Injection of somatic cell cytoplasm into oocytes before intracytoplasmic sperm injection impairs full-term development and increases placental weight in mice

Impact of mono(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (MEHP) on the development of mouse embryo in vitro

Mono(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (MEHP) is the most studied metabolite of di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), a phthalate found in cosmetics, flooring, paints, and plastics products, including toys and medical tubing. Humans are frequently exposed to this compound due to its ubiquitous presence in our environment. DEHP and MEHP are known to be endocrine-disrupting chemicals and exposure levels have been associated to decreased reproductive success. However, few studies have focused on the direct effects of MEHP on embryos. The present study investigated effects of MEHP (0.1, 1, 10, 100 and 1000 µM) on mice preimplantation embryonic development, evaluating percentage of blastocyst formation, hatching from zona pellucida, methylation-related genes, cell lineage commitment, micronucleation, and adherens junction marker at different stages of development during in vitro culture for 6 days. We show MEHP negatively impacts embryo competence by reducing blastocyst formation and hatching at 100 and 1000 µM. In addition, 100 µM MEHP increases the expression of Tet3 gene in blastocysts, which is related to a reduction of DNA methylation, an important mechanism regulating gene expression. Exposed embryos that completed the hatching process in groups 0.1, 1 and 10 µM MEHP had similar number of inner cell mass and trophectoderm cells compared to the control, while micronucleation occurrence and E-cadherin expression was not affected in exposed morulae by MEHP at 10 or 100 µM. Our results showed that high concentrations of MEHP can negatively impact embryo development. New studies unveiling the mechanism of toxicity involved and encompassing further developmental stages are warranted for further understanding.

Removal of remodeling/reprogramming factors from oocytes and the impact on the full-term development of cloned embryos

The reason for the poor development of cloned embryos is not yet clear. Several reports have suggested that some nuclear remodeling/reprogramming factors (RRFs) are removed from oocytes at the time of enucleation, which might cause the low success rate of animal cloning. However, there is currently no method to manipulate the amount of RRFs in oocytes. Here, we describe techniques we have developed to gradually reduce RRFs in mouse oocytes by injecting somatic cell nuclei into oocytes. These injected nuclei were remodeled and reprogrammed using RRFs, and then RRFs were removed by subsequent deletion of somatic nuclei from oocytes. The size of the metaphase II spindle reduced immediately, but did recover when transferred into fresh oocytes. Though affected, the full-term developmental potential of these RRF-reduced oocytes with MII-spindle shrinkage was not lost after fertilization. When somatic cell nuclear transfer was performed, the successful generation of cloned mice was somewhat improved and abnormalities were reduced when oocytes with slightly reduced RRF levels were used. These results suggest that a change in RRFs in oocytes, as achieved by the method described in this paper or by enucleation, is important but not the main reason for the incomplete reprogramming of somatic cell nuclei.

Effects of pyruvate and dimethyl-α-ketoglutarate, either alone or in combination, on pre- and post-implantation development of mouse zygotes cultured in vitro

PURPOSE

Dimethyl α-ketoglutarate (dm-α-KG) promotes in vitro development to blastocysts of C57BL/6J X C3He F1 mouse zygotes cultured in medium lacking pyruvate. Here, we examined the effects of pyruvate and dm-α-KG on in vitro development to blastocysts of ICR mouse zygotes and their post-implantation developmental ability.

METHODS

Zygotes were cultured in medium with pyruvate at 0-0.2 mmol/L in the presence or absence of 1 mmol/L dm-α-KG for 96 hours and evaluated for blastocyst formation rates. The resultant blastocysts were non-surgically transferred to surrogates and evaluated for birth rates.

RESULTS

In medium lacking pyruvate, zygotes could not develop beyond the two-cell stage, in the presence or absence of dm-α-KG. However, the blastocyst formation rate in medium with 0.01 mmol/L pyruvate (12%) was markedly increased with addition of dm-α-KG (49%). Around 80% of embryos developed to blastocysts in medium with 0.2 mmol/L pyruvate, in the presence or absence of dm-α-KG. Importantly, birth rate was markedly improved by treatment with 0.2 mmol/L pyruvate and dm-αKG (31.0%), compared with those with pyruvate treatment alone (16.3%).

CONCLUSIONS

Pyruvate and dm-α-KG synergistically work during in vitro culture to markedly improve the blastocyst formation rate and post-implantation developmental ability of the resultant blastocysts in ICR mice.

Phenotypes of Aging Postovulatory Oocytes After Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer in Mice

Oocytes rapidly lose their developmental potential after ovulation, termed postovulatory oocyte aging, and often exhibit characteristic phenotypes, such as cytofragmentation, abnormal spindle shapes, and chromosome misalignments. Here, we reconstructed mouse oocytes using somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) to reveal the effect of somatic cell-derived nuclei on oocyte physiology during aging. Normal oocytes started undergoing cytofragmentation 24 hours after oocyte collection; however, this occurred earlier in SCNT oocytes and was more severe at 48 hours, suggesting that the transferred somatic cell nuclei affected oocyte physiology. We found no difference in the status of acetylated α-tubulin (Ac-Tub) and α-tubulin (Tub) between normal and SCNT aging oocytes, but unlike normal oocytes, aging SCNT oocytes did not have astral microtubules. Interestingly, aging SCNT oocytes displayed more severely scattered chromosomes or irregularly shaped spindles. Observations of the microfilaments showed that, in normal oocytes, there was a clear actin ring beneath the plasma membrane and condensed microfilaments around the spindle (the actin cap) at 0 hours, and the actin filaments started degenerating at 1 hour, becoming completely disrupted and distributed to the cytoplasm at 24 hours. By contrast, in SCNT oocytes, an actin cap formed around the transplanted nuclei within 1 hour of SCNT, which was still present at 24 hours. Thus, SCNT oocytes age in a similar but distinct way, suggesting that they not only contain nuclei with abnormal epigenetics but are also physiologically different.

Abnormal gene expression in regular and aggregated somatic cell nuclear transfer placentas

Background

Placental defects in somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) are a major cause of complications during pregnancy. One of the most critical factors for the success of SCNT is the successful epigenetic reprogramming of donor cells. Recently, it was reported that the placental weight in mice cloned with the aggregated SCNT method was significantly reduced. Here, we examine the profile of abnormal gene expression using microarray technology in both regular SCNT and aggregated SCNT placentas as well as in vivo fertilization placentas. One SCNT embryo was aggregated with two 2 to 4 -cell stage tetraploid embryos from B6D2F1 mice (C57BL/6 × DBA/2).

Results

In SCNT placentas, 206 (1.6%) of the 12,816 genes probed were either up-regulated or down-regulated by more than two-fold. However, 52 genes (0.4%) showed differential expression in aggregated SCNT placentas compared to that in controls. In comparison of both types of SCNT placentas with the controls, 33 (92%) out of 36 genes were found to be up-regulated (>2-fold) in SCNT placentas. Among 36 genes, 13 (36%) genes were up-regulated in the aggregated SCNT placentas. Eighty-five genes were down-regulated in SCNT placentas compared with the controls. However, only 9 (about 10.5%) genes were down-regulated in the aggregated SCNT placentas. Of the 34 genes known as imprinted genes, expression was lower in SCNT placentas than that in the controls. Thus, these genes may be the cause of placentomegaly in mice produced post SCNT.

Conclusions

These results suggest that placentomegaly in the SCNT placentas was probably caused by abnormal expression of multiple genes. Taken together, these results suggest that abnormal gene expression in cloned placentas was reduced in a genome-wide manner using the aggregation method with tetraploid embryos.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12896-017-0355-4) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Effect of Long-Term Exposure of Donor Nuclei to the Oocyte Cytoplasm on Production of Cloned Mice Using Serial Nuclear Transfer

