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Giosa L, Zadek F, Busana M, De Simone G, Brusatori S, Krbec M, Duska F, Brambilla P, Zanella A, Di Masi A, Caironi P, Perez E, Gattinoni L, Langer T. Quantifying pH-induced changes in plasma strong ion difference during experimental acidosis: clinical implications for base excess interpretation. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2024; 136:966-976. [PMID: 38420681 DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00917.2023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2023] [Revised: 02/20/2024] [Accepted: 02/23/2024] [Indexed: 03/02/2024] Open
Abstract
It is commonly assumed that changes in plasma strong ion difference (SID) result in equal changes in whole blood base excess (BE). However, at varying pH, albumin ionic-binding and transerythrocyte shifts alter the SID of plasma without affecting that of whole blood (SIDwb), i.e., the BE. We hypothesize that, during acidosis, 1) an expected plasma SID (SIDexp) reflecting electrolytes redistribution can be predicted from albumin and hemoglobin's charges, and 2) only deviations in SID from SIDexp reflect changes in SIDwb, and therefore, BE. We equilibrated whole blood of 18 healthy subjects (albumin = 4.8 ± 0.2 g/dL, hemoglobin = 14.2 ± 0.9 g/dL), 18 septic patients with hypoalbuminemia and anemia (albumin = 3.1 ± 0.5 g/dL, hemoglobin = 10.4 ± 0.8 g/dL), and 10 healthy subjects after in vitro-induced isolated anemia (albumin = 5.0 ± 0.2 g/dL, hemoglobin = 7.0 ± 0.9 g/dL) with varying CO2 concentrations (2-20%). Plasma SID increased by 12.7 ± 2.1, 9.3 ± 1.7, and 7.8 ± 1.6 mEq/L, respectively (P < 0.01) and its agreement (bias[limits of agreement]) with SIDexp was strong: 0.5[-1.9; 2.8], 0.9[-0.9; 2.6], and 0.3[-1.4; 2.1] mEq/L, respectively. Separately, we added 7.5 or 15 mEq/L of lactic or hydrochloric acid to whole blood of 10 healthy subjects obtaining BE of -6.6 ± 1.7, -13.4 ± 2.2, -6.8 ± 1.8, and -13.6 ± 2.1 mEq/L, respectively. The agreement between ΔBE and ΔSID was weak (2.6[-1.1; 6.3] mEq/L), worsening with varying CO2 (2-20%): 6.3[-2.7; 15.2] mEq/L. Conversely, ΔSIDwb (the deviation of SID from SIDexp) agreed strongly with ΔBE at both constant and varying CO2: -0.1[-2.0; 1.7], and -0.5[-2.4; 1.5] mEq/L, respectively. We conclude that BE reflects only changes in plasma SID that are not expected from electrolytes redistribution, the latter being predictable from albumin and hemoglobin's charges.NEW & NOTEWORTHY This paper challenges the assumed equivalence between changes in plasma strong ion difference (SID) and whole blood base excess (BE) during in vitro acidosis. We highlight that redistribution of strong ions, in the form of albumin ionic-binding and transerythrocyte shifts, alters SID without affecting BE. We demonstrate that these expected SID alterations are predictable from albumin and hemoglobin's charges, or from the noncarbonic whole blood buffer value, allowing a better interpretation of SID and BE during in vitro acidosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lorenzo Giosa
- Department of Critical Care Medicine, Guy's and St. Thomas' National Health Service Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom
- Centre for Human and Applied Physiological Sciences, King's College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Francesco Zadek
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Milano-Bicocca, Monza, Italy
| | - Mattia Busana
- Department of Anesthesiology, University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | | | - Serena Brusatori
- Department of pathophysiology and Transplantation, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
| | - Martin Krbec
- Department of Anesthesia and Intensive Care Medicine, The Third Faculty of Medicine, Charles University and FNKV University Hospital, Prague, Czechia
| | - Frantisek Duska
- Department of Anesthesia and Intensive Care Medicine, The Third Faculty of Medicine, Charles University and FNKV University Hospital, Prague, Czechia
| | - Paolo Brambilla
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Milano-Bicocca, Monza, Italy
| | - Alberto Zanella
- Department of pathophysiology and Transplantation, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
| | | | - Pietro Caironi
- Department of Anesthesia and Critical Care, AOU S. Luigi Gonzaga, Turin, Italy
- Department of Oncology, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - Emanuele Perez
- Department of biomedical and neuromotor sciences, Headquarter of Human physiology, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Luciano Gattinoni
- Department of Anesthesiology, University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Thomas Langer
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Milano-Bicocca, Monza, Italy
- Department of Anesthesia and Intensive Care Medicine, Niguarda Ca' Granda, Milan, Italy
