaviruses infect mainly birds, while alpha- and betacoronaviruses contain important animal and human pathogens. Almost 60% of alpha- and betacoronaviruses are related to bats, which are considered natural hosts of these viral genera members. The studies on CoV presence in bats from Brazil have mainly assayed phyllostomid, molossid and vespertilionid bats in the South, Southeast and North territories. Despite Brazil not hosting rhinophilid or pteropodid bats, which are natural reservoirs of SARS-related CoVs and henipaviruses, respectively, CoVs and PMVs reported in Brazilian bats are genetically closely related to some human pathogens. Most works performed with Brazilian bats reported alpha-CoVs that were closely related to other bat-CoVs, despite a few reports of beta-CoVs grouped in the Merbecovirus and Embecovirus subgenera. The family Paramyxoviridae includes four subfamilies (Avulavirinae, Metaparamyxovirinae, Orthoparamyxovirinae and Rubulavirinae), and bats are significant drivers of PMV cross-species viral transmission. Additionally, the studies that have evaluated PMV presence in Brazilian bats have mainly found sequences classified in the Jeilongvirus and Morbillivirus genera that belong to the Orthoparamyxovirinae subfamily. Despite the increasing amount of research on Brazilian bats, studies analyzing these samples are still scarce. When surveying the representativeness of the CoVs and PMVs found and the available genomic sequences, it can be perceived that there may be gaps in the knowledge. The continuous monitoring of viral sequences that are closely related to human pathogens may be helpful in mapping and predicting future hotspots in the emergence of zoonotic agents.

Surveillance of endemic coronaviruses during the COVID‐19 pandemic in Iran, 2021–2022

Background

Human coronaviruses (HCoVs) 229E, OC43, HKU1, and NL63 are common viruses that continuously circulate in the human population. Previous studies showed the circulation of HCoVs during the cold months in Iran. We studied the circulation of HCoVs during coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‐19) pandemic to find the impact of pandemic on the circulation of these viruses.

Methods

As a cross‐sectional survey conducted during 2021 to 2022, of all throat swabs sent to Iran National Influenza Center from patients with severe acute respiratory infection, 590 samples were selected to test for HCoVs using one‐step real‐time RT‐PCR.

Results

Overall, 28 out of 590 (4.7%) tested samples were found to be positive for at least one HCoVs. HCoV‐OC43 was the most common (14/590 or 2.4%), followed by HCoV‐HKU1 (12/590 or 2%) and HCoV‐229E (4/590 or 0.6%), while HCoV‐NL63 was not detected. HCoVs were detected in patients of all ages and throughout the study period with peaks in the cold months of the year.

Conclusions

Our multicenter survey provides insight into the low circulation of HCoVs during the COVID‐19 pandemic in Iran in 2021/2022. Hygiene habits and social distancing measures might have important role in decreasing of HCoVs transmission. We believe that surveillance studies are needed to track the pattern of HCoVs distributions and detect changes in the epidemiology of such viruses to set out strategies in order to timely control the future outbreaks of HCoVs throughout the nation.

Contribution to pathogenesis of accessory proteins of deadly human coronaviruses

Coronaviruses (CoVs) are enveloped and positive-stranded RNA viruses with a large genome (∼ 30kb). CoVs include essential genes, such as the replicase and four genes coding for structural proteins (S, M, N and E), and genes encoding accessory proteins, which are variable in number, sequence and function among different CoVs. Accessory proteins are non-essential for virus replication, but are frequently involved in virus-host interactions associated with virulence. The scientific literature on CoV accessory proteins includes information analyzing the effect of deleting or mutating accessory genes in the context of viral infection, which requires the engineering of CoV genomes using reverse genetics systems. However, a considerable number of publications analyze gene function by overexpressing the protein in the absence of other viral proteins. This ectopic expression provides relevant information, although does not acknowledge the complex interplay of proteins during virus infection. A critical review of the literature may be helpful to interpret apparent discrepancies in the conclusions obtained by different experimental approaches. This review summarizes the current knowledge on human CoV accessory proteins, with an emphasis on their contribution to virus-host interactions and pathogenesis. This knowledge may help the search for antiviral drugs and vaccine development, still needed for some highly pathogenic human CoVs.

Epidemiology of Non-SARS-CoV2 Human Coronaviruses (HCoVs) in People Presenting with Influenza-like Illness (ILI) or Severe Acute Respiratory Infections (SARI) in Senegal from 2012 to 2020

In addition to emerging coronaviruses (SARS-CoV, MERS, SARS-CoV-2), there are seasonal human coronaviruses (HCoVs): HCoV-OC43, HCoV-229E, HCoV-NL63 and HCoV-HKU1. With a wide distribution around the world, HCoVs are usually associated with mild respiratory disease. In the elderly, young children and immunocompromised patients, more severe or even fatal respiratory infections may be observed. In Africa, data on seasonal HCoV are scarce. This retrospective study investigated the epidemiology and genetic diversity of seasonal HCoVs during nine consecutive years of influenza-like illness surveillance in Senegal. Nasopharyngeal swabs were collected from ILI outpatients or from SARI hospitalized patients. HCoVs were diagnosed by qRT-PCR and the positive samples were selected for molecular characterization. Among 9337 samples tested for HCoV, 406 (4.3%) were positive: 235 (57.9%) OC43, 102 (25.1%) NL63, 58 (14.3%) 229E and 17 (4.2%) HKU1. The four types circulated during the study period and a peak was noted between November and January. Children under five were the most affected. Co-infections were observed between HCoV types (1.2%) or with other viruses (76.1%). Genetically, HCoVs types showed diversity. The results highlighted that the impact of HCoVs must be taken into account in public health; monitoring them is therefore particularly necessary both in the most sensitive populations and in animals.