Although animal cloning is becoming increasingly practicable, cloned embryos possess many abnormalities and so there has been a low success rate for producing live animals. This is most likely due to incomplete reprogramming of somatic cell nuclei before they start to develop as the donor nuclei are usually only exposed to the oocyte cytoplasm for 1-2 hours before reconstructed oocytes are activated to avoid oocyte aging. Therefore, in this study, we attempted to extend the exposure period of somatic cell nuclei to the oocyte cytoplasm to determine whether this could enhance reprogramming of donor nuclei. Donor nuclei were transferred into oocytes, following which pseudo-MII spindles (pMIIs) derived from these were extracted and injected into newly collected enucleated oocytes 24 hours after the first nuclear transfer (NT). These serial NT oocytes were then activated and their developmental potential was examined to full term. There was no obvious difference in the pMIIs of reconstructed oocytes at 6 and 24 hours after donor nucleus injection; however, in both of these, the chromosomes were more widely spread inside the spindle than in fresh intact oocytes. Furthermore, a few chromosomes remained in 25% and 47% of these enucleated oocytes at 6 and 24 hours after donor nucleus injection, respectively. When these pMIIs were injected into fresh enucleated oocytes, the developmental rate to blastocyst was significantly lower, but we could still obtain several healthy cloned offspring. Thus, serial NT at intervals of 24 hours using fresh oocytes is possible, but the success rate could not be improved due to loss of chromosomes during the second NT.

Transgenic chicken, mice, cattle, and pig embryos by somatic cell nuclear transfer into pig oocytes

This study explored the possibility of producing transgenic cloned embryos by interspecies somatic cell nuclear transfer (iSCNT) of cattle, mice, and chicken donor cells into enucleated pig oocytes. Enhanced green florescent protein (EGFP)-expressing donor cells were used for the nuclear transfer. Results showed that the occurrence of first cleavage did not differ significantly when pig, cattle, mice, or chicken cells were used as donor nuclei (p>0.05). However, the rate of blastocyst formation was significantly higher in pig (14.9±2.1%; p<0.05) SCNT embryos than in cattle (6.3±2.5%), mice (4.2±1.4%), or chicken (5.1±2.4%) iSCNT embryos. The iSCNT embryos also contained a significantly less number of cells per blastocyst than those of SCNT pig embryos (p<0.05). All (100%) iSCNT embryos expressed the EGFP gene, as evidenced by the green florescence under ultraviolet (UV) illumination. Microinjection of purified mitochondria from cattle somatic cells into pig oocytes did not have any adverse effect on their postfertilization in vitro development and embryo quality (p>0.05). Moreover, NCSU23 medium, which was designed for in vitro culture of pig embryos, was able to support the in vitro development of cattle, mice, and chicken iSCNT embryos up to the blastocyst stage. Taken together, these data suggest that enucleated pig oocytes may be used as a universal cytoplast for production of transgenic cattle, mice, and chicken embryos by iSCNT. Furthermore, xenogenic transfer of mitochondria to the recipient cytoplast may not be the cause for poor embryonic development of cattle-pig iSCNT embryos.

Nuclear reprogramming of sperm and somatic nuclei in eggs and oocytes

Eggs and oocytes have a prominent ability to reprogram sperm nuclei for ensuring embryonic development. The reprogramming activity that eggs/oocytes intrinsically have towards sperm is utilised to reprogram somatic nuclei injected into eggs/oocytes in nuclear transfer (NT) embryos. NT embryos of various species can give rise to cloned animals, demonstrating that eggs/oocytes can confer totipotency even to somatic nuclei. However, many studies indicate that reprogramming of somatic nuclei is not as efficient as that of sperm nuclei. In this review, we explain how and why sperm and somatic nuclei are differentially reprogrammed in eggs/oocytes. Recent studies have shown that sperm chromatin is epigenetically modified to be adequate for early embryonic development, while somatic nuclei do not have such modifications. Moreover, epigenetic memories encoded in sperm chromatin are transgenerationally inherited, implying unique roles of sperm. We also discuss whether somatic nuclei can be artificially modified to acquire sperm-like chromatin states in order to increase the efficiency of nuclear reprogramming.

Alteration of fatty acid metabolism in the liver, adipose tissue, and testis of male mice conceived through assisted reproductive technologies: fatty acid metabolism in ART mice

BACKGROUND

Lipid metabolism plays important roles in the whole process of pregnancy. Previous studies have demonstrated abnormalities of lipid metabolism in the placentas of pregnancies obtained by assisted reproductive technology (ART). Therefore, we hypothesized that ART micromanipulation may affect lipid metabolism in offspring, and focused on the fatty acid metabolism in ART male offspring in this study.