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Story DA. Respiratory Changes and Acid-Base Compensation: Watch the Salt. Anesthesiology 2024; 140:1-3. [PMID: 38085159 DOI: 10.1097/aln.0000000000004762] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- David A Story
- Department of Critical Care; Melbourne Medical School, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
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Zadek F, Danieli A, Brusatori S, Giosa L, Krbec M, Antolini L, Fumagalli R, Langer T. Combining the Physical-Chemical Approach with Standard Base Excess to Understand the Compensation of Respiratory Acid-Base Derangements: An Individual Participant Meta-analysis Approach to Data from Multiple Canine and Human Experiments. Anesthesiology 2024; 140:116-125. [PMID: 37616330 DOI: 10.1097/aln.0000000000004751] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/26/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Several studies explored the interdependence between Paco2 and bicarbonate during respiratory acid-base derangements. The authors aimed to reframe the bicarbonate adaptation to respiratory disorders according to the physical-chemical approach, hypothesizing that (1) bicarbonate concentration during respiratory derangements is associated with strong ion difference; and (2) during acute respiratory disorders, strong ion difference changes are not associated with standard base excess. METHODS This is an individual participant data meta-analysis from multiple canine and human experiments published up to April 29, 2021. Studies testing the effect of acute or chronic respiratory derangements and reporting the variations of Paco2, bicarbonate, and electrolytes were analyzed. Strong ion difference and standard base excess were calculated. RESULTS Eleven studies were included. Paco2 ranged between 21 and 142 mmHg, while bicarbonate and strong ion difference ranged between 12.3 and 43.8 mM, and 32.6 and 60.0 mEq/l, respectively. Bicarbonate changes were linearly associated with the strong ion difference variation in acute and chronic respiratory derangement (β-coefficient, 1.2; 95% CI, 1.2 to 1.3; P < 0.001). In the acute setting, sodium variations justified approximately 80% of strong ion difference change, while a similar percentage of chloride variation was responsible for chronic adaptations. In the acute setting, strong ion difference variation was not associated with standard base excess changes (β-coefficient, -0.02; 95% CI, -0.11 to 0.07; P = 0.719), while a positive linear association was present in chronic studies (β-coefficient, 1.04; 95% CI, 0.84 to 1.24; P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS The bicarbonate adaptation that follows primary respiratory alterations is associated with variations of strong ion difference. In the acute phase, the variation in strong ion difference is mainly due to sodium variations and is not paralleled by modifications of standard base excess. In the chronic setting, strong ion difference changes are due to chloride variations and are mirrored by standard base excess. EDITOR’S PERSPECTIVE
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesco Zadek
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Milan-Bicocca, Monza, Italy
| | - Andrea Danieli
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Milan-Bicocca, Monza, Italy
| | - Serena Brusatori
- Department of Pathophysiology and Transplantation, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
| | - Lorenzo Giosa
- Department of Surgical Sciences, University of Turin, Turin, Italy; Centre for Human and Applied Physiological Sciences, King's College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Martin Krbec
- Department of Pathophysiology and Transplantation, University of Milan, Milan, Italy; Department of Anaesthesia and Intensive Care Medicine, Third Faculty of Medicine, Charles University and Královské Vinohrady University Hospital, Prague, Czechia
| | - Laura Antolini
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Milan-Bicocca, Monza, Italy
| | - Roberto Fumagalli
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Milan-Bicocca, Monza, Italy; Department of Anesthesia and Intensive Care Medicine, Niguarda Ca' Granda, Milan, Italy
| | - Thomas Langer
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Milan-Bicocca, Monza, Italy; Department of Anesthesia and Intensive Care Medicine, Niguarda Ca' Granda, Milan, Italy
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Todi S. Arterial Blood Gas Analysis: A New Look at the Old Formula. Indian J Crit Care Med 2023; 27:699-700. [PMID: 37908420 PMCID: PMC10613875 DOI: 10.5005/jp-journals-10071-24558] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2023] Open
Abstract
How to cite this article: Todi S. Arterial Blood Gas Analysis: A New Look at the Old Formula. Indian J Crit Care Med 2023;27(10):699-700.
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Affiliation(s)
- Subhash Todi
- Department of Critical Care, AMRI Hospitals, Kolkata, West Bengal, India
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[Acid-base balance and Stewart concept : Guide to routine daily use]. Anaesthesist 2021; 71:150-158. [PMID: 34269868 DOI: 10.1007/s00101-021-01008-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/17/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
In 1981 the Canadian Peter Stewart presented a new concept for the interpretation of the acid-base balance. Rehm et al. published the first German language article on this topic. In 2007 the works of Deetjen and Lichtwarck-Aschoff as well as Funk presented both the physiological and clinical foundations of the Stewart concept as well as algorithms to interpret the acid-base status more precisely. Furthermore, since 2004 many other publications on the Stewart concept have been published, which have sometimes been controversially discussed and has not yet found its way into the everyday interpretation of blood gas analysis. This gap is intended to be filled by this work. It introduces a simple, practical algorithm and provides an approach to understanding the acid-base balance and the Stewart concept, which assumes that the plasma ions determine the pH value and the base excess (BE) in the plasma.
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Kilic O, Gultekin Y, Yazici S. The Impact of Intravenous Fluid Therapy on Acid-Base Status of Critically Ill Adults: A Stewart Approach-Based Perspective. Int J Nephrol Renovasc Dis 2020; 13:219-230. [PMID: 33061531 PMCID: PMC7534048 DOI: 10.2147/ijnrd.s266864] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2020] [Accepted: 08/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
One of the most important tasks of physicians working in intensive care units (ICUs) is to arrange intravenous fluid therapy. The primary indications of the need for intravenous fluid therapy in ICUs are in cases of resuscitation, maintenance, or replacement, but we also load intravenous fluid for purposes such as fluid creep (including drug dilution and keeping venous lines patent) as well as nutrition. However, in doing so, some facts are ignored or overlooked, resulting in an acid-base disturbance. Regardless of the type and content of the fluid entering the body through an intravenous route, it may impair the acid-base balance depending on the rate, volume, and duration of the administration. The mechanism involved in acid-base disturbances induced by intravenous fluid therapy is easier to understand with the help of the physical-chemical approach proposed by Canadian physiologist, Peter Stewart. It is possible to establish a quantitative link between fluid therapy and acid–base disturbance using the Stewart principles. However, it is not possible to accomplish this with the traditional approach; moreover, it may not be noticed sometimes due to the normalization of pH or standard base excess induced by compensatory mechanisms. The clinical significance of fluid-induced acid-base disturbances has not been completely clarified yet. Nevertheless, as fluid therapy may be the cause of unexplained acid-base disorders that may lead to confusion and elicit unnecessary investigation, more attention must be paid to understand this issue. Therefore, the aim of this paper is to address the effects of different types of fluid therapies on acid-base balance using the simplified perspective of Stewart principles. Overall, the paper intends to help recognize fluid-induced acid-base disturbance through bedside evaluation and choose an appropriate fluid by considering the acid-base status of a patient.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ozgur Kilic
- Siyami Ersek Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery Center, Cardiology Department, Cardiac Intensive Care Unit, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Yucel Gultekin
- Mersin University Hospital, General Surgery Department, Mersin, Turkey
| | - Selcuk Yazici
- Siyami Ersek Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery Center, Cardiology Department, Cardiac Intensive Care Unit, Istanbul, Turkey
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Mendez Y, Ochoa-Martinez FE, Ambrosii T. Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease and Respiratory Acidosis in the Intensive Care Unit. CURRENT RESPIRATORY MEDICINE REVIEWS 2019. [DOI: 10.2174/1573398x15666181127141410] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Chronic obstructive lung disease is a common and preventable disease. One of its
pathophysiological consequences is the presence of carbon dioxide retention due to hypoventilation
and ventilation/perfusion mismatch, which in consequence will cause a decrease in the acid/base
status of the patient. Whenever a patient develops an acute exacerbation, acute respiratory
hypercapnic failure will appear and the necessity of a hospital ward is a must. However, current
guidelines exist to better identify these patients and make an accurate diagnosis by using clinical
skills and laboratory data such as arterial blood gases. Once the patient is identified, rapid treatment
will help to diminish the hospital length and the avoidance of intensive care unit. On the other hand,
if there is the existence of comorbidities such as cardiac failure, gastroesophageal reflux disease,
pulmonary embolism or depression, it is likely that the patient will be admitted to the intensive care
unit with the requirement of intubation and mechanical ventilation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yamely Mendez
- Faculty of Medicine “Dr. Alberto Romo Caballero”, Universidad Autonoma de Tamaulipas, Tampico, Mexico
| | - Francisco E. Ochoa-Martinez
- Faculty of Medicine, Universidad Autonoma de Nuevo Leon, University Hospital “Dr. Jose Eleuterio Gonzalez”, Monterrey, Mexico
| | - Tatiana Ambrosii
- Chair of Anesthesiology and Reanimatology “Valeriu Ghereg”, State University of Medicine and Pharmacy “Nicolae Testemitanu”, Chisinau, Moldova, Republic of
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Morgan TJ. Reducing complexity in acid-base diagnosis - how far should we go? J Clin Monit Comput 2019; 34:17-20. [PMID: 31079292 DOI: 10.1007/s10877-019-00319-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2019] [Accepted: 05/02/2019] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE To place in context the potential value of isolated plasma strong ion difference (SID) calculations and strong ion gap (SIG) calculations versus suggested cut-down versions such as SIDa adj and the BICgap respectively. METHODS Stewart's physical chemical approach is seen as a mathematical model of isolated plasma not displacing traditional Copenhagen and Boston approaches. Scanning tools for unmeasured ions based on the Principle of Electrical Neutrality such as the SIG and suggested cut-down versions such as the albumin adjusted anion gap and the BICgap are evaluated for accuracy and clinical usefulness. RESULTS Plasma SID and abbreviations such as SIDa adj are not independent variables in vivo since they vary with PCO due to Gibbs Donnan ion traffic. They can also exhibit positive and negative bias, and SID values must be partnered with non-volatile weak acid concentrations when evaluating metabolic acid-base status. The BICgap calculation is a cut down version of the SIG fixed for pH 7.4. It includes phosphate but is otherwise similar in form to the albumin corrected anion gap, with similar sensitivity and specificity characteristics. CONCLUSIONS Clinicians are unlikely to find SID calculations or cut-down versions such as the SIDa adj clinically useful. The albumin corrected anion gap is in current use and easily determined by mental arithmetic from point of care anion gap printouts plus recent plasma albumin measurements. Any slight advantage of the BICgap would be offset by the complexity of its calculation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas J Morgan
- Intensive Care Unit, Mater Health Services, Mater Research-University of Queensland, Stanley Street, South Brisbane, QLD, 4101, Australia.
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Boyle M, Lawrence J. An Easy Method of Mentally Estimating the Metabolic Component of Acid/base Balance Using the Fencl-Stewart Approach. Anaesth Intensive Care 2019; 31:538-47. [PMID: 14601277 DOI: 10.1177/0310057x0303100508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
The Stewart approach defines acid/base abnormalities as resulting from changes in PCO 2, strong ion difference (SID), and weak acids (mainly albumin) but needs a computer for calculation. The base excess (BE) is a measure of the net effect of changes in SID and weak acids, therefore, metabolic acid/base balance can be described as BE effects of their change from normal. We compared our mental estimation of BE effects with the more complex calculation. Acid/base abnormalities were identified in 44 critically ill patients. The BE effects of change in strong ions, change in albumin, and the BE-gap (“other species” or unmeasured anion effect) were calculated using standard equations. An estimate of the BE effects was determined. The difference between SID (using [Na + ]+[K+ ]-([Cl]+lactate)) and normal SID (42 mEq/l) estimated the effect of a change in SID. The effect of a change of albumin from normal was estimated as 0.252 (normal albumin-measured albumin). The predicted BE was defined as estimated change in SID plus albumin effect. The estimated BE-gap (BE-gap est ) was actual BE minus predicted BE. The Bland-Altman method was used to test agreement. Calculations were made on 46 data sets from 44 individuals. The bias (limits of agreement) for calculated and estimated strong ion effects, calculated and estimated albumin effect, and calculated and estimated BE-gap were -1.26 (-3.14 to 0.66) mEq/l, 0.5 (-0.05 to 1.05) mEq/l, and 0.76 (-1.27 to 2.79) mEq/l respectively. However the bias (limits of agreement) for BE-gap and BE-gap est and strong ion gap were poor, being 1.1 (-4 to 14) mEq/l and 0.4 (-9.2 to 10) mEq/l respectively. The BE-gap and BE-gap est are unsuitable to quantify gap ions. However, our easy-to-perform estimation has a clinically acceptable bias compared to calculated BE effects and is a simple method for identifying the components of acid/base abnormalities.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Boyle
- Intensive Care Unit, Prince of Wales Hospital, Barker Street, Randwick, N.S.W. 2031
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Weinberg L, Story D, Bellomo R. Reply to: The problem of using standardised base excess. Perfusion 2018; 33:328. [DOI: 10.1177/0267659118761559] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - David Story
- Department of Anaesthesia, Austin Health, Victoria, Australia
| | - Rinaldo Bellomo
- Department of Intensive Care Medicine, University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
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Zingg T, Bhattacharya B, Maerz LL. Metabolic acidosis and the role of unmeasured anions in critical illness and injury. J Surg Res 2017; 224:5-17. [PMID: 29506851 DOI: 10.1016/j.jss.2017.11.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2017] [Revised: 09/04/2017] [Accepted: 11/03/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Acid-base disorders are frequently present in critically ill patients. Metabolic acidosis is associated with increased mortality, but it is unclear whether as a marker of the severity of the disease process or as a direct effector. The understanding of the metabolic component of acid-base derangements has evolved over time, and several theories and models for precise quantification and interpretation have been postulated during the last century. Unmeasured anions are the footprints of dissociated fixed acids and may be responsible for a significant component of metabolic acidosis. Their nature, origin, and prognostic value are incompletely understood. This review provides a historical overview of how the understanding of the metabolic component of acid-base disorders has evolved over time and describes the theoretical models and their corresponding tools applicable to clinical practice, with an emphasis on the role of unmeasured anions in general and several specific settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tobias Zingg
- Department of Surgery, Section of General Surgery, Trauma & Surgical Critical Care, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut.
| | - Bishwajit Bhattacharya
- Department of Surgery, Section of General Surgery, Trauma & Surgical Critical Care, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut
| | - Linda L Maerz
- Department of Surgery, Section of General Surgery, Trauma & Surgical Critical Care, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut
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Scheiner B, Lindner G, Reiberger T, Schneeweiss B, Trauner M, Zauner C, Funk GC. Acid-base disorders in liver disease. J Hepatol 2017; 67:1062-1073. [PMID: 28684104 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhep.2017.06.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2017] [Revised: 06/21/2017] [Accepted: 06/27/2017] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Alongside the kidneys and lungs, the liver has been recognised as an important regulator of acid-base homeostasis. While respiratory alkalosis is the most common acid-base disorder in chronic liver disease, various complex metabolic acid-base disorders may occur with liver dysfunction. While the standard variables of acid-base equilibrium, such as pH and overall base excess, often fail to unmask the underlying cause of acid-base disorders, the physical-chemical acid-base model provides a more in-depth pathophysiological assessment for clinical judgement of acid-base disorders, in patients with liver diseases. Patients with stable chronic liver disease have several offsetting acidifying and alkalinising metabolic acid-base disorders. Hypoalbuminaemic alkalosis is counteracted by hyperchloraemic and dilutional acidosis, resulting in a normal overall base excess. When patients with liver cirrhosis become critically ill (e.g., because of sepsis or bleeding), this fragile equilibrium often tilts towards metabolic acidosis, which is attributed to lactic acidosis and acidosis due to a rise in unmeasured anions. Interestingly, even though patients with acute liver failure show significantly elevated lactate levels, often, no overt acid-base disorder can be found because of the offsetting hypoalbuminaemic alkalