Viruses Reveal the Secrets of Plasmodesmal Cell Biology

PLASMODESMATA-LOCATED PROTEIN 6 regulates plasmodesmal function in Arabidopsis vasculature

Plasmodesmata connect adjoining plant cells, allowing molecules to move between the connected cells for communication and sharing resources. It has been well established that the plant polysaccharide callose is deposited at plasmodesmata, regulating their aperture and function. Among proteins involved in maintaining callose homeostasis, PLASMODESMATA-LOCATED PROTEINSs (PDLPs) promote callose deposition at plasmodesmata. This study explored the function of PDLP5 and PDLP6 in different cell types. We discovered that PDLP5 and PDLP6 are expressed in nonoverlapping cell types in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana). The overexpression of PDLP5 and PDLP6 results in the overaccumulation of plasmodesmal callose at different cell interfaces, indicating that PDLP5 and PDLP6 are active in different cell types. We also observed 2 distinct patterns of starch accumulation in mature leaves of PDLP5 and PDLP6 overexpressors. An enzyme-catalyzed proximity labeling approach was used to identify putative functional partners of the PDLPs. We identified SUCROSE SYNTHASE 6 (SUS6) as a functional partner of PDLP6 in the vasculature. We further demonstrated that PDLP6 physically and genetically interacts with SUS6. In addition, CALLOSE SYNTHASE 7 (CALS7) physically interacts with SUS6 and PDLP6. Genetic interaction studies showed that CALS7 is required for PDLP6 function. We propose that PDLP6 functions with SUS6 and CALS7 in the vasculature to regulate plasmodesmal function.

Roles of ROS and redox in regulating cell-to-cell communication: Spotlight on viral modulation of redox for local spread

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are important signalling molecules that influence many aspects of plant biology. One way in which ROS influence plant growth and development is by modifying intercellular trafficking through plasmodesmata (PD). Viruses have evolved to use PD for their local cell-to-cell spread between plant cells, so it is therefore not surprising that they have found ways to modulate ROS and redox signalling to optimise PD function for their benefit. This review examines how intracellular signalling via ROS and redox pathways regulate intercellular trafficking via PD during development and stress. The relationship between viruses and ROS-redox systems, and the strategies viruses employ to control PD function by interfering with ROS-redox in plants is also discussed.

Plasmodesmata and intercellular molecular traffic control

Plasmodesmata are plasma membrane-lined connections that join plant cells to their neighbours, establishing an intercellular cytoplasmic continuum through which molecules can travel between cells, tissues, and organs. As plasmodesmata connect almost all cells in plants, their molecular traffic carries information and resources across a range of scales, but dynamic control of plasmodesmal aperture can change the possible domains of molecular exchange under different conditions. Plasmodesmal aperture is controlled by specialised signalling cascades accommodated in spatially discrete membrane and cell wall domains. Thus, the composition of plasmodesmata defines their capacity for molecular trafficking. Further, their shape and density can likewise define trafficking capacity, with the cell walls between different cell types hosting different numbers and forms of plasmodesmata to drive molecular flux in physiologically important directions. The molecular traffic that travels through plasmodesmata ranges from small metabolites through to proteins, and possibly even larger mRNAs. Smaller molecules are transmitted between cells via passive mechanisms but how larger molecules are efficiently trafficked through plasmodesmata remains a key question in plasmodesmal biology. How plasmodesmata are formed, the shape they take, what they are made of, and what passes through them regulate molecular traffic through plants, underpinning a wide range of plant physiology.

AtHVA22a, a plant-specific homologue of Reep/DP1/Yop1 family proteins is involved in turnip mosaic virus propagation

The movement of potyviruses, the largest genus of single-stranded, positive-sense RNA viruses responsible for serious diseases in crops, is very complex. As potyviruses developed strategies to hijack the host secretory pathway and plasmodesmata (PD) for their transport, the goal of this study was to identify membrane and/or PD-proteins that interact with the 6K2 protein, a potyviral protein involved in replication and cell-to-cell movement of turnip mosaic virus (TuMV). Using split-ubiquitin membrane yeast two-hybrid assays, we screened an Arabidopsis cDNA library for interactors of TuMV6K2. We isolated AtHVA22a (Hordeum vulgare abscisic acid responsive gene 22), which belongs to a multigenic family of transmembrane proteins, homologous to Receptor expression-enhancing protein (Reep)/Deleted in polyposis (DP1)/Yop1 family proteins in animal and yeast. HVA22/DP1/Yop1 family genes are widely distributed in eukaryotes, but the role of HVA22 proteins in plants is still not well known, although proteomics analysis of PD fractions purified from Arabidopsis suspension cells showed that AtHVA22a is highly enriched in a PD proteome. We confirmed the interaction between TuMV6K2 and AtHVA22a in yeast, as well as in planta by using bimolecular fluorescence complementation and showed that TuMV6K2/AtHVA22a interaction occurs at the level of the viral replication compartment during TuMV infection. Finally, we showed that the propagation of TuMV is increased when AtHVA22a is overexpressed in planta but slowed down upon mutagenesis of AtHVA22a by CRISPR-Cas9. Altogether, our results indicate that AtHVA22a plays an agonistic effect on TuMV propagation and that the C-terminal tail of the protein is important in this process.

Umbravirus-like RNA viruses are capable of independent systemic plant infection in the absence of encoded movement proteins

The signature feature of all plant viruses is the encoding of movement proteins (MPs) that supports the movement of the viral genome into adjacent cells and through the vascular system. The recent discovery of umbravirus-like viruses (ULVs), some of which only encode replication-associated proteins, suggested that they, as with umbraviruses that lack encoded capsid proteins (CPs) and silencing suppressors, would require association with a helper virus to complete an infection cycle. We examined the infection properties of 2 ULVs: citrus yellow vein associated virus 1 (CY1), which only encodes replication proteins, and closely related CY2 from hemp, which encodes an additional protein (ORF5CY2) that was assumed to be an MP. We report that both CY1 and CY2 can independently infect the model plant Nicotiana benthamiana in a phloem-limited fashion when delivered by agroinfiltration. Unlike encoded MPs, ORF5CY2 was dispensable for infection of CY2, but was associated with faster symptom development. Examination of ORF5CY2 revealed features more similar to luteoviruses/poleroviruses/sobemovirus CPs than to 30K class MPs, which all share a similar single jelly-roll domain. In addition, only CY2-infected plants contained virus-like particles (VLPs) associated with CY2 RNA and ORF5CY2. CY1 RNA and a defective (D)-RNA that arises during infection interacted with host protein phloem protein 2 (PP2) in vitro and in vivo, and formed a high molecular weight complex with sap proteins in vitro that was partially resistant to RNase treatment. When CY1 was used as a virus-induced gene silencing (VIGS) vector to target PP2 transcripts, CY1 accumulation was reduced in systemic leaves, supporting the usage of PP2 for systemic movement. ULVs are therefore the first plant viruses encoding replication and CPs but no MPs, and whose systemic movement relies on a host MP. This explains the lack of discernable helper viruses in many ULV-infected plants and evokes comparisons with the initial viruses transferred into plants that must have similarly required host proteins for movement.

Rubisco small subunit (RbCS) is co-opted by potyvirids as the scaffold protein in assembling a complex for viral intercellular movement

Plant viruses must move through plasmodesmata (PD) to complete their life cycles. For viruses in the Potyviridae family (potyvirids), three viral factors (P3N-PIPO, CI, and CP) and few host proteins are known to participate in this event. Nevertheless, not all the proteins engaging in the cell-to-cell movement of potyvirids have been discovered. Here, we found that HCPro2 encoded by areca palm necrotic ring spot virus (ANRSV) assists viral intercellular movement, which could be functionally complemented by its counterpart HCPro from a potyvirus. Affinity purification and mass spectrometry identified several viral factors (including CI and CP) and host proteins that are physically associated with HCPro2. We demonstrated that HCPro2 interacts with both CI and CP in planta in forming PD-localized complexes during viral infection. Further, we screened HCPro2-associating host proteins, and identified a common host protein in Nicotiana benthamiana-Rubisco small subunit (NbRbCS) that mediates the interactions of HCPro2 with CI or CP, and CI with CP. Knockdown of NbRbCS impairs these interactions, and significantly attenuates the intercellular and systemic movement of ANRSV and three other potyvirids (turnip mosaic virus, pepper veinal mottle virus, and telosma mosaic virus). This study indicates that a nucleus-encoded chloroplast-targeted protein is hijacked by potyvirids as the scaffold protein to assemble a complex to facilitate viral movement across cells.

The mystery remains: How do potyviruses move within and between cells?

The genus Potyvirus is considered as the largest among plant single-stranded (positive-sense) RNA viruses, causing considerable economic damage to vegetable and fruit crops worldwide. Through the coordinated action of four viral proteins and a few identified host factors, potyviruses exploit the endomembrane system of infected cells for their replication and for their intra- and intercellular movement to and through plasmodesmata (PDs). Although a significant amount of data concerning potyvirus movement has been published, no synthetic review compiling and integrating all information relevant to our current understanding of potyvirus transport is available. In this review, we highlight the complexity of potyvirus movement pathways and present three potential nonexclusive mechanisms based on (1) the use of the host endomembrane system to produce membranous replication vesicles that are targeted to PDs and move from cell to cell, (2) the movement of extracellular viral vesicles in the apoplasm, and (3) the transport of virion particles or ribonucleoprotein complexes through PDs. We also present and discuss experimental data supporting these different models as well as the aspects that still remain mostly speculative.

Breaking Boundaries: The Perpetual Interplay Between Tobamoviruses and Plant Immunity

Plant viruses of the genus Tobamovirus cause significant economic losses in various crops. The emergence of new tobamoviruses such as the tomato brown rugose fruit virus (ToBRFV) poses a major threat to global agriculture. Upon infection, plants mount a complex immune response to restrict virus replication and spread, involving a multilayered defense system that includes defense hormones, RNA silencing, and immune receptors. To counter these defenses, tobamoviruses have evolved various strategies to evade or suppress the different immune pathways. Understanding the interactions between tobamoviruses and the plant immune pathways is crucial for the development of effective control measures and genetic resistance to these viruses. In this review, we discuss past and current knowledge of the intricate relationship between tobamoviruses and host immunity. We use this knowledge to understand the emergence of ToBRFV and discuss potential approaches for the development of new resistance strategies to cope with emerging tobamoviruses.

Heavy Metal-Associated Isoprenylated Plant Proteins (HIPPs) at Plasmodesmata: Exploring the Link between Localization and Function

Heavy metal-associated isoprenylated plant proteins (HIPPs) are a metallochaperone-like protein family comprising a combination of structural features unique to vascular plants. HIPPs possess both one or two heavy metal-binding domains and an isoprenylation site, facilitating a posttranslational protein lipid modification. Recent work has characterized individual HIPPs across numerous different species and provided evidence for varied functionalities. Interestingly, a significant number of HIPPs have been identified in proteomes of plasmodesmata (PD)-nanochannels mediating symplastic connectivity within plant tissues that play pivotal roles in intercellular communication during plant development as well as responses to biotic and abiotic stress. As characterized functions of many HIPPs are linked to stress responses, plasmodesmal HIPP proteins are potentially interesting candidate components of signaling events at or for the regulation of PD. Here, we review what is known about PD-localized HIPP proteins specifically, and how the structure and function of HIPPs more generally could link to known properties and regulation of PD.

Activation of Tm-22 resistance is mediated by a conserved cysteine essential for tobacco mosaic virus movement

The tomato Tm-22 gene was considered to be one of the most durable resistance genes in agriculture, protecting against viruses of the Tobamovirus genus, such as tomato mosaic virus (ToMV) and tobacco mosaic virus (TMV). However, an emerging tobamovirus, tomato brown rugose fruit virus (ToBRFV), has overcome Tm-22 , damaging tomato production worldwide. Tm-22 encodes a nucleotide-binding leucine-rich repeat (NLR) class immune receptor that recognizes its effector, the tobamovirus movement protein (MP). Previously, we found that ToBRFV MP (MPToBRFV ) enabled the virus to overcome Tm-22 -mediated resistance. Yet, it was unknown how Tm-22 remained durable against other tobamoviruses, such as TMV and ToMV, for over 60 years. Here, we show that a conserved cysteine (C68) in the MP of TMV (MPTMV ) plays a dual role in Tm-22 activation and viral movement. Substitution of MPToBRFV amino acid H67 with the corresponding amino acid in MPTMV (C68) activated Tm-22 -mediated resistance. However, replacement of C68 in TMV and ToMV disabled the infectivity of both viruses. Phylogenetic and structural prediction analysis revealed that C68 is conserved among all Solanaceae-infecting tobamoviruses except ToBRFV and localizes to a predicted jelly-roll fold common to various MPs. Cell-to-cell and subcellular movement analysis showed that C68 is required for the movement of TMV by regulating the MP interaction with the endoplasmic reticulum and targeting it to plasmodesmata. The dual role of C68 in viral movement and Tm-22 immune activation could explain how TMV was unable to overcome this resistance for such a long period.

A novel cellular factor of Nicotiana benthamiana susceptibility to tobamovirus infection

Viral infection, which entails synthesis of viral proteins and active reproduction of the viral genome, effects significant changes in the functions of many intracellular systems in plants. Along with these processes, a virus has to suppress cellular defense to create favorable conditions for its successful systemic spread in a plant. The virus exploits various cellular factors of a permissive host modulating its metabolism as well as local and systemic transport of macromolecules and photoassimilates. The Nicotiana benthamiana stress-induced gene encoding Kunitz peptidase inhibitor-like protein (KPILP) has recently been shown to be involved in chloroplast retrograde signaling regulation and stimulation of intercellular transport of macromolecules. In this paper we demonstrate the key role of KPILP in the development of tobamovius infection. Systemic infection of N. benthamiana plants with tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) or the closely related crucifer-infecting tobamovirus (crTMV) induces a drastic increase in KPILP mRNA accumulation. KPILP knockdown significantly reduces the efficiency of TMV and crTMV intercellular transport and reproduction. Plants with KPILP silencing become partially resistant to tobamovirus infection. Therefore, KPILP could be regarded as a novel proviral factor in the development of TMV and crTMV infection in N. benthamiana plants.

A viral movement protein co-opts endoplasmic reticulum luminal-binding protein and calreticulin to promote intracellular movement

Intracellular movement is an important step for the initial spread of virus in plants during infection. This process requires virus-encoded movement proteins (MPs) and their interaction with host factors. Despite the large number of known host factors involved in the movement of different viruses, little is known about host proteins that interact with one of the MPs encoded by potexviruses, the triple-gene-block protein 3 (TGBp3). The main obstacle lies in the relatively low expression level of potexviral TGBp3 in hosts and the weak or transient nature of interactions. Here, we used TurboID-based proximity labeling to identify the network of proteins directly or indirectly interacting with the TGBp3 of a potexvirus, Bamboo mosaic virus (BaMV). Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) luminal-binding protein 4 and calreticulin 3 of Nicotiana benthamiana (NbBiP4 and NbCRT3, respectively) associated with the functional TGBp3-containing BaMV movement complexes, but not the movement-defective mutant, TGBp3M. Fluorescent microscopy revealed that TGBp3 colocalizes with NbBiP4 or NbCRT3 and the complexes move together along ER networks to cell periphery in N. benthamiana. Loss- and gain-of-function experiments revealed that NbBiP4 or NbCRT3 is required for the efficient spread and accumulation of BaMV in infected leaves. In addition, overexpression of NbBiP4 or NbCRT3 enhanced the targeting of BaMV TGBp1 to plasmodesmata (PD), indicating that NbBiP4 and NbCRT3 interact with TGBp3 to promote the intracellular transport of virion cargo to PD that facilitates virus cell-to-cell movement. Our findings revealed additional roles for NbBiP4 and NbCRT3 in BaMV intracellular movement through ER networks or ER-derived vesicles to PD, which enhances the spread of BaMV in N. benthamiana.

The Impact of Tobamovirus Infection on Root Development Involves Induction of Auxin Response Factor 10a in Tomato

Plant viruses cause systemic diseases that severely impair plant growth and development. While the accumulation of viruses in the root system has long been established, little is known as to how viruses affect root architecture. Here, we examined how the emerging tobamovirus, tomato brown rugose fruit virus (ToBRFV), alters root development in tomato. We found that ToBRFV and tobacco mosaic virus both invaded root systems during the first week of infection. ToBRFV infection of tomato plants resulted in a significant decrease in root biomass and elongation and root-to-shoot ratio and a marked suppression of root branching. Mutation in RNA-dependent RNA polymerase 6 increased the susceptibility of tomato plants to ToBRFV, resulting in severe reduction of various root growth parameters including root branching. Viral root symptoms were associated with the accumulation of auxin response factor 10a (SlARF10a) transcript, a homolog of Arabidopsis ARF10, a known suppressor of lateral root development. Interestingly, loss-of-function mutation in SlARF10a moderated the effect of ToBRFV on root branching. In contrast, downregulation of sly-miR160a, which targets SlARF10a, was associated with constitutive suppression root branching independent of viral infection. In addition, overexpression of a microRNA-insensitive mutant of SlARF10a mimicked the effect of ToBRFV on root development, suggesting a specific role for SlARF10a in ToBRFV-mediated suppression of root branching. Taken together, our results provide new insights into the impact of tobamoviruses on root development and the role of ARF10a in the suppression of root branching in tomato.

The coiled-coil protein gene WPRb confers recessive resistance to Cucumber green mottle mosaic virus

Cucumber green mottle mosaic virus (CGMMV) is one of the major global quarantine viruses and causes severe symptoms in Cucurbit crops, particularly with regard to fruit decay. However, the genetic mechanisms that control plant resistance to CGMMV have yet to be elucidated. Here, we found that WPRb, a weak chloroplast movement under blue light 1 and plastid movement impaired 2-related protein family gene, is recessively associated with CGMMV resistance in watermelon (Citrullus lanatus). We developed a reproducible marker based on a single non-synonymous substitution (G1282A) in WPRb, which can be used for marker-assisted selection for CGMMV resistance in watermelon. Editing of WPRb conferred greater tolerance to CGMMV. We found WPRb targets to the plasmodesmata (PD) and biochemically interacts with the CGMMV movement protein, facilitating viral intercellular movement by affecting the permeability of PD. Our findings enable us to genetically control CGMMV resistance in planta by using precise genome editing techniques targeted to WPRb.

Transcriptomic alterations in the sweet orange vasculature correlate with growth repression induced by a variant of citrus tristeza virus

Citrus tristeza virus (CTV, family Closteroviridae) is an economically important pathogen of citrus. CTV resides in the phloem of the infected plants and induces a range of disease phenotypes, including stem pitting and quick decline as well as a number of other deleterious syndromes. To uncover the biological processes underlying the poorly understood damaging symptoms of CTV, we profiled the transcriptome of sweet orange (Citrus sinensis) phloem-rich bark tissues of non-infected, mock-inoculated trees and trees singly infected with two distinct variants of CTV, T36 or T68-1. The T36 and T68-1 variants accumulated in the infected plants at similar titers. With that, young trees infected with T68-1 were markedly repressed in growth, while the growth rate of the trees infected with T36 was comparable to the mock-inoculated trees. Only a small number of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified in the nearly asymptomatic T36-infected trees, whereas almost fourfold the number of DEGs were identified with the growth-restricting T68-1 infection. DEGs were validated using quantitative reverse transcription-PCR. While T36 did not induce many noteworthy changes, T68-1 altered the expression of numerous host mRNAs encoding proteins within significant biological pathways, including immunity and stress response proteins, papain-like cysteine proteases (PLCPs), cell-wall modifying enzymes, vascular development proteins and others. The transcriptomic alterations in the T68-1-infected trees, in particular, the strong and persistent increase in the expression levels of PLCPs, appear to contribute to the observed stem growth repression. On the other hand, analysis of the viral small interfering RNAs revealed that the host RNA silencing-based response to the infection by T36 and that by T68-1 was comparable, and thus, the induction of this antiviral mechanism may not contribute to the difference in the observed symptoms. The DEGs identified in this study promote our understanding of the underlying mechanisms of the yet unexplained growth repression induced by severe CTV isolates in sweet orange trees.

What is missing to advance foliar fertilization using nanotechnology?

An urgent challenge within agriculture is to improve fertilizer efficiency in order to reduce the environmental footprint associated with an increased production of crops on existing farmland. Standard soil fertilization strategies are often not very efficient due to immobilization in the soil and losses of nutrients by leaching or volatilization. Foliar fertilization offers an attractive supplementary strategy as it bypasses the adverse soil processes, but implementation is often hampered by a poor penetration through leaf barriers, leaf damage, and a limited ability of nutrients to translocate. Recent advances within bionanotechnology offer a range of emerging possibilities to overcome these challenges. Here we review how nanoparticles can be tailored with smart properties to interact with plant tissue for a more efficient delivery of nutrients.

Tobacco mosaic virus movement protein complements a Potato spindle tuber viroid RNA mutant impaired for mesophyll entry but not mutants unable to enter the phloem

Tobacco mosaic virus movement protein (TMV MP) is essential for virus spread between cells. To accomplish its task, TMV MP binds viral RNA, interacts with components of the cytoskeleton, and increases the size exclusion limit (SEL) of plasmodesmata. Plasmodesmata are gated intercellular channels that allow passage of small molecules and macromolecules, including RNA and protein, between plant cells. Moreover, plasmodesmata are diverse and those connecting different cell types appear to have unique mechanisms to regulate macromolecular trafficking, which likely contributes to the establishment of distinct cell boundaries. Consequently, TMV MP might be competent to mediate RNA transport through some but not all plasmodesmal gates. Due to a lack of viral mutants defective for movement between specific cell types, the ability of TMV MP in this regard is incompletely understood. In contrast, a number of trafficking impaired Potato spindle tuber viroid (PSTVd) mutants have been identified. PSTVd is a systemically infectious non-coding RNA that nevertheless can perform all functions required for replication as well as cell-to-cell and systemic spread. Previous studies have shown that PSTVd employs different structure and sequence elements to move between diverse cell types in host plants, and mutants defective for transport between specific cell types have been identified. Therefore, PSTVd may serve as a tool to analyze the functions of MPs of viral and cellular origin. To probe the RNA transport activity of TMV MP, transgenic plants expressing the protein were inoculated with PSTVd mutants. Remarkably, TMV MP complemented a PSTVd mutant defective for mesophyll entry but could not support two mutants impaired for phloem entry, suggesting it fails to productively interface with plasmodesmata at the phloem boundary and that additional viral and host factors may be required. Consistent with this idea, TMV co-infection, but not the combination of MP and coat protein (CP) expression, was able to complement one of the phloem entry mutants. These observations suggest that phloem loading is a critical impediment to establishing systemic infection that could involve the entire ensemble of TMV proteins. They also demonstrate a novel strategy for analysis of MPs.

Interaction between Movement Proteins of Hibiscus green spot virus

Movement proteins (MPs) of plant viruses enable the translocation of viral genomes from infected to healthy cells through plasmodesmata (PD). The MPs functions involve the increase of the PD permeability and routing of viral genome both to the PD entrance and through the modified PD. Hibiscus green spot virus encodes two MPs, termed BMB1 and BMB2, which act in concert to accomplish virus cell-to-cell transport. BMB1, representing an NTPase/helicase domain-containing RNA-binding protein, localizes to the cytoplasm and the nucleoplasm. BMB2 is a small hydrophobic protein that interacts with the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) membranes and induces local constrictions of the ER tubules. In plant cells, BMB2 localizes to PD-associated membrane bodies (PAMBs) consisting of modified ER tubules and directs BMB1 to PAMBs. Here, we demonstrate that BMB1 and BMB2 interact in vitro and in vivo, and that their specific interaction is essential for BMB2-directed targeting of BMB1 to PAMBs. Using mutagenesis, we show that the interaction involves the C-terminal BMB1 region and the N-terminal region of BMB2.

Differential Expression of Genes between a Tolerant and a Susceptible Maize Line in Response to a Sugarcane Mosaic Virus Infection

To uncover novel genes associated with the Sugarcane mosaic virus (SCMV) response, we used RNA-Seq data to analyze differentially expressed genes (DEGs) and transcript expression pattern clusters between a tolerant/resistant (CI-RL1) and a susceptible (B73) line, in addition to the F1 progeny (CI-RL1xB73). A Gene Ontology (GO) enrichment of DEGs led us to propose three genes possibly associated with the CI-RL1 response: a heat shock 90-2 protein and two ABC transporters. Through a clustering analysis of the transcript expression patterns (CTEPs), we identified two genes putatively involved in viral systemic spread: the maize homologs to the PIEZO channel (ZmPiezo) and to the Potyvirus VPg Interacting Protein 1 (ZmPVIP1). We also observed the complex behavior of the maize eukaryotic factors ZmeIF4E and Zm-elfa (involved in translation), homologs to eIF4E and eEF1α in A. thaliana. Together, the DEG and CTEPs results lead us to suggest that the tolerant/resistant CI-RL1 response to the SCMV encompasses the action of diverse genes and, for the first time, that maize translation factors are associated with viral interaction.

The primary function of Six5 of Fusarium oxysporum is to facilitate Avr2 activity by together manipulating the size exclusion limit of plasmodesmata

Pathogens produce effector proteins to manipulate their hosts. While most effectors act autonomously, some fungal effectors act in pairs and rely on each other for function. During the colonization of the plant vasculature, the root-infecting fungus Fusarium oxysporum (Fo) produces 14 so-called Secreted in Xylem (SIX) effectors. Two of these effector genes, Avr2 (Six3) and Six5, form a gene pair on the pathogenicity chromosome of the tomato-infecting Fo strain. Avr2 has been shown to suppress plant defense responses and is required for full pathogenicity. Although Six5 and Avr2 together manipulate the size exclusion limit of plasmodesmata to facilitate cell-to-cell movement of Avr2, it is unclear whether Six5 has additional functions as well. To investigate the role of Six5, we generated transgenic Arabidopsis lines expressing Six5. Notably, increased susceptibility during the early stages of infection was observed in these Six5 lines, but only to Fo strains expressing Avr2 and not to wild-type Arabidopsis-infecting Fo strains lacking this effector gene. Furthermore, neither PAMP-triggered defense responses, such as ROS accumulation and callose deposition upon treatment with Flg22, necrosis and ethylene-inducing peptide 1-like protein (NLP), or chitosan, nor susceptibility to other plant pathogens, such as the bacterium Pseudomonas syringae or the fungus Verticilium dahlia, were affected by Six5 expression. Further investigation of the ability of the Avr2/Six5 effector pair to manipulate plasmodesmata (PD) revealed that it not only permits cell-to-cell movement of Avr2, but also facilitates the movement of two additional effectors, Six6 and Six8. Moreover, although Avr2/Six5 expands the size exclusion limit of plasmodesmata (i.e., gating) to permit the movement of a 2xFP fusion protein (53 kDa), a larger variant, 3xFP protein (80 kDa), did not move to the neighboring cells. The PD manipulation mechanism employed by Avr2/Six5 did not involve alteration of callose homeostasis in these structures. In conclusion, the primary function of Six5 appears to function together with Avr2 to increase the size exclusion limit of plasmodesmata by an unknown mechanism to facilitate cell-to-cell movement of Fo effectors.

Pathogen effectors: What do they do at plasmodesmata?

Plants perceive an assortment of external cues during their life cycle, including abiotic and biotic stressors. Biotic stress from a variety of pathogens, including viruses, oomycetes, fungi, and bacteria, is considered to be a substantial factor hindering plant growth and development. To hijack the host cell's defence machinery, plant pathogens have evolved sophisticated attack strategies mediated by numerous effector proteins. Several studies have indicated that plasmodesmata (PD), symplasmic pores that facilitate cell-to-cell communication between a cell and neighbouring cells, are one of the targets of pathogen effectors. However, in contrast to plant-pathogenic viruses, reports of fungal- and bacterial-encoded effectors that localize to and exploit PD are limited. Surprisingly, a recent study of PD-associated bacterial effectors has shown that a number of bacterial effectors undergo cell-to-cell movement via PD. Here we summarize and highlight recent advances in the study of PD-associated fungal/oomycete/bacterial effectors. We also discuss how pathogen effectors interfere with host defence mechanisms in the context of PD regulation.

Mathematical Modeling Suggests Cooperation of Plant-Infecting Viruses

Viruses are major pathogens of agricultural crops. Viral infections often start after the virus enters the outer layer of a tissue, and many successful viruses, after local replication in the infected tissue, are able to spread systemically. Quantitative details of virus dynamics in plants, however, are poorly understood, in part, because of the lack of experimental methods which allow the accurate measurement of the degree of infection in individual plant tissues. Recently, a group of researchers followed the kinetics of infection of individual cells in leaves of Nicotiana tabacum plants using Tobacco etch virus (TEV) expressing either Venus or blue fluorescent protein (BFP). Assuming that viral spread occurs from lower to upper leaves, the authors fitted a simple mathematical model to the frequency of cellular infection by the two viral variants found using flow cytometry. While the original model could accurately describe the kinetics of viral spread locally and systemically, we found that many alternative versions of the model, for example, if viral spread starts at upper leaves and progresses to lower leaves or when virus dissemination is stopped due to an immune response, fit the data with reasonable quality, and yet with different parameter estimates. These results strongly suggest that experimental measurements of the virus infection in individual leaves may not be sufficient to identify the pathways of viral dissemination between different leaves and reasons for viral control. We propose experiments that may allow discrimination between the alternatives. By analyzing the kinetics of coinfection of individual cells by Venus and BFP strains of TEV we found a strong deviation from the random infection model, suggesting cooperation between the two strains when infecting plant cells. Importantly, we showed that many mathematical models on the kinetics of coinfection of cells with two strains could not adequately describe the data, and the best fit model needed to assume (i) different susceptibility of uninfected cells to infection by two viruses locally in the leaf vs. systemically from other leaves, and (ii) decrease in the infection rate depending on the fraction of uninfected cells which could be due to a systemic immune response. Our results thus demonstrate the difficulty in reaching definite conclusions from extensive and yet limited experimental data and provide evidence of potential cooperation between different viral variants infecting individual cells in plants.

StREM1.3 REMORIN Protein Plays an Agonistic Role in Potyvirus Cell-to-Cell Movement in N. benthamiana

REMORIN proteins belong to a plant-specific multigene family that localise in plasma membrane nanodomains and in plasmodesmata. We previously showed that in Nicotiana benthamiana, group 1 StREM1.3 limits the cell-to-cell spread of a potexvirus without affecting viral replication. This prompted us to check whether an effect on viral propagation could apply to potyvirus species Turnip mosaic virus (TuMV) and Potato virus A (PVA). Our results show that StREM1.3 transient or stable overexpression in transgenic lines increases potyvirus propagation, while it is slowed down in transgenic lines underexpressing endogenous NbREMs, without affecting viral replication. TuMV and PVA infection do not alter the membranous localisation of StREM1.3. Furthermore, StREM1.3-membrane anchoring is necessary for its agonist effect on potyvirus propagation. StREM1.3 phosphocode seems to lead to distinct plant responses against potexvirus and potyvirus. We also showed that StREM1.3 interacts in yeast and in planta with the key potyviral movement protein CI (cylindrical inclusion) at the level of the plasma membrane but only partially at plasmodesmata pit fields. TuMV infection also counteracts StREM1.3-induced plasmodesmata callose accumulation at plasmodesmata. Altogether, these results showed that StREM1.3 plays an agonistic role in potyvirus cell-to-cell movement in N. benthamiana.

Quantifying Plasmodesmatal Transport with an Improved GFP Movement Assay

Plasmodesmata (PD) are membrane-lined channels that cross the cell wall to connect the cytosol of adjacent plant cells, permitting diverse cytosolic molecules to move between cells. PD are essential for plant multicellularity, and the regulation of PD transport contributes to metabolism, developmental patterning, abiotic stress responses, and pathogen defenses, which has sparked broad interest in PD among diverse plant biologists. Here, we present a straightforward method to reproducibly quantify changes in the rate of PD transport in leaves. Individual cells are transformed with Agrobacterium to express fluorescent proteins, which then move beyond the transformed cell via PD. Forty-eight to 72 h later, the extent of GFP movement is monitored by confocal fluorescence microscopy. This assay is versatile and may be combined with transient gene overexpression, virus-induced gene silencing, physiological treatments, or pharmaceutical treatments to test how PD transport responds to specific conditions. We expect that this improved method for monitoring PD transport in leaves will be broadly useful for plant biologists working in diverse fields.

Monitoring Virus Intercellular Movement from Primary Infected Cells to Neighboring Cells in Plants

Viral cell-to-cell movement from the primary infected cells to neighboring cells is an essential step for viruses to establish systemic infection in plants. The classic experimental design for studying this process involves the application of a reporter protein such as β-glucuronidase (GUS), green fluorescent protein (GFP), or monomeric red fluorescent protein (mRFP or mCherry). However, such experimental settings are unable to unambiguously distinguish primary and secondary infected cells. In recent years, we have developed several double-labeling potyvirus infectious clones. Upon introduction of such vectors into plant leaf tissues, primary infected cells emit dual fluorescence (green and red) whereas secondary infected cells emit only green fluorescence. In this chapter, we provide detailed protocols on (1) construction of a GFP and mCherry-tagged turnip mosaic virus infectious clone, (2) delivery of the recombinant viral clones into plant cells by agroinfiltration, (3) confocal imaging of viral cell-to-cell movement, and (4) analysis of viral systemic infection. Using this dual-color imaging system, we have revealed coat protein (CP) is essential for TuMV cell-to-cell movement. This system provides a valuable and robust tool to study plant virus cell-to-cell movement.

Turnip mosaic virus co-opts the vacuolar sorting receptor VSR4 to promote viral genome replication in plants by targeting viral replication vesicles to the endosome

Accumulated experimental evidence has shown that viruses recruit the host intracellular machinery to establish infection. It has recently been shown that the potyvirus Turnip mosaic virus (TuMV) transits through the late endosome (LE) for viral genome replication, but it is still largely unknown how the viral replication vesicles labelled by the TuMV membrane protein 6K2 target LE. To further understand the underlying mechanism, we studied the involvement of the vacuolar sorting receptor (VSR) family proteins from Arabidopsis in this process. We now report the identification of VSR4 as a new host factor required for TuMV infection. VSR4 interacted specifically with TuMV 6K2 and was required for targeting of 6K2 to enlarged LE. Following overexpression of VSR4 or its recycling-defective mutant that accumulates in the early endosome (EE), 6K2 did not employ the conventional VSR-mediated EE to LE pathway, but targeted enlarged LE directly from cis-Golgi and viral replication was enhanced. In addition, VSR4 can be N-glycosylated and this is required for its stability and for monitoring 6K2 trafficking to enlarged LE. A non-glycosylated VSR4 mutant enhanced the dissociation of 6K2 from cis-Golgi, leading to the formation of punctate bodies that targeted enlarged LE and to more robust viral replication than with glycosylated VSR4. Finally, TuMV hijacks N-glycosylated VSR4 and protects VSR4 from degradation via the autophagy pathway to assist infection. Taken together, our results have identified a host factor VSR4 required for viral replication vesicles to target endosomes for optimal viral infection and shed new light on the role of N-glycosylation of a host factor in regulating viral infection.

A key feature of the replication of positive-strand RNA viruses is the rearrangement of the host endomembrane system to produce a membranous replication organelle. Recent reports suggest that the late endosome (LE) serves as a replication site for the potyvirus Turnip mosaic virus (TuMV), but the mechanism(s) by which TuMV replication vesicles target LE are far from being fully elucidated. Identification of the host factors involved in this transport process could lead to new strategies to combat TuMV infection. In this report, we provide evidence that TuMV replication depends on functional vesicle transport from cis-Golgi to the enlarged LE pathway that is mediated by a specific VSR family member, VSR4, from Arabidopsis. Knock out of VSR4 impaired the targeting of TuMV replication vesicles to enlarged LE and suppressed viral infection, and this process depends on the specific interaction between VSR4 and the viral replication vesicle-forming protein 6K2. We also showed that N-glycosylation of VSR4 modulates the targeting of TuMV replication vesicles to enlarged LE and enhances viral infection, thus contributing to our understanding of how TuMV manipulates host factors in order to establish optimal infection. These results may have implications for the role of VSR in other positive-strand RNA viruses.

Approaches for investigating plasmodesmata and effective communication

Plasmodesmata (PD) are integral plant cell wall components that provide routes for intercellular communication, signaling, and resource sharing. They are therefore essential for plant growth and survival. Much effort has been put forth to understand how PD are generated and their structure is refined for function and to determine how they regulate intercellular trafficking. This review provides an overview of some of the approaches that have been used to study PD structure and function, highlighting those that may be more widely adopted to address questions of PD cell biology and function. Extending our focus on the importance of communication, we address how effective communication strategies can increase diversity and accessibility in the research laboratory, focusing on challenges faced by our deaf/hard-of-hearing colleagues, and highlight successful approaches to including them in the research laboratory.

Hitching a Ride: Examining the Ability of a Specialist Baculovirus to Translocate through Its Insect Host's Food Plant

Plant vascular systems can translocate the entomopathogen Bacillus thuringiensis from the soil into plant tissues. However, whether other soil dwelling entomopathogens utilize plant vascular tissue for movement has not yet been fully explored. We used Spodoptera frugiperda multiple nucleopolyhedrovirus (SfMNPV) to evaluate whether baculoviruses, a common entomopathogen and bioinsecticide, can be transported through the plant vascular pathways of Zea mays. We found that our treatments did not allow a sufficient virus translocation into the plant to induce a lethal infection in insects, which was confirmed by a molecular analysis. While other entomopathogens translocate, baculoviruses may not be one of them.

Dynamic subcellular distribution of begomoviral nuclear shuttle and movement proteins

The Abutilon mosaic virus (AbMV) encodes a nuclear shuttle protein (NSP), and a movement protein (MP) which cooperatively accomplish viral DNA transport through the plant. Subcellular distribution patterns of fluorescent protein-tagged NSP and MP were tracked in Nicotiana benthamiana leaves in presence or absence of an AbMV infection using light microscopy. NSP was located within the nucleus and associated with early endosomes in the presence of MP. MP appeared at the plasma membrane, plasmodesmata and in motile vesicles, trafficking along the endoplasmic reticulum in an actin-dependent manner. MP and NSP did not co-localize and employed separate cellular pathways. Correspondingly, Förster resonance energy transfer analysis did not support physical interaction between NSP and MP. Time lapse movies illustrate the cellular dynamics of both proteins on their way around the nucleus and to the cell periphery and provide a first hint for the nuclear egress of NSP complexes.

The Tomato Brown Rugose Fruit Virus Movement Protein Overcomes Tm-22 Resistance in Tomato While Attenuating Viral Transport

Tomato brown rugose fruit virus is a new virus species in the Tobamovirus genus, causing substantial damage to tomato crops. Reports of recent tomato brown rugose fruit virus (ToBRFV) outbreaks from around the world indicate an emerging global epidemic. ToBRFV overcomes all tobamovirus resistances in tomato, including the durable Tm-2² resistance gene, which had been effective against multiple tobamoviruses. Here, we show that the ToBRFV movement protein (MP^ToBRFV) enables the virus to evade Tm-2² resistance. Transient expression of MP^ToBRFV failed to activate the Tm-2² resistance response. Replacement of the original MP sequence of tomato mosaic virus (ToMV) with MP^ToBRFV enabled this recombinant virus to infect Tm-2²-resistant plants. Using hybrid protein analysis, we show that the elements required to evade Tm-2² are located between MP^ToBRFV amino acids 1 and 216 and not the C terminus, as previously assumed. Analysis of ToBRFV systemic infection in tomato revealed that ToBRFV spreads more slowly compared with ToMV. Interestingly, replacement of tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) and ToMV MPs with MP^ToBRFV caused an attenuation of systemic infection of both viruses. Cell-to-cell movement analysis showed that MP^ToBRFV moves less effectively compared with the TMV MP (MP^TMV). These findings suggest that overcoming Tm-2² is associated with attenuated MP function. This may explain the high durability of Tm-2² resistance, which had remained unbroken for over 60 years.[Formula: see text] Copyright © 2021 The Author(s). This is an open access article distributed under the CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 International license.

Insights Into Natural Genetic Resistance to Rice Yellow Mottle Virus and Implications on Breeding for Durable Resistance

Rice is the main food crop for people in low- and lower-middle-income countries in Asia and sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Since 1982, there has been a significant increase in the demand for rice in SSA, and its growing importance is reflected in the national strategic food security plans of several countries in the region. However, several abiotic and biotic factors undermine efforts to meet this demand. Rice yellow mottle virus (RYMV) caused by Solemoviridae is a major biotic factor affecting rice production and continues to be an important pathogen in SSA. To date, six pathogenic strains have been reported. RYMV infects rice plants through wounds and rice feeding vectors. Once inside the plant cells, viral genome-linked protein is required to bind to the rice translation initiation factor [eIF(iso)4G1] for a compatible interaction. The development of resistant cultivars that can interrupt this interaction is the most effective method to manage this disease. Three resistance genes are recognized to limit RYMV virulence in rice, some of which have nonsynonymous single mutations or short deletions in the core domain of eIF(iso)4G1 that impair viral host interaction. However, deployment of these resistance genes using conventional methods has proved slow and tedious. Molecular approaches are expected to be an alternative to facilitate gene introgression and/or pyramiding and rapid deployment of these resistance genes into elite cultivars. In this review, we summarize the knowledge on molecular genetics of RYMV-rice interaction, with emphasis on host plant resistance. In addition, we provide strategies for sustainable utilization of the novel resistant sources. This knowledge is expected to guide breeding programs in the development and deployment of RYMV resistant rice varieties.

Virus-induced cell gigantism and asymmetric cell division in archaea

Archaeal viruses represent one of the most mysterious parts of the global virosphere, with many virus groups sharing no evolutionary relationship to viruses of bacteria or eukaryotes. How these viruses interact with their hosts remains largely unexplored. Here we show that nonlytic lemon-shaped virus STSV2 interferes with the cell cycle control of its host, hyperthermophilic and acidophilic archaeon Sulfolobus islandicus, arresting the cell cycle in the S phase. STSV2 infection leads to transcriptional repression of the cell division machinery, which is homologous to the eukaryotic endosomal sorting complexes required for transport (ESCRT) system. The infected cells grow up to 20-fold larger in size, have 8,000-fold larger volume compared to noninfected cells, and accumulate massive amounts of viral and cellular DNA. Whereas noninfected Sulfolobus cells divide symmetrically by binary fission, the STSV2-infected cells undergo asymmetric division, whereby giant cells release normal-sized cells by budding, resembling the division of budding yeast. Reinfection of the normal-sized cells produces a new generation of giant cells. If the CRISPR-Cas system is present, the giant cells acquire virus-derived spacers and terminate the virus spread, whereas in its absence, the cycle continues, suggesting that CRISPR-Cas is the primary defense system in Sulfolobus against STSV2. Collectively, our results show how an archaeal virus manipulates the cell cycle, transforming the cell into a giant virion-producing factory.

Cell-to-cell movement of plant viruses via plasmodesmata: a current perspective on potyviruses

Plant viruses have evolved efficient mechanisms to move cell-to-cell through plasmodesmata (PD) for systemic infection. Potyviruses including many economically important viruses constitute the largest group of known plant-infecting RNA viruses. Potyviral intercellular movement is accomplished by the coordinated action of at least three viral proteins and diverse host components. It requires the viral coat protein and is interlinked with active virus replication that generates, through RNA-polymerase slippage, a small percentage of frameshift viral RNA for the production of another essential movement protein named P3N-PIPO. This PD-located protein targets the virus-encoded cylindrical inclusion protein to PD to form special conical structures for potyviral passage, possibly in the form of virion. Here, I highlight and discuss major advances of potyviral intercellular trafficking.

Variability, Functions and Interactions of Plant Virus Movement Proteins: What Do We Know So Far?

Of the various proteins encoded by plant viruses, one of the most interesting is the movement protein (MP). MPs are unique to plant viruses and show surprising structural and functional variability while maintaining their core function, which is to facilitate the intercellular transport of viruses or viral nucleoprotein complexes. MPs interact with components of the intercellular channels, the plasmodesmata (PD), modifying their size exclusion limits and thus allowing larger particles, including virions, to pass through. The interaction of MPs with the components of PD, the formation of transport complexes and the recruitment of host cellular components have all revealed different facets of their functions. Multitasking is an inherent property of most viral proteins, and MPs are no exception. Some MPs carry out multitasking, which includes gene silencing suppression, viral replication and modulation of host protein turnover machinery. This review brings together the current knowledge on MPs, focusing on their structural variability, various functions and interactions with host proteins.

Exogenous RNA as a Regulatory Signal during a Plant's Interaction with the Biotic Environment: An Evolutionary Perspective and Future Applications in Agriculture

Environmental RNAi (eRNAi) is a sequence-specific regulation of endogenous gene expression in a responsive organism by exogenous RNA. While exogenous RNA transfer between organisms of different kingdoms of life have been unambiguously identified in nature, our understanding of the biological significance of this phenomenon remains obscure, particularly within an evolutionary context. During the last decade multiple reports utilizing various mechanisms of natural eRNAi phenomena have been attempted to develop new agricultural traits and products including weed, disease and insect control. Although these attempts yielded mixed results, this concept remains extremely attractive for many agricultural applications. To better utilize eRNAi for practical applications, we would like to emphasize the necessity of understanding the biological significance of this phenomenon within an evolutionary context and learn from nature by developing advanced tools to identify and study new cases of exogeneous RNA transfer and eRNAi. In this opinion article we would like to look at the exogeneous RNA transfer from an evolutionary perspective, propose that new cases of exogeneous RNA transfer still remain to be identified in nature, and address a knowledge gap in understanding the biological function and significance of RNA transfer. We believe such approach may eventually result in a more successful use of this phenomenon for practical applications in agriculture.

Review: Membrane tethers control plasmodesmal function and formation

Cell-to-cell communication is crucial in coordinating diverse biological processes in multicellular organisms. In plants, communication between adjacent cells occurs via nanotubular passages called plasmodesmata (PD). The PD passage is composed of an appressed endoplasmic reticulum (ER) internally, and plasma membrane (PM) externally, that traverses the cell wall, and associates with the actin-cytoskeleton. The coordination of the ER, PM and cytoskeleton plays a potential role in maintaining the architecture and conductivity of PD. Many data suggest that PD-associated proteins can serve as tethers that connect these structures in a functional PD, to regulate cell-to-cell communication. In this review, we summarize the organization and regulation of PD activity via tethering proteins, and discuss the importance of PD-mediated cell-to-cell communication in plant development and defense against environmental stress.

Lipid Body Dynamics in Shoot Meristems: Production, Enlargement, and Putative Organellar Interactions and Plasmodesmal Targeting

Post-embryonic cells contain minute lipid bodies (LBs) that are transient, mobile, engage in organellar interactions, and target plasmodesmata (PD). While LBs can deliver γ-clade 1,3-β-glucanases to PD, the nature of other cargo is elusive. To gain insight into the poorly understood role of LBs in meristems, we investigated their dynamics by microscopy, gene expression analyzes, and proteomics. In developing buds, meristems accumulated LBs, upregulated several LB-specific OLEOSIN genes and produced OLEOSINs. During bud maturation, the major gene OLE6 was strongly downregulated, OLEOSINs disappeared from bud extracts, whereas lipid biosynthesis genes were upregulated, and LBs were enlarged. Proteomic analyses of the LB fraction of dormant buds confirmed that OLEOSINs were no longer present. Instead, we identified the LB-associated proteins CALEOSIN (CLO1), Oil Body Lipase 1 (OBL1), Lipid Droplet Interacting Protein (LDIP), Lipid Droplet Associated Protein1a/b (LDAP1a/b) and LDAP3a/b, and crucial components of the OLEOSIN-deubiquitinating and degradation machinery, such as PUX10 and CDC48A. All mRFP-tagged LDAPs localized to LBs when transiently expressed in Nicotiana benthamiana. Together with gene expression analyzes, this suggests that during bud maturation, OLEOSINs were replaced by LDIP/LDAPs at enlarging LBs. The LB fraction contained the meristem-related actin7 (ACT7), "myosin XI tail-binding" RAB GTPase C2A, an LB/PD-associated γ-clade 1,3-β-glucanase, and various organelle- and/or PD-localized proteins. The results are congruent with a model in which LBs, motorized by myosin XI-k/1/2, traffic on F-actin, transiently interact with other organelles, and deliver a diverse cargo to PD.

Intercellular movement of plant RNA viruses: Targeting replication complexes to the plasmodesma for both accuracy and efficiency

Replication and movement are two critical steps in plant virus infection. Recent advances in the understanding of the architecture and subcellular localization of virus-induced inclusions and the interactions between viral replication complex (VRC) and movement proteins (MPs) allow for the dissection of the intrinsic relationship between replication and movement, which has revealed that recruitment of VRCs to the plasmodesma (PD) via direct or indirect MP-VRC interactions is a common strategy used for cell-to-cell movement by most plant RNA viruses. In this review, we summarize the recent advances in the understanding of virus-induced inclusions and their roles in virus replication and cell-to-cell movement, analyze the advantages of such coreplicational movement from a viral point of view and discuss the possible mechanical force by which MPs drive the movement of virions or viral RNAs through the PD. Finally, we highlight the missing pieces of the puzzle of viral movement that are especially worth investigating in the near future.

Diversity of Plant Virus Movement Proteins: What Do They Have in Common?

The modern view of the mechanism of intercellular movement of viruses is based largely on data from the study of the tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) 30-kDa movement protein (MP). The discovered properties and abilities of TMV MP, namely, (a) in vitro binding of single-stranded RNA in a non-sequence-specific manner, (b) participation in the intracellular trafficking of genomic RNA to the plasmodesmata (Pd), and (c) localization in Pd and enhancement of Pd permeability, have been used as a reference in the search and analysis of candidate proteins from other plant viruses. Nevertheless, although almost four decades have passed since the introduction of the term “movement protein” into scientific circulation, the mechanism underlying its function remains unclear. It is unclear why, despite the absence of homology, different MPs are able to functionally replace each other in trans-complementation tests. Here, we consider the complexity and contradictions of the approaches for assessment of the ability of plant viral proteins to perform their movement function. We discuss different aspects of the participation of MP and MP/vRNA complexes in intra- and intercellular transport. In addition, we summarize the essential MP properties for their functioning as “conditioners”, creating a favorable environment for viral reproduction.

Plant Virology Delivers Diverse Toolsets for Biotechnology

Over a hundred years of research on plant viruses has led to a detailed understanding of viral replication, movement, and host-virus interactions. The functions of vast viral genes have also been annotated. With an increased understanding of plant viruses and plant-virus interactions, various viruses have been developed as vectors to modulate gene expressions for functional studies as well as for fulfilling the needs in biotechnology. These approaches are invaluable not only for molecular breeding and functional genomics studies related to pivotal agronomic traits, but also for the production of vaccines and health-promoting carotenoids. This review summarizes the latest progress in these forefronts as well as the available viral vectors for economically important crops and beyond.

Small hydrophobic viral proteins involved in intercellular movement of diverse plant virus genomes

Most plant viruses code for movement proteins (MPs) targeting plasmodesmata to enable cell-to-cell and systemic spread in infected plants. Small membrane-embedded MPs have been first identified in two viral transport gene modules, triple gene block (TGB) coding for an RNA-binding helicase TGB1 and two small hydrophobic proteins TGB2 and TGB3 and double gene block (DGB) encoding two small polypeptides representing an RNA-binding protein and a membrane protein. These findings indicated that movement gene modules composed of two or more cistrons may encode the nucleic acid-binding protein and at least one membrane-bound movement protein. The same rule was revealed for small DNA-containing plant viruses, namely, viruses belonging to genus Mastrevirus (family Geminiviridae) and the family Nanoviridae. In multi-component transport modules the nucleic acid-binding MP can be viral capsid protein(s), as in RNA-containing viruses of the families Closteroviridae and Potyviridae. However, membrane proteins are always found among MPs of these multicomponent viral transport systems. Moreover, it was found that small membrane MPs encoded by many viruses can be involved in coupling viral replication and cell-to-cell movement. Currently, the studies of evolutionary origin and functioning of small membrane MPs is regarded as an important pre-requisite for understanding of the evolution of the existing plant virus transport systems. This paper represents the first comprehensive review which describes the whole diversity of small membrane MPs and presents the current views on their role in plant virus movement.

Intercellular trafficking via plasmodesmata: molecular layers of complexity

Plasmodesmata are intercellular pores connecting together most plant cells. These structures consist of a central constricted form of the endoplasmic reticulum, encircled by some cytoplasmic space, in turn delimited by the plasma membrane, itself ultimately surrounded by the cell wall. The presence and structure of plasmodesmata create multiple routes for intercellular trafficking of a large spectrum of molecules (encompassing RNAs, proteins, hormones and metabolites) and also enable local signalling events. Movement across plasmodesmata is finely controlled in order to balance processes requiring communication with those necessitating symplastic isolation. Here, we describe the identities and roles of the molecular components (specific sets of lipids, proteins and wall polysaccharides) that shape and define plasmodesmata structural and functional domains. We highlight the extensive and dynamic interactions that exist between the plasma/endoplasmic reticulum membranes, cytoplasm and cell wall domains, binding them together to effectively define plasmodesmata shapes and purposes.

The cis-expression of the coat protein of turnip mosaic virus is essential for viral intercellular movement in plants

To establish infection, plant viruses are evolutionarily empowered with the ability to spread intercellularly. Potyviruses represent the largest group of known plant-infecting RNA viruses, including many agriculturally important viruses. To better understand intercellular movement of potyviruses, we used turnip mosaic virus (TuMV) as a model and constructed a double-fluorescent (green and mCherry) protein-tagged TuMV infectious clone, which allows distinct observation of primary and secondary infected cells. We conducted a series of deletion and mutation analyses to characterize the role of TuMV coat protein (CP) in viral intercellular movement. TuMV CP has 288 amino acids and is composed of three domains: the N-terminus (amino acids 1-97), the core (amino acids 98-245), and the C-terminus (amino acids 246-288). We found that deletion of CP or its segments amino acids 51-199, amino acids 200-283, or amino acids 265-274 abolished the ability of TuMV to spread intercellularly but did not affect virus replication. Interestingly, deletion of amino acids 6-50 in the N-terminus domain resulted in the formation of aberrant virions but did not significantly compromise TuMV cell-to-cell and systemic movement. We identified the charged residues R178 and D222 within the core domain that are essential for virion formation and TuMV local and systemic transport in plants. Moreover, we found that trans-expression of the wild-type CP either by TuMV or through genetic transformation-based stable expression could not rescue the movement defect of CP mutants. Taken together these results suggest that TuMV CP is not essential for viral genome replication but is indispensable for viral intercellular transport where only the cis-expressed CP is functional.

Identification, characterization, and expression analysis of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata [L.] Walp.) miRNAs in response to cowpea severe mosaic virus (CPSMV) challenge

Cowpea miRNAs and Argonaute genes showed differential expression patterns in response to CPSMV challenge Several biotic stresses affect cowpea production and yield. CPSMV stands out for causing severe negative impacts on cowpea. Plants have two main induced immune systems. In the basal system (PTI, PAMP-triggered immunity), plants recognize and respond to conserved molecular patterns associated with pathogens (PAMPs). The second type (ETI, Effector-triggered immunity) is induced after plant recognition of specific factors from pathogens. RNA silencing is another important defense mechanism in plants. Our research group has been using biochemical and proteomic approaches to learn which proteins and pathways are involved and could explain why some cowpea genotypes are resistant whereas others are susceptible to CPSMV. This current study was conducted to determine the role of cowpea miRNA in the interaction between a resistant cowpea genotype (BRS-Marataoã) and CPSMV. Previously identified and deposited plant microRNA sequences were used to find out all possible microRNAs in the cowpea genome. This search detected 617 mature microRNAs, which were distributed in 89 microRNA families. Next, 4 out of these 617 miRNAs and their possible target genes that encode the proteins Kat-p80, DEAD-Box, GST, and SPB9, all involved in the defense response of cowpea to CPSMV, had their expression compared between cowpea leaves uninoculated and inoculated with CPSMV. Additionally, the differential expression of genes that encode the Argonaute (AGO) proteins 1, 2, 4, 6, and 10 is reported. In summary, the studied miRNAs and AGO 2 and AGO4 associated genes showed differential expression patterns in response to CPSMV challenge, which indicate their role in cowpea defense.

The Tobamoviral Movement Protein: A "Conditioner" to Create a Favorable Environment for Intercellular Spread of Infection

During their evolution, viruses acquired genes encoding movement protein(s) (MPs) that mediate the intracellular transport of viral genetic material to plasmodesmata (Pd) and initiate the mechanisms leading to the increase in plasmodesmal permeability. Although the current view on the role of the viral MPs was primarily formed through studies on tobacco mosaic virus (TMV), the function of its MP has not been fully elucidated. Given the intercellular movement of MPs independent of genomic viral RNA (vRNA), this characteristic may induce favorable conditions ahead of the infection front for the accelerated movement of the vRNA (i.e. the MP plays a role as a "conditioner" of viral intercellular spread). This idea is supported by (a) the synthesis of MP from genomic vRNA early in infection, (b) the Pd opening and the MP transfer to neighboring cells without formation of the viral replication complex (VRC), and (c) the MP-mediated movement of VRCs beyond the primary infected cell. Here, we will consider findings that favor the TMV MP as a "conditioner" of enhanced intercellular virus movement. In addition, we will discuss the mechanism by which TMV MP opens Pd for extraordinary transport of macromolecules. Although there is no evidence showing direct effects of TMV MP on Pd leading to their dilatation, recent findings indicate that MPs exert their influence indirectly by modulating Pd external and structural macromolecules such as callose and Pd-associated proteins. In explaining this phenomenon, we will propose a mechanism for TMV MP functioning as a conditioner for virus movement.

Interplay between ABA signaling and RNA silencing in plant viral resistance

Abscisic acid (ABA) regulates plant responses to different stimuli including viral infections through two different defense mechanisms; the antiviral RNA silencing pathway and callose accumulation. In some pathosystems, induction of these defense mechanisms is stronger in plants with resistance (R)-genes than in more susceptible plants. Mutants in several RNA silencing genes are hypersensitive to ABA, which suggests that these genes exert a regulatory feedback loop on ABA signaling. This scenario suggests that the RNA silencing pathway can target genes involved in the ABA pathway to control ABA production/signaling since prolonged production of this stress hormone arrests plant growth and development. Mutations in the ABA or salicylic acid pathways do not completely repress RNA silencing genes, indicating that RNA silencing represents a regulatory hub through which different pathways exert some of their functions, and thus the regulation of RNA silencing could be subject to hormone balancing in plants.

Soybean Resistance to Soybean Mosaic Virus

Soybean mosaic virus (SMV) occurs in all soybean-growing areas in the world and causes huge losses in soybean yields and seed quality. During early viral infection, molecular interactions between SMV effector proteins and the soybean resistance (R) protein, if present, determine the development of resistance/disease in soybean plants. Depending on the interacting strain and cultivar, R-protein in resistant soybean perceives a specific SMV effector, which triggers either the extreme silent resistance or the typical resistance manifested by hypersensitive responses and induction of salicylic acid and reactive oxygen species. In this review, we consider the major advances that have been made in understanding the soybean–SMV arms race. We also focus on dissecting mechanisms SMV employs to establish infection and how soybean perceives and then responds to SMV attack. In addition, progress on soybean R-genes studies, as well as those addressing independent resistance genes, are also addressed.

Creating Contacts Between Replication and Movement at Plasmodesmata - A Role for Membrane Contact Sites in Plant Virus Infections?

To infect their hosts and cause disease, plant viruses must replicate within cells and move throughout the plant both locally and systemically. RNA virus replication occurs on the surface of various cellular membranes, whose shape and composition become extensively modified in the process. Membrane contact sites (MCS) can mediate non-vesicular lipid-shuttling between different membranes and viruses co-opt components of these structures to make their membrane environment suitable for replication. Whereas animal viruses exit and enter cells when moving throughout their host, the rigid wall of plant cells obstructs this pathway and plant viruses therefore move between cells symplastically through plasmodesmata (PD). PD are membranous channels connecting nearly all plant cells and are now viewed to constitute a specialized type of endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-plasma membrane (PM) MCS themselves. Thus, both replication and movement of plant viruses rely on MCS. However, recent work also suggests that for some viruses, replication and movement are closely coupled at ER-PM MCS at the entrances of PD. Movement-coupled replication at PD may be distinct from the main bulk of replication and virus accumulation, which produces progeny virions for plant-to-plant transmission. Thus, MCS play a central role in plant virus infections, and may provide a link between two essential steps in the viral life cycle, replication and movement. Here, we provide an overview of plant virus-MCS interactions identified to date, and place these in the context of the connection between viral replication and cell-to-cell movement.

Plasmodesmata Conductivity Regulation: A Mechanistic Model

Plant cells form a multicellular symplast via cytoplasmic bridges called plasmodesmata (Pd) and the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) that crosses almost all plant tissues. The Pd proteome is mainly represented by secreted Pd-associated proteins (PdAPs), the repertoire of which quickly adapts to environmental conditions and responds to biotic and abiotic stresses. Although the important role of Pd in stress-induced reactions is universally recognized, the mechanisms of Pd control are still not fully understood. The negative role of callose in Pd permeability has been convincingly confirmed experimentally, yet the roles of cytoskeletal elements and many PdAPs remain unclear. Here, we discuss the contribution of each protein component to Pd control. Based on known data, we offer mechanistic models of mature leaf Pd regulation in response to stressful effects.