1
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Jung M, Lee Y, Han SO, Hyeon JE. Advancements in Sustainable Plant-Based Alternatives: Exploring Proteins, Fats, and Manufacturing Challenges in Alternative Meat Production. J Microbiol Biotechnol 2024; 34:994-1002. [PMID: 38379287 PMCID: PMC11180908 DOI: 10.4014/jmb.2312.12049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2024] [Revised: 01/20/2024] [Accepted: 01/31/2024] [Indexed: 02/22/2024]
Abstract
The rise in plant-based food consumption is propelled by concerns for sustainability, personal beliefs, and a focus on healthy dietary habits. This trend, particularly in alternative meat, has attracted attention from specialized brands and eco-friendly food companies, leading to increased interest in plant-based alternatives. The dominant plant-based proteins, derived mainly from legumes, include soy protein isolates, which significantly impact sensory factors. In the realm of plant-based fats, substitutes are categorized into fat substitutes based on fats and fat mimetics based on proteins and carbohydrates. The production of these fats, utilizing gums, emulsions, gels, and additives, explores characteristics influencing the appearance, texture, flavor, and storage stability of final plant-based products. Analysis of plant-based proteins and fats in hamburger patties provides insights into manufacturing methods and raw materials used by leading alternative meat companies. However, challenges persist, such as replicating meat's marbling characteristic and addressing safety considerations in terms of potential allergy induction and nutritional supplementation. To enhance functionality and develop customized plant-based foods, it is essential to explore optimal combinations of various raw materials and develop new plant-based proteins and fat separation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Minju Jung
- Department of Food Science and Biotechnology, College of Knowledge-Based Services Engineering, Sungshin Women's University, Seoul 01133, Republic of Korea
| | - YouKyeong Lee
- Department of Next Generation Applied Sciences, Graduate School, Sungshin Women's University, Seoul 01133, Republic of Korea
| | - Sung Ok Han
- Department of Biotechnology, Korea University, Seoul 02841, Republic of Korea
| | - Jeong Eun Hyeon
- Department of Food Science and Biotechnology, College of Knowledge-Based Services Engineering, Sungshin Women's University, Seoul 01133, Republic of Korea
- Department of Next Generation Applied Sciences, Graduate School, Sungshin Women's University, Seoul 01133, Republic of Korea
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2
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Doddabematti Prakash S, Rivera J, Sabillón L, Siliveru K. From wheat grain to flour: a review of potential sources of enteric pathogen contamination in wheat milled products. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2024:1-11. [PMID: 38766719 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2024.2353892] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2024]
Abstract
The number of food safety issues linked to wheat milled products have increased in the past decade. These incidents were mainly caused by the contamination of wheat-based products by enteric pathogens. This manuscript is the first of a two-part review on the status of the food safety of wheat-based products. This manuscript focused on reviewing the available information on the potential pre-harvest and post-harvest sources of microbial contamination, and potential foodborne pathogens present in wheat-based products. Potential pre-harvest sources of microbial contamination in wheat included animal activity, water, soil, and manure. Improper grain storage practices, pest activity, and improperly cleaned and sanitized equipment are potential sources of post-harvest microbial contamination for wheat-based foods. Raw wheat flour products and flour-based products are potentially contaminated with enteric pathogens such as Shiga toxin-producing E. coli (STECs), and Salmonella at low concentrations. Wheat grains and their derived products (i.e., flours) are potential vehicles for foodborne illness in humans due to the presence of enteric pathogens. A more holistic approach is needed for assuring the food safety of wheat-based products in the farm-to-table continuum. Future developments in the wheat supply chain should also be aimed at addressing this emerging food safety threat.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jared Rivera
- Department of Grain Science and Industry, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA
| | - Luis Sabillón
- Department of Family Consumer Sciences, New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, NM, USA
- Center of Excellence in Sustainable Food and Agricultural Systems, New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, NM, USA
| | - Kaliramesh Siliveru
- Department of Grain Science and Industry, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA
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3
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Hines IS, Jurkiw T, Nguyen E, Ferguson M, Solaiman S, Reed E, Hoffmann M, Zheng J. Persistence comparison of two Shiga-toxin producing Escherichia coli (STEC) serovars during long-term storage and thermal inactivation in various wheat flours. PLoS One 2024; 19:e0299922. [PMID: 38457435 PMCID: PMC10923466 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0299922] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2023] [Accepted: 02/16/2024] [Indexed: 03/10/2024] Open
Abstract