Modeling pandemic to endemic patterns of SARS-CoV-2 transmission using parameters estimated from animal model data

The contours of endemic coronaviral disease in humans and other animals are shaped by the tendency of coronaviruses to generate new variants superimposed upon nonsterilizing immunity. Consequently, patterns of coronaviral reinfection in animals can inform the emerging endemic state of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic. We generated controlled reinfection data after high and low risk natural exposure or heterologous vaccination to sialodacryoadenitis virus (SDAV) in rats. Using deterministic compartmental models, we utilized in vivo estimates from these experiments to model the combined effects of variable transmission rates, variable duration of immunity, successive waves of variants, and vaccination on patterns of viral transmission. Using rat experiment-derived estimates, an endemic state achieved by natural infection alone occurred after a median of 724 days with approximately 41.3% of the population susceptible to reinfection. After accounting for translationally altered parameters between rat-derived data and human SARS-CoV-2 transmission, and after introducing vaccination, we arrived at a median time to endemic stability of 1437 (IQR = 749.25) days with a median 15.4% of the population remaining susceptible. We extended the models to introduce successive variants with increasing transmissibility and included the effect of varying duration of immunity. As seen with endemic coronaviral infections in other animals, transmission states are altered by introduction of new variants, even with vaccination. However, vaccination combined with natural immunity maintains a lower prevalence of infection than natural infection alone and provides greater resilience against the effects of transmissible variants.

Modeling pandemic to endemic patterns of SARS-CoV-2 transmission using parameters estimated from animal model data

The contours of endemic coronaviral disease in humans and other animals are shaped by the tendency of coronaviruses to generate new variants superimposed upon nonsterilizing immunity. Consequently, patterns of coronaviral reinfection in animals can inform the emerging endemic state of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic. We generated controlled reinfection data after high and low risk natural exposure or heterologous vaccination to sialodacryoadenitis virus (SDAV) in rats. Using deterministic compartmental models, we utilized in vivo estimates from these experiments to model the combined effects of variable transmission rates, variable duration of immunity, successive waves of variants, and vaccination on patterns of viral transmission. Using rat experiment-derived estimates, an endemic state achieved by natural infection alone occurred after a median of 724 days with approximately 41.3% of the population susceptible to reinfection. After accounting for translationally altered parameters between rat-derived data and human SARS-CoV-2 transmission, and after introducing vaccination, we arrived at a median time to endemic stability of 1437 (IQR = 749.25) days with a median 15.4% of the population remaining susceptible. We extended the models to introduce successive variants with increasing transmissibility and included the effect of varying duration of immunity. As seen with endemic coronaviral infections in other animals, transmission states are altered by introduction of new variants, even with vaccination. However, vaccination combined with natural immunity maintains a lower prevalence of infection than natural infection alone and provides greater resilience against the effects of transmissible variants.

Deep phylogenetic-based clustering analysis uncovers new and shared mutations in SARS-CoV-2 variants as a result of directional and convergent evolution

Nearly two decades after the last epidemic caused by a severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV), newly emerged SARS-CoV-2 quickly spread in 2020 and precipitated an ongoing global public health crisis. Both the continuous accumulation of point mutations, owed to the naturally imposed genomic plasticity of SARS-CoV-2 evolutionary processes, as well as viral spread over time, allow this RNA virus to gain new genetic identities, spawn novel variants and enhance its potential for immune evasion. Here, through an in-depth phylogenetic clustering analysis of upwards of 200,000 whole-genome sequences, we reveal the presence of previously unreported and hitherto unidentified mutations and recombination breakpoints in Variants of Concern (VOC) and Variants of Interest (VOI) from Brazil, India (Beta, Eta and Kappa) and the USA (Beta, Eta and Lambda). Additionally, we identify sites with shared mutations under directional evolution in the SARS-CoV-2 Spike-encoding protein of VOC and VOI, tracing a heretofore-undescribed correlation with viral spread in South America, India and the USA. Our evidence-based analysis provides well-supported evidence of similar pathways of evolution for such mutations in all SARS-CoV-2 variants and sub-lineages. This raises two pivotal points: (i) the co-circulation of variants and sub-lineages in close evolutionary environments, which sheds light onto their trajectories into convergent and directional evolution, and (ii) a linear perspective into the prospective vaccine efficacy against different SARS-CoV-2 strains.