METHODS

The fatty acid metabolism in the liver, adipose tissue and testis was detected. The comparison between naturally conceived (NC), controlled ovarian hyperstimulation (COH), in vitro fertilization (IVF) and intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) mice was made to analyze the effect of ART on offspring. The mice models in this study included two age groups: adult group and old group. The fatty acid composition and the expression of lipid metabolism-related genes were analyzed by GC-MS and qRT-PCR.

RESULTS

The fatty acid composition in the liver and adipose tissue were significantly altered in ART mice, but no significant difference was found in the testis. In adipose tissue, ART mice showed decreased monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs) and increased polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) in both adult and old mice, while the alteration of saturated fatty acids (SFAs) in the adult disappeared in the old. In liver, the changes were much complex in adult mice, while increased MUFAs and decreased PUFAs were found in ART old mice. The activities of fatty acid metabolism-related enzymes and the expression of lipogenic and lipolytic proteins changed in ART groups, with the adult mice and old mice showing inconsistent alterations. Further analysis indicated that SFAs was closely associated with the alterations of fatty acid metabolism-related enzyme activities and the expression of lipogenic and lipolytic proteins. Furthermore, we also found that the effect of separated ART treatments on fatty acid metabolism varied with different ages and tissues.

CONCLUSIONS

ART treatments had effect on the fatty acid composition in adipose tissue and liver of male mice. The alteration of SFAs content was crucial for the regulation of fatty acid composition. These changes might have potential effects on the health of ART male offspring which need further investigation.

Comparison of three differential mouse blastocyst staining methods

Among the different techniques available to evaluate blastocyst quality, the most frequently used are those that allow the counting of the number of cells of the two distinct cell lineages present at this stage (trophectoderm or TE and inner cell mass or ICM), through differential staining. The goal of this study was to compare three different methods for the differential staining of mouse blastocysts: a TE selective labelling method using a lectin, a TE permeabilization method based on the use of a detergent, and immunodetection of TE and ICM specific markers. Mouse blastocysts produced by parthenogenetic activation were used to determine and compare the efficiency and the cell counts of each method. The results showed that the TE permeabilization and immunodetection methods were superior, providing equivalent TE, ICM, and total cell counts.

Placental inflammation and oxidative stress in the mouse model of assisted reproduction

Higher rates of low birth weight and prematurity are observed in pregnancies generated with assisted reproduction technologies (ART). Both conditions have been associated with placental inflammation and oxidative stress. Since placental and fetal levels of progesterone, a major anti-inflammatory steroid, are decreased in murine ART, we investigated placental inflammation and oxidative stress in this model as potential mediators of negative birth outcomes. After generating mouse pregnancies by in vitro fertilization (IVF) and intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) we evaluated the antioxidant defense network and major inflammatory cytokines in maternal, placental and fetal tissues. Additionally, placentas were analyzed for total lipid levels, fibrosis, apoptosis, reactive oxygen species and integrity of intracellular nucleotides. Placentas from ART contained significantly less lipids, with greater levels of apoptosis and degraded nucleotides. Placentas from ICSI pregnancies had lower activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD), thioredoxin reductase (TrxR), xanthine oxidase (XO), catalase, glutathione-S-transferase (GST) glutathione peroxidase, and glutathione reductase (GR). Furthermore, GR, GST and SOD were also lower in fetal livers from ICSI pregnancies. Placentas from IVF pregnancies had decreased levels of SOD, TrxR and XO only. In placentas from both ICSI and IVF pregnancies IL-6 levels were significantly increased. These data suggest that ART is associated with placental inflammation (IL-6), oxidative stress and apoptosis but not fibrosis or remodeling. These effects are markedly greater with the ICSI technique. Since ICSI is ubiquitous, oxidative stress and placental inflammation associated with this method may be a critical factor in negative birth outcomes such as prematurity and low birth weight.

Nuclear-cytoplasmic incompatibility and inefficient development of pig-mouse cytoplasmic hybrid embryos

Inter-species somatic cell nuclear transfer (iSCNT) embryos usually fail to develop to the blastocyst stage and beyond due to incomplete reprogramming of donor cell. We evaluated whether using a karyoplast that would require less extensive reprogramming such as an embryonic blastomere or the meiotic spindle from metaphase II oocytes would provide additional insight into the development of iSCNT embryos. Our results showed that karyoplasts of embryonic or oocyte origin are no different from somatic cells; all iSCNT embryos, irrespective of karyoplast origin, were arrested during early development. We hypothesized that nuclear-cytoplasmic incompatibility could be another reason for failure of embryonic development from iSCNT. We used pig-mouse cytoplasmic hybrids as a model to address nuclear-cytoplasmic incompatibility in iSCNT embryos. Fertilized murine zygotes were reconstructed by fusing with porcine cytoplasts of varying cytoplasmic volumes (1/10 (small) and 1/5 (large) total volume of mouse zygote). The presence of pig cytoplasm significantly reduced the development of mouse zygotes to the blastocyst stage compared with control embryos at 120 h post-human chorionic gondotropin (41 vs 6 vs 94%, P<0.05; 1/10, 1/5, control respectively). While mitochondrial DNA copy numbers remained relatively unchanged, expression of several important genes namely Tfam, Polg, Polg2, Mfn2, Slc2a3 (Glut3), Slc2a1 (Glut1), Bcl2, Hspb1, Pou5f1 (Oct4), Nanog, Cdx2, Gata3, Tcfap2c, mt-Cox1 and mt-Cox2 was significantly reduced in cytoplasmic hybrids compared with control embryos. These results demonstrate that the presence of even a small amount of porcine cytoplasm is detrimental to murine embryo development and suggest that a range of factors are likely to contribute to the failure of inter-species nuclear transfer embryos.

Chromosome remodeling and differentiation of tetraploid embryos during preimplantation development

Although it is known that the tetraploid embryo contributes only to the placenta, the question of why tetraploid embryos differentiate into placenta remains unclear. To study the effect of electrofusion on the development of mouse tetraploid oocytes, mouse two-cell embryos were fused and cultured in vitro in Chatot-Ziomek-Bavister medium. After electrofusion, two chromosome sets from the tetraploid blastomere were individually duplicated before nuclear fusion. At 8-10 hr after electrofusion, each chromosome set was condensing and the nuclear membrane was breaking down. Around 12-14 hr after electrofusion, the two chromosome sets had combined together and had reached the second mitotic metaphase, at this point with 8n sets of chromosomes. Interestingly, we discovered that expression of OCT4, an inner cell mass cells biomarker, is lost by the tetraploid expanded blastocysts, but that CDX2, a trophectoderm cells biomarker, is strongly expressed at this stage. This observation provides evidence clarifying why tetraploid embryos contribute only to trophectoderm.

Assisted reproduction technologies impair placental steroid metabolism

The placenta plays a vital role in pregnancy by facilitating steroid passage from maternal to fetal circulation and/or direct production of hormones. Using a murine model, we demonstrated the differences in placental steroid metabolism between pregnancies conceived naturally and with assisted reproduction technologies (ART): in vitro fertilization (IVF) and intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI). While the ovarian steroid production was similar (estrone, 17beta-estradiol) or higher (estriol) in ART pregnancies compared to mating, the levels of placental estriol were significantly lower in ART group. Placentas from ART had significantly higher activities of the steroid metabolizing enzymes UDP-glucuronosyltransferase (UGT) and sulfotransferase (SULT), which in ICSI were also coupled with decreased activity of the steroid regenerating enzymes beta-glucuronidase (beta-G) and aryl sulfatase (AS). Levels of steroid metabolites androstane-3alpha-17beta-diol glucuronide and dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate were higher in fetal compared to maternal blood in ART, but not in mating. This study demonstrates that in murine ART pregnancies, higher metabolism and clearance of steroids by the placenta may seriously affect the passage of essential hormones to the fetus. If a similar phenomenon exists in humans, this could provide a plausible explanation for obstetric and neonatal complications associated with ART, including the higher incidence of low birth weight babies.

The histone deacetylase inhibitor scriptaid enhances nascent mRNA production and rescues full-term development in cloned inbred mice

Since the birth of Cumulina, the first mouse clone produced by somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT), the success rate of cloning in mice has been extremely low compared with other species and most of the inbred mouse strains have never been cloned. Recently, our laboratory has found that treatment of SCNT mouse embryos with trichostatin A, a histone deacetylase inhibitor (HDACi), improved the full-term development of B6D2F1 mouse clones significantly. However, this was not effective for the inbred strains. Here, we show for the first time that by treating SCNT embryos with another HDACi, scriptaid, all the important inbred mouse strains can be cloned, such as C57BL/6, C3H/He, DBA/2, and 129/Sv. Moreover, the success of somatic nuclear reprogramming and cloning efficiency via nuclear transfer technique is clearly linked to the competent de novo synthesis of nascent mRNA in cloned mouse embryos.

Embryonic rather than extraembryonic tissues have more impact on the development of placental hyperplasia in cloned mice

Somatic cell cloning by nuclear transfer (NT) in mice is associated with hyperplastic placentas at term. To dissect the effects of embryonic and extraembryonic tissues on this clone-associated phenotype, we constructed diploid (2n) fused with (<-->) tetraploid (4n) chimeras from NT- and fertilization-derived (FD) embryos. Generally, the 4n cells contributed efficiently to all the extraembryonic tissues but not to the embryo itself. Embryos constructed by 2n NT<-->4n FD aggregation developed hyperplastic placentas (0.33+/-0.22 g) with a predominant contribution by NT-derived cells. Even when the population of FD-derived cells in placentas was increased using multiple FD embryos (up to four) for aggregation, most placentas remained hyperplastic (0.36+/-0.13 g). By contrast, placentas of the reciprocal combination, 2n FD<-->4n NT, were less hyperplastic (0.15+/-0.02 g). These nearly normal-looking placentas had a large proportion of NT-derived cells. Thus, embryonic rather than extraembryonic tissues had more impact on the onset of placental hyperplasia, and that the abnormal placentation in clones occurs in a noncell-autonomous manner. These findings suggest that for improvement of cloning efficiency we should understand the mechanisms regulating placentation, especially those of embryonic origin that might control the proliferation of trophoblastic lineage cells.

The cytoplasm of mouse germinal vesicle stage oocytes can enhance somatic cell nuclear reprogramming

In mammalian cloning, evidence suggests that genomic reprogramming factors are located in the nucleus rather than the cytoplasm of oocytes or zygotes. However, little is known about the mechanisms of reprogramming, and new methods using nuclear factors have not succeeded in producing cloned mice from differentiated somatic cell nuclei. We aimed to determine whether there are functional reprogramming factors present in the cytoplasm of germinal vesicle stage (GV) oocytes. We found that the GV oocyte cytoplasm could remodel somatic cell nuclei, completely demethylate histone H3 at lysine 9 and partially deacetylate histone H3 at lysines 9 and 14. Moreover, cytoplasmic lysates of GV oocytes promoted somatic cell reprogramming and cloned embryo development, when assessed by measuring histone H3-K9 hypomethylation, Oct4 and Cdx2 expression in blastocysts, and the production of cloned offspring. Thus, genomic reprogramming factors are present in the cytoplasm of the GV oocyte and could facilitate cloning technology. This finding is also useful for research on the mechanisms involved in histone deacetylation and demethylation, even though histone methylation is thought to be epigenetically stable.

Ultrastructure of placental hyperplasia in mice: comparison of placental phenotypes with three different etiologies

Hyperplastic placentas have been reported in several experimental mouse models, including animals produced by somatic cell nuclear transfer, by inter(sub)species hybridization, and by somatic cytoplasm introduction to oocytes followed by intracytoplasmic sperm injection. Of great interest are the gross and histological features common to these placental phenotypes--despite their quite different etiologies--such as the enlargement of the spongiotrophoblast layers. To find morphological clues to the pathways leading to these similar placental phenotypes, we analyzed the ultrastructure of the three different types of hyperplastic placenta. Most cells affected were of trophoblast origin and their subcellular ultrastructural lesions were common to the three groups, e.g., a heavy accumulation of cytoplasmic vacuoles in the trophoblastic cells composing the labyrinthine wall and an increased volume of spongiotrophoblastic cells with extraordinarily dilatated rough endoplasmic reticulum. Although the numbers of trophoblastic glycogen cells were greatly increased, they maintained their normal ultrastructural morphology, including a heavy glycogen deposition throughout the cytoplasm. The fetal endothelium and small vessels were nearly intact. Our ultrastructural study suggests that these three types of placental hyperplasias, with different etiologies, may have common pathological pathways, which probably exclusively affect the development of certain cell types of the trophoblastic lineage during mouse placentation.

Piezo-assisted nuclear transfer affects cloning efficiency and may cause apoptosis

Even though it generates healthy adults, nuclear transfer in mammals remains an inefficient process. Mainly attributed to abnormal reprograming of the donor chromatin, this inefficiency may also be caused at least partly by a specific effect of the cloning technique which has not yet been well investigated. There are two main procedures for transferring nuclei into enucleated oocytes: fusion and piezoelectric microinjection, the latter being used mostly in mice. We have, therefore, decided to compare the quality and the developmental ability, both in vivo and in vitro, of embryos reconstructed with electrofusion or piezoelectric injection. In addition, the effect of piezo setups of differing electric strengths was investigated. Along with the record of the rate of development, we compared the nuclear integrity in the blastomeres during the first cleavages as well as the morphological and cellular quality of the blastocysts. Our results show that the piezo-assisted micromanipulation can induce DNA damage in the reconstructed embryos, apoptosis, and reduced cell numbers in blastocysts as well as a lower rate of development to term. Even if piezo-driven injection facilitates a faster and more efficient rate of reconstruction, it should be used with precaution and with as low parameters as possible.

Aging of recipient oocytes reduces the development of cloned embryos receiving cumulus cells

Parthenogenetic activation is an important factor in successful production of cloned mammals. Because it has been reported that aged oocytes are more sensitive to parthenogenetic activation than young oocytes, the present study examined the effects of oocyte aging on the in vitro and in vivo developmental potential of nuclear-transferred (NT) mouse oocytes receiving cumulus cells. The potentials of young NT oocytes (14 h after human chorionic gonadotrophin [hCG] injection) to develop into blastocysts was, however, significantly higher than that of aged oocytes (20 h after hCG injection; 16% vs 6%). When the nuclei of NT oocytes at the 2-cell stage were fused with enucleated fertilized 2-cell embryos, the potentials of the serial NT embryos to develop into blastocysts were no different for both young and aged oocytes (74% vs 74%). Live young, however, were obtained only after transfer of serial NT blastocysts developed from young NT oocytes (2%). In contrast to a report using embryonic nuclei as the nuclear donors, the results of the present study indicate that young oocytes are superior to aged oocytes as a source of recipient cytoplasm for mouse somatic cell cloning.

Production of Cloned Mice and ES Cells from Adult Somatic Cells by Nuclear Transfer: How to Improve Cloning Efficiency?

Although it has now been 10 years since the first cloned mammals were generated from somatic cells using nuclear transfer (NT), most cloned embryos usually undergo developmental arrest prior to or soon after implantation, and the success rate for producing live offspring by cloning remains below 5%. The low success rate is believed to be associated with epigenetic errors, including abnormal DNA hypermethylation, but the mechanism of "reprogramming" is unclear. We have been able to develop a stable NT method in the mouse in which donor nuclei are directly injected into the oocyte using a piezo-actuated micromanipulator. Especially in the mouse, only a few laboratories can make clones from adult somatic cells, and cloned mice are never successfully produced from most mouse strains. However, this technique promises to be an important tool for future research in basic biology. For example, NT can be used to generate embryonic stem (NT-ES) cell lines from a patient's own somatic cells. We have shown that NT-ES cells are equivalent to ES cells derived from fertilized embryos and that they can be generated relatively easily from a variety of mouse genotypes and cell types of both sexes, even though it may be more difficult to generate clones directly. In general, NT-ES cell techniques are expected to be applied to regenerative medicine; however, this technique can also be applied to the preservation of genetic resources of mouse strain instead of embryos, oocytes and spermatozoa. This review describes how to improve cloning efficiency and NT-ES cell establishment and further applications.