Foodborne outbreaks associated with Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) contaminated wheat flour have been an increasing food safety concern in recent decades. However, there is little literature aimed at investigating the impact of different flour types on the persistence of STEC during storage and thermal inactivation. Therefore, two serovars of STEC, O121 and O157, were selected to inoculate each of five different types of common wheat flours: whole wheat, bleached, unbleached, bread, and self-rising. Inoculated flours were examined for the stability of STEC during storage for up to 42 days at room temperature (RT) and aw ~0.56. Additionally, the thermal resistance of O121 and O157 under isothermal conditions at 60, 70, 80, and 90°C was analyzed for the inoculated flours. STEC storage persistence at RT was generally not affected by flour type, however, decreases of 1.2 and 2.4 log CFU/day within whole wheat flour for O121 and O157, respectively, were significantly lower than other flours. Though few differences were identified in relation to flour type, O121 exhibited significantly better survival rates than O157 during both equilibrium and storage periods. Compared to an approximate 6 log reduction in the population of O157, O121 population levels were reduced by a significantly lower amount (~3 log) during the entire storage period at RT. At each isothermal temperature, the impact of flour type on the thermal resistance capabilities of O121 or O157 was not a significant factor and resulted in similar survival curves regardless of serovar. Instead of exhibiting linear survival curves, both O121 and O157 displayed nonlinear curves with some shoulder/tail effect. Similar for both O121 and O157, the predicted decimal reduction time (D-value) decreased from approximately 25 min to around 8 min as the isothermal temperature increased from 60°C to 90°C. Results reported here can contribute to risk assessment models concerning contamination of STEC in wheat flour and add to our understanding of the impacts of flour type and STEC serovar on desiccation stability during storage and isothermal inactivation during thermal treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ian S. Hines
- Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, College Park, MD, United States of America
| | - Tom Jurkiw
- Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, College Park, MD, United States of America
| | - Emily Nguyen
- Joint Institute of Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, College Park, MD, United States of America
| | - Martine Ferguson
- Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, College Park, MD, United States of America
| | - Sultana Solaiman
- Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, College Park, MD, United States of America
| | - Elizabeth Reed
- Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, College Park, MD, United States of America
| | - Maria Hoffmann
- Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, College Park, MD, United States of America
| | - Jie Zheng
- Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, College Park, MD, United States of America
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4
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Winter H, Wagner R, Ehlbeck J, Urich T, Schnabel U. Deep Impact: Shifts of Native Cultivable Microbial Communities on Fresh Lettuce after Treatment with Plasma-Treated Water. Foods 2024; 13:282. [PMID: 38254583 PMCID: PMC10815073 DOI: 10.3390/foods13020282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2023] [Revised: 12/18/2023] [Accepted: 01/10/2024] [Indexed: 01/24/2024] Open
Abstract
Foods consumed raw, such as lettuce, can host food-borne human-pathogenic bacteria. In the worst-case, these diseases cause to death. To limit illness and industrial losses, one innovative sanitation method is non-thermal plasma, which offers an extremely efficient reduction of living microbial biomass. Unfortunately, the total viable count (TVC), one of the most common methods for quantifying antimicrobial effects, provides no detailed insights into the composition of the surviving microbial community after treatment. To address this information gap, different special agars were used to investigate the reduction efficiency of plasma-treated water (PTW) on different native cultivable microorganisms. All tested cultivable microbial groups were reduced using PTW. Gram-negative bacteria showed a reduction of 3.81 log10, and Gram-positive bacteria showed a reduction of 3.49 log10. Fungi were reduced by 3.89 log10. These results were further validated using a live/dead assay. MALDI-ToF (matrix-assisted laser-desorption-ionization time-of-flight)-based determination was used for a diversified overview. The results demonstrated that Gram-negative bacteria were strongly reduced. Interestingly, Gram-positive bacteria and fungi were reduced by nearly equal amounts, but could still recover from PTW treatment. MALDI-ToF mainly identified Pseudomonas spp. and groups of Bacillus on the tested lettuce. These results indicate that the PTW treatment could efficiently achieve a ubiquitous, spectrum-wide reduction of microbial life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hauke Winter
- Leibniz Institute for Plasma Science and Technology (INP), Felix-Hausdorff-Strasse 2, 17489 Greifswald, Germany; (H.W.); (R.W.); (J.E.)
- Institute of Microbiology, Center for Functional Genomics of Microbes, University of Greifswald, 17489 Greifswald, Germany;
| | - Robert Wagner
- Leibniz Institute for Plasma Science and Technology (INP), Felix-Hausdorff-Strasse 2, 17489 Greifswald, Germany; (H.W.); (R.W.); (J.E.)
| | - Jörg Ehlbeck
- Leibniz Institute for Plasma Science and Technology (INP), Felix-Hausdorff-Strasse 2, 17489 Greifswald, Germany; (H.W.); (R.W.); (J.E.)
| | - Tim Urich
- Institute of Microbiology, Center for Functional Genomics of Microbes, University of Greifswald, 17489 Greifswald, Germany;
| | - Uta Schnabel
- Leibniz Institute for Plasma Science and Technology (INP), Felix-Hausdorff-Strasse 2, 17489 Greifswald, Germany; (H.W.); (R.W.); (J.E.)
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5
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Winter H, Wagner R, Yao Y, Ehlbeck J, Schnabel U. Influence of plasma-treated air on surface microbial communities on freshly harvested lettuce. Curr Res Food Sci 2023; 7:100649. [PMID: 38115898 PMCID: PMC10728334 DOI: 10.1016/j.crfs.2023.100649] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2023] [Revised: 11/07/2023] [Accepted: 11/25/2023] [Indexed: 12/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Plant-based foods like lettuce are an important part of the human diet and worldwide industry. On a global scale, the number of food-associated illnesses increased in the last decades. Conventional lettuce sanitation methods include cleaning either with tap or chloritized water. Beside these water-consuming strategies, physical plasma is an innovative and effective possibility for food sanitation. Recent studies with plasma-treated water showed an effective reduction of the microbial load. Plasma-processed air (PPA) is another great opportunity to reduce the microbial load and save water. To test the efficiency of PPA, the surface microbiome of treated lettuce was analyzed via proliferation assays with special agars, live/dead assays and tests for respiratory activity of the microorganisms. PPA showed a reduction of the colony forming units (CFU/mL) on all tested microbial groups (Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria, yeasts and molds). These results were supported by the live/dead assay. For further insights, the PPA-ingredients were detected with Fourier Transformation Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), which revealed NO2, NO and N2O5 as the main reactive species in the PPA. In the future, PPA could be an outstanding, on-demand sanitation step for higher food safety standards, especially in situations where humidity and high temperature should be avoided.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hauke Winter
- Leibniz Institute for Plasma Science and Technology (INP), Felix-Hausdorff-Strasse 2, 17489, Greifswald, Germany
- Institute of Microbiology, University of Greifswald, Felix-Hausdorff-Strasse 8, 17489, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Robert Wagner
- Leibniz Institute for Plasma Science and Technology (INP), Felix-Hausdorff-Strasse 2, 17489, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Yijiao Yao
- Leibniz Institute for Plasma Science and Technology (INP), Felix-Hausdorff-Strasse 2, 17489, Greifswald, Germany
- Department of Food & Nutritional Sciences, University of Reading, Whiteknights, Reading, RG6 6AD, UK
| | - Jörg Ehlbeck
- Leibniz Institute for Plasma Science and Technology (INP), Felix-Hausdorff-Strasse 2, 17489, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Uta Schnabel
- Leibniz Institute for Plasma Science and Technology (INP), Felix-Hausdorff-Strasse 2, 17489, Greifswald, Germany
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6
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Khan MJ, Jovicic V, Zbogar-Rasic A, Zettel V, Delgado A, Hitzmann B. Influence of Non-Thermal Plasma Treatment on Structural Network Attributes of Wheat Flour and Respective Dough. Foods 2023; 12:foods12102056. [PMID: 37238874 DOI: 10.3390/foods12102056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2023] [Revised: 05/14/2023] [Accepted: 05/16/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Due to its "generally recognized as safe status" (GRAS) and moderate treatment temperatures, non-thermal plasma (NTP) has lately been considered a suitable replacement for chemicals in the modification of food properties and for preserving food quality. One of the promising areas for the application of NTP is the treatment of wheat flour, leading to improved flour properties and product quality and consequently to higher customer satisfaction. In the present research, the German wheat flour type 550, equivalent to all-purpose flour, was treated using NTP in a rotational reactor to determine the influence of short treatment times (≤5 min) on the properties of flour (moisture and fat content, protein, starch, color, microbial activity, and enzymes), dough (visco-elastic properties, starch, wet and dry gluten, and water absorption), and baking products (color, freshness, baked volume, crumb structure, softness, and elasticity). Based on the properties of NTP, it was expected that even very short treatment times would have a significant effect on the flour particles, which could positively affect the quality of the final baking product. Overall, the experimental analysis showed a positive effect of NTP treatment of wheat flour, e.g., decreased water activity value (<0.7), which is known to positively affect flour stability and product shelf life; dough stability increased (>8% after 5 min. treatment); dough extensibility increased (ca. 30% after 3 min treatment); etc. Regarding the baking product, further positive effects were detected, e.g., enhanced product volume (>9%), improved crumb whiteness/decreased crumb yellowness, softening of breadcrumb without a change in elasticity, and limited microorganism and enzymatic activity. Furthermore, no negative effects on the product quality were observed, even though further food quality tests are required. The presented experimental research confirms the overall positive influence of NTP treatment, even for very low treatment times, on wheat flour and its products. The presented findings are significant for the potential implementation of this technique on an industrial level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Jehanzaib Khan
- Institute of Fluid Mechanics (LSTM), Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nuremberg (FAU), 91058 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Vojislav Jovicic
- Institute of Fluid Mechanics (LSTM), Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nuremberg (FAU), 91058 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Ana Zbogar-Rasic
- Institute of Fluid Mechanics (LSTM), Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nuremberg (FAU), 91058 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Viktoria Zettel
- Department of Process Analytics and Cereal Science, University of Hohenheim, 70599 Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Antonio Delgado
- Institute of Fluid Mechanics (LSTM), Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nuremberg (FAU), 91058 Erlangen, Germany
- German Engineering Research and Development Center, LSTME Busan, Busan 46742, Republic of Korea
| | - Bernd Hitzmann
- Department of Process Analytics and Cereal Science, University of Hohenheim, 70599 Stuttgart, Germany
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7
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Ari Akin P, Tayyarcan EK, Evran Ş, Boyaci IH. Improving microbial quality of wheat flour using ethanol-water mixture as a tempering solution. J Cereal Sci 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jcs.2023.103673] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/28/2023]
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8
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Lee J, Park SK, Korber D, Baik OD. Optimization of Atmospheric Cold Plasma Treatment with Different Gases for Reduction of Escherichia coli in Wheat Flour. J Microbiol Biotechnol 2022; 32:768-775. [PMID: 35484965 PMCID: PMC9628904 DOI: 10.4014/jmb.2203.03056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2022] [Revised: 04/13/2022] [Accepted: 04/13/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
In this study we aimed to derive the response surface models for Escherichia coli reduction in wheat flour using atmospheric cold plasma (ACP) with three types of gas. The jet-type atmospheric cold plasma wand system was used with a 30 W power supply, and three gases (argon, air, and nitrogen) were applied as the treatment gas. The operating parameters for process optimization considered were wheat flour mass (g), treatment time (min), and gas flow rate (L/min). The wheat flour samples were artificially contaminated with E. coli at a concentration of 9.25 ± 0.74 log CFU/g. ACP treatments with argon, air, and nitrogen resulted in 2.66, 4.21, and 5.55 log CFU/g reduction of E. coli, respectively, in wheat flour under optimized conditions. The optimized conditions to reduce E. coli were 0.5 g of the flour mass, 15 min of treatment time, and 0.20 L/min of nitrogen gas flow rate, and the predicted highest reduction level from modeling was 5.63 log CFU/g.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeongmin Lee
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5A9, Canada
| | - Seul-Ki Park
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5A9, Canada
| | - Darren Korber
- Department of Food and Bioproduct Sciences, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5A8, Canada
| | - Oon-Doo Baik
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5A9, Canada
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9
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Sugar Levels Determine Fermentation Dynamics during Yeast Pastry Making and Its Impact on Dough and Product Characteristics. Foods 2022; 11:foods11101388. [PMID: 35626960 PMCID: PMC9140867 DOI: 10.3390/foods11101388] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2022] [Revised: 05/09/2022] [Accepted: 05/10/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Fermented pastry products are produced by fermenting and baking multi-layered dough. Increasing our knowledge of the impact of the fermentation process during pastry making could offer opportunities for improving the production process or end-product quality, whereas increasing our knowledge on the sugar release and consumption dynamics by yeast could help to design sugar reduction strategies. Therefore, this study investigates the impact of yeast fermentation and different sugar concentrations on pastry dough properties and product quality characteristics. First, yeasted pastry samples were made with 8% yeast and 14% sucrose on a wheat flour dry matter base and compared to non-yeasted samples. Analysis of saccharide concentrations revealed that sucrose was almost entirely degraded by invertase in yeasted samples after mixing. Fructans were also degraded extensively, but more slowly. At least 23.6 ± 2.6% of the released glucose was consumed during fermentation. CO2 production during fermentation contributed more to product height development than water and ethanol evaporation during baking. Yeast metabolites weakened the gluten network, causing a reduction in dough strength and extensibility. However, fermentation time had a more significant impact on dough rheology parameters than the presence of yeast. In balance, yeast fermentation did not significantly affect the calculated sweetness factor of the pastry product with 14% added sucrose. Increasing the sugar content (21%) led to higher osmotic stress, resulting in reduced sugar consumption, reduced CO2 and ethanol production and a lower product volume. A darker colour and a higher sweetness factor were obtained. Reducing the sugar content (7%) had the opposite effect. Eliminating sucrose from the recipe (0%) resulted in a shortened productive fermentation time due to sugar depletion. Dough rheology was affected to a limited extent by changes in sucrose addition, although no sucrose addition or a very high sucrose level (21%) reduced the maximum dough strength. Based on the insights obtained in this study, yeast-based strategies can be developed to improve the production and quality of fermented pastry.
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10
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Effect of radio frequency processing on physical, chemical, rheological and bread-baking properties of white and whole wheat flour. Lebensm Wiss Technol 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lwt.2021.111563] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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11
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Remfry SE, Amachawadi RG, Atobatele M, Shi X, Kang Q, Phebus RK, Nagaraja TG. Shiga Toxin-Producing Escherichia coli in Wheat Grains: Detection and Isolation by Polymerase Chain Reaction and Culture Methods. Foodborne Pathog Dis 2021; 18:752-760. [PMID: 34182797 DOI: 10.1089/fpd.2021.0013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) are major foodborne pathogens and seven serogroups, O26, O45, O103, O111, O121, O145, and O157, often called top-7 STEC, account for the majority of the STEC-associated human illnesses in the United States. Two Shiga toxins, Shiga toxins 1 and 2, encoded by stx1 and stx2 genes, are major virulence factors that are involved in STEC infections. Foodborne STEC infections have been linked to a variety of foods of both animal and plant origin, including products derived from cereal grains. In recent years, a few STEC outbreaks have been linked to contaminated wheat flour. The microbiological quality of the wheat grains is a major contributor to the safety of wheat flour. The objective of the study was to utilize polymerase chain reaction (PCR)- and culture-based methods to detect and isolate STEC in wheat grains. Wheat grain samples (n = 625), collected from different regions of the United States, were enriched in modified buffered peptone water with pyruvate (mBPWp) or E. coli (EC) broth, and they were then subjected to PCR- and culture-based methods to detect and isolate STEC. Wheat grains enriched in EC broth yielded more samples positive for stx genes (1.6% vs. 0.32%) and STEC serogroups (5.8% vs. 2.4%) than mBPWp. The four serogroups of top-7 detected and isolated were O26, O45, O103, and O157 and none of the isolates was positive for the Shiga toxin genes. A total of five isolates that carried the stx2 gene were isolated and identified as serogroups O8 (0.6%) and O130 (0.2%). The EC broth was a better medium to enrich wheat grains than mBPWp for the detection and isolation of STEC. The overall prevalence of virulence genes and STEC serogroups in wheat grains was low. The stx2-positive serogroups isolated, O8 and O130, are not major STEC pathogens and have only been implicated in sporadic infections in animals and humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah E Remfry
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas, USA
| | - Raghavendra G Amachawadi
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas, USA
| | - Mori Atobatele
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine/Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas, USA
| | - Xiaorong Shi
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine/Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas, USA
| | - Qing Kang
- Department of Statistics, College of Arts and Sciences, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas, USA
| | - Randall K Phebus
- Department of Animal Sciences and Industry, College of Agriculture, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas, USA
| | - Tiruvoor G Nagaraja
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine/Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas, USA
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12
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Simsek S, Snelling J, Malekmohammadi S, Bergholz TM. Vacuum steam treatment of soft wheat: Quality and reduction of
Escherichia coli
O121 and
Salmonella
Enteritidis PT30. Cereal Chem 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/cche.10356] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Senay Simsek
- Plant Sciences Department North Dakota State University Fargo ND USA
| | - Jane Snelling
- Plant Sciences Department North Dakota State University Fargo ND USA
| | | | - Teresa M. Bergholz
- Microbiological Sciences Department North Dakota State University Fargo ND USA
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13
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Forghani F, Li S, Zhang S, Mann DA, Deng X, den Bakker HC, Diez-Gonzalez F. Salmonella enterica and Escherichia coli in Wheat Flour: Detection and Serotyping by a Quasimetagenomic Approach Assisted by Magnetic Capture, Multiple-Displacement Amplification, and Real-Time Sequencing. Appl Environ Microbiol 2020; 86:e00097-20. [PMID: 32358002 PMCID: PMC7301854 DOI: 10.1128/aem.00097-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2020] [Accepted: 04/14/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Food safety is a new area for novel applications of metagenomics analysis, which not only can detect and subtype foodborne pathogens in a single workflow but may also produce additional information with in-depth analysis capabilities. In this study, we applied a quasimetagenomic approach by combining short-term enrichment, immunomagnetic separation (IMS), multiple-displacement amplification (MDA), and nanopore sequencing real-time analysis for simultaneous detection of Salmonella and Escherichia coli in wheat flour. Tryptic soy broth was selected for the 12-h enrichment of samples at 42°C. Enrichments were subjected to IMS using beads capable of capturing both Salmonella and E. coli MDA was performed on harvested beads, and amplified DNA fragments were subjected to DNA library preparation for sequencing. Sequencing was performed on a portable device with real-time basecalling adaptability, and resulting sequences were subjected to two parallel pipelines for further analysis. After 1 h of sequencing, the quasimetagenomic approach could detect all targets inoculated at approximately 1 CFU/g flour to the species level. Discriminatory power was determined by simultaneous detection of dual inoculums of Salmonella and E. coli, absence of detection in control samples, and consistency in microbial flora composition of the same flour samples over several rounds of experiments. The total turnaround time for detection was approximately 20 h. Longer sequencing for up to 15 h enabled serotyping for many of the samples with more than 99% genome coverage, which could be subjected to other appropriate genetic analysis pipelines in less than a total of 36 h.IMPORTANCE Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC) and Salmonella are of serious concern in low-moisture foods, including wheat flour and its related products, causing illnesses, outbreaks, and recalls. The development of advanced detection methods based on molecular principles of analysis is essential to incorporate into interventions intended to reduce the risk from these pathogens. In this work, a quasimetagenomic method based on real-time sequencing analysis and assisted by magnetic capture and DNA amplification was developed. This protocol is capable of detecting multiple Salmonella and/or E. coli organisms in the sample within less than a day, and it can also generate sufficient whole-genome sequences of the target organisms suitable for subsequent bioinformatics analysis. Multiplex detection and identification were accomplished in less than 20 h and additional whole-genome analyses of different nature were attained within 36 h, in contrast to the several days required in previous sequencing pipelines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fereidoun Forghani
- Center for Food Safety, College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, University of Georgia, Griffin, Georgia, USA
| | - Shaoting Li
- Center for Food Safety, College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, University of Georgia, Griffin, Georgia, USA
| | - Shaokang Zhang
- Center for Food Safety, College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, University of Georgia, Griffin, Georgia, USA
| | - David A Mann
- Center for Food Safety, College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, University of Georgia, Griffin, Georgia, USA
| | - Xiangyu Deng
- Center for Food Safety, College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, University of Georgia, Griffin, Georgia, USA
| | - Henk C den Bakker
- Center for Food Safety, College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, University of Georgia, Griffin, Georgia, USA
| | - Francisco Diez-Gonzalez
- Center for Food Safety, College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, University of Georgia, Griffin, Georgia, USA
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14
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Chen YX, Guo XN, Xing JJ, Zhu KX. Effects of tempering with steam on the water distribution of wheat grains and quality properties of wheat flour. Food Chem 2020; 323:126842. [PMID: 32334316 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2020.126842] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2019] [Revised: 04/08/2020] [Accepted: 04/16/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
In this study, the effects of tempering with steam on the water distribution of wheat grains and the microbial load in wheat flour were investigated, as well as the physicochemical properties of wheat flour. Results showed that when steam treatment time was 320 s, the total plate count (TPC), yeast and mold count (YMC), and mesophilic aerobic spores (MAS) in flour decreased by 1.74, 1.99 and 1.01 lgCFU/g, respectively. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) results showed that tempering with steam accelerated the water distribution of grains and significantly (p < 0.05) shortened the tempering time. Moreover, flour yield, particle size, ash content, and damaged starch content of flour were all altered. Furthermore, after tempering with steam, proteins were aggregated and starches were partially gelatinized, which caused dough development time and stability of flour increasing. Collectively, our findings indicated steam tempering could shorten the tempering time and improve the qualities of flour partly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yun-Xia Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, 1800 Lihu Avenue, Wuxi, Jiangsu Province 214122, PR China; School of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, 1800 Lihu Avenue, Wuxi, Jiangsu Province 214122, PR China
| | - Xiao-Na Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, 1800 Lihu Avenue, Wuxi, Jiangsu Province 214122, PR China; School of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, 1800 Lihu Avenue, Wuxi, Jiangsu Province 214122, PR China
| | - Jun-Jie Xing
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, 1800 Lihu Avenue, Wuxi, Jiangsu Province 214122, PR China; School of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, 1800 Lihu Avenue, Wuxi, Jiangsu Province 214122, PR China
| | - Ke-Xue Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, 1800 Lihu Avenue, Wuxi, Jiangsu Province 214122, PR China; School of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, 1800 Lihu Avenue, Wuxi, Jiangsu Province 214122, PR China.
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15
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Dielectric properties, heating rate, and heating uniformity of wheat flour with added bran associated with radio frequency treatments. INNOV FOOD SCI EMERG 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ifset.2020.102290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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16
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Chen YX, Guo XN, Xing JJ, Sun XH, Zhu KX. Effects of wheat tempering with slightly acidic electrolyzed water on the microbial, biological, and chemical characteristics of different flour streams. Lebensm Wiss Technol 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lwt.2019.108790] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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17
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Myoda SP, Gilbreth S, Akins-Leventhal D, Davidson SK, Samadpour M. Occurrence and Levels of Salmonella, Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli, and Listeria in Raw Wheat. J Food Prot 2019; 82:1022-1027. [PMID: 31121107 DOI: 10.4315/0362-028x.jfp-18-345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
HIGHLIGHTS Prevalence of Salmonella and E. coli in raw wheat emphasizes the need to cook wheat products. 3,891 grain samples were tested for E. coli and Salmonella; 1,285 were tested for Listeria. Of wheat berries sampled, 0.44% were positive for E. coli and 1.23% were positive for Salmonella. Salmonella diversity was high, indicating various animal sources that are difficult to prevent. Cooking wheat products is the best preventative measure against foodborne illness from wheat.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel P Myoda
- 1 IEH Laboratories & Consulting Group, 15300 Bothell Way N.E., Lake Forest Park, Washington 98155
| | - Stefanie Gilbreth
- 2 The WhiteWave Foods Company, 1225 Seventeenth Street, Suite 1000, Denver, Colorado 80202
| | | | - Seana K Davidson
- 1 IEH Laboratories & Consulting Group, 15300 Bothell Way N.E., Lake Forest Park, Washington 98155
| | - Mansour Samadpour
- 1 IEH Laboratories & Consulting Group, 15300 Bothell Way N.E., Lake Forest Park, Washington 98155
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18
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Forghani F, den Bakker M, Liao JY, Payton AS, Futral AN, Diez-Gonzalez F. Salmonella and Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli Serogroups O45, O121, O145 in Wheat Flour: Effects of Long-Term Storage and Thermal Treatments. Front Microbiol 2019; 10:323. [PMID: 30853953 PMCID: PMC6395439 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2019.00323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2018] [Accepted: 02/07/2019] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Salmonella and enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC) are of serious concern in wheat flour and its related products but little is known on their survival and thermal death kinetics. This study was undertaken to determine their long-term viability and thermal inactivation kinetics in flour. Inoculation was performed using mixtures of EHEC serogroups O45, O121, O145 and Salmonella followed by storage at room temperature (23°C) or 35°C (for Salmonella). Plate counting on tryptic soy agar (TSA) and enrichment were used to assess long-term survival. For thermal studies, wheat flour samples were heated at 55, 60, 65, and 70°C and cell counts of EHEC and Salmonella were determined by plating. The δ-values were calculated using the Weibull model. At room temperature, EHEC serovars and Salmonella were quantifiable for 84 and 112 days, and were detectable for the duration of the experiment after 168 and 365 days, respectively. The δ-values were 2.0, 5.54, and 9.3 days, for EHEC O121, O45, and O145, respectively, and 9.7 days for Salmonella. However, the only significant difference among all values was the δ-value for Salmonella and serogroup O121 (p ≤ 0.05). At 35°C, Salmonella counts declined to unquantifiable levels after a week and were not detected upon enrichment after 98 days. Heat treatment of inoculated wheat flour at 55, 60, 65, and 70°C resulted in δ-value ranges of 20.0-42.9, 4.9-10.0, 2.4-3.2, and 0.2-1.6 min, respectively, for EHEC. The δ-values for Salmonella at those temperatures were 152.2, 40.8, 17.9, and 17.4 min, respectively. The δ-values obtained for Salmonella at each temperature were significantly longer than for EHEC (p ≤ 0.05). Weibull model was a good fit to describe the thermal death kinetics of Salmonella and EHEC O45, O121 and O145 in wheat flour. HIGHLIGHTS -EHEC and Salmonella can survive for extended periods of time in wheat flour.-Long-term storage inactivation curves of EHEC and Salmonella were similar.-EHEC was more sensitive to heat than Salmonella.-Weibull model was a good fit to describe thermal death kinetics of EHEC and Salmonella.-Flour storage at 35°C may be a feasible method for microbial reduction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fereidoun Forghani
- Center for Food Safety, College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, University of Georgia, Griffin, GA, United States
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19
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Kindle P, Nüesch-Inderbinen M, Cernela N, Stephan R. Detection, Isolation, and Characterization of Shiga Toxin-Producing Escherichia coli in Flour. J Food Prot 2019; 82:164-167. [PMID: 30707053 DOI: 10.4315/0362-028x.jfp-18-256] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Wheat flour has recently been described as a novel vehicle for transmission of Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC). Very recently, an outbreak of STEC O121 and STEC O26 infections was linked to flour in the United States. The aim of the present study was to generate baseline data for the occurrence of STEC in flour samples from different retailers in Switzerland. In total, 70 flour samples were analyzed. After enrichment, the samples were screened for stx1 and stx2 by the Assurance GDS MPX ID assay. STEC strains were isolated and serotyped by the E. coli SeroGenoTyping AS-1 kit. The determination of stx subtypes was performed with conventional PCR amplification. Screening for eae, aggR, elt, and estIa/Ib was performed by real-time PCR. Nine (12.9%) of the flour samples tested positive for stx by PCR. STEC was recovered from eight (88.9%) of the positive samples. Two isolates were STEC O11:H48 harboring stx1c/ stx1d, two were O146:H28 containing stx2b, one was O103:H2 containing stx1a and eae, and three were O nontypeable: Ont:H12 ( stx2a), Ont:H14 ( stx2a/ stx2g), and Ont:H31 ( stx1c/ stx1d). STEC O103 belongs to the "top five" serogroups of human pathogenic STEC in the European Union, and STEC O146 is frequently isolated from diseased humans in Switzerland. Our results show that flour may be contaminated with a variety of STEC serogroups. Consumption of raw or undercooked flour may constitute a risk for STEC infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick Kindle
- Institute for Food Safety and Hygiene, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, CH-8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| | | | - Nicole Cernela
- Institute for Food Safety and Hygiene, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, CH-8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Roger Stephan
- Institute for Food Safety and Hygiene, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, CH-8057 Zurich, Switzerland
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20
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Juodeikiene G, Zadeike D, Vidziunaite I, Bartkiene E, Bartkevics V, Pugajeva I. Effect of heating method on the microbial levels and acrylamide in corn grits and subsequent use as functional ingredient for bread making. FOOD AND BIOPRODUCTS PROCESSING 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fbp.2018.08.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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21
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Forghani F, den Bakker M, Futral AN, Diez-Gonzalez F. Long-Term Survival and Thermal Death Kinetics of Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli Serogroups O26, O103, O111, and O157 in Wheat Flour. Appl Environ Microbiol 2018; 84:e00283-18. [PMID: 29678913 PMCID: PMC6007106 DOI: 10.1128/aem.00283-18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2018] [Accepted: 04/12/2018] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Wheat flour has been associated with outbreaks of enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC), but little is known on EHEC's survival during storage and thermal processing. The objective of this study was to determine long-term viability and thermal inactivation kinetics of EHEC serogroups O26, O103, O111, and O157. Wheat flour samples were inoculated with a cocktail of five strains of a single serogroup and stored at 23 and 35°C. Inoculated samples were heated at 55, 60, 65, and 70°C. Viability was determined by plate counting. Decimal reduction time (D) and first decimal reduction time (δ) values were calculated with log-linear and Weibull models, respectively. At 23°C, EHEC counts declined gradually for 84 days and samples tested positive from 84 to 280 days. The thermal resistance (D and δ) values ranged from 7.5 to 8.2 and 3.1 to 5.3 days, respectively, but there were no significant differences among serogroups (P ≤ 0.05). At 35°C, no EHEC was quantifiable by day 7 and no positive samples were detected after 49 days. Heating at 55 and 65°C resulted in δ-value ranges of 15.6 to 39.7 min and 3.0 to 3.9 min, respectively, with no significant difference among serogroups either. Z values were 12.6, 6.7, 10.2, and 13.4°C for O26, O103, O111, and O157, respectively. Thermal death kinetics of EHEC in flour were better described using the Weibull model. Survival and inactivation rates of four serogroups were remarkably similar. These findings indicated that all EHEC serovars tested remained viable for at least 9 months at room temperature and survived for up to 60 min at 70°C in wheat flour.IMPORTANCE Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC) and Salmonella have recently caused several gastroenteritis outbreaks and recalls of wheat flour. Because EHEC can cause illness with very low doses and there is very scarce information regarding their ability to survive storage and heating in flour, the present study was undertaken to assess the long-term survival of EHEC serogroups O26, O103, O111, and O157 in flour. These findings are relevant, as we report that EHEC can survive for more than 9 months in wheat flour during storage. In addition, results obtained suggest that thermal inactivation at 65°C for 30 min or 2 months of storage at 35°C may be feasible strategies to mitigate the risk of most EHEC serovars in wheat flour.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fereidoun Forghani
- Center for Food Safety, College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, University of Georgia, Griffin, Georgia, USA
| | - Meghan den Bakker
- Center for Food Safety, College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, University of Georgia, Griffin, Georgia, USA
| | - Alexandra N Futral
- Center for Food Safety, College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, University of Georgia, Griffin, Georgia, USA
| | - Francisco Diez-Gonzalez
- Center for Food Safety, College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, University of Georgia, Griffin, Georgia, USA
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22
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Schmidt M, Zannini E, Arendt EK. Recent Advances in Physical Post-Harvest Treatments for Shelf-Life Extension of Cereal Crops. Foods 2018; 7:E45. [PMID: 29565832 PMCID: PMC5920410 DOI: 10.3390/foods7040045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2018] [Revised: 03/14/2018] [Accepted: 03/21/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
As a result of the rapidly growing global population and limited agricultural area, sufficient supply of cereals for food and animal feed has become increasingly challenging. Consequently, it is essential to reduce pre- and post-harvest crop losses. Extensive research, featuring several physical treatments, has been conducted to improve cereal post-harvest preservation, leading to increased food safety and sustainability. Various pests can lead to post-harvest losses and grain quality deterioration. Microbial spoilage due to filamentous fungi and bacteria is one of the main reasons for post-harvest crop losses and mycotoxins can induce additional consumer health hazards. In particular, physical treatments have gained popularity making chemical additives unnecessary. Therefore, this review focuses on recent advances in physical treatments with potential applications for microbial post-harvest decontamination of cereals. The treatments discussed in this article were evaluated for their ability to inhibit spoilage microorganisms and degrade mycotoxins without compromising the grain quality. All treatments evaluated in this review have the potential to inhibit grain spoilage microorganisms. However, each method has some drawbacks, making industrial application difficult. Even under optimal processing conditions, it is unlikely that cereals can be decontaminated of all naturally occurring spoilage organisms with a single treatment. Therefore, future research should aim for the development of a combination of treatments to harness their synergistic properties and avoid grain quality deterioration. For the degradation of mycotoxins the same conclusion can be drawn. In addition, future research must investigate the fate of degraded toxins, to assess the toxicity of their respective degradation products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcus Schmidt
- School of Food and Nutritional Sciences, University College Cork, Western Road, T12 Y337 Cork, Ireland.
| | - Emanuele Zannini
- School of Food and Nutritional Sciences, University College Cork, Western Road, T12 Y337 Cork, Ireland.
| | - Elke K Arendt
- School of Food and Nutritional Sciences, University College Cork, Western Road, T12 Y337 Cork, Ireland.
- Alimentary Pharmabotic Centre Microbiome Institute, University College Cork, T12 Y337 Cork, Ireland.
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23
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Boyd L, Holley R, Storsley J, Ames N. Effect of Heat Treatments on Microbial Load and Associated Changes to β-Glucan Physicochemical Properties in Whole Grain Barley. Cereal Chem 2017. [DOI: 10.1094/cchem-04-16-0099-r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Lindsey Boyd
- Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
- Department of Food Science, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
| | - Rick Holley
- Department of Food Science, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
| | | | - Nancy Ames
- Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
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24
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Adams J. The State of Science Regarding Consumption of Refined and Enriched Grains. CEREAL FOOD WORLD 2013. [DOI: 10.1094/cfw-58-5-0264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Judi Adams
- President, Wheat Foods Council, Ridgway, CO, U.S.A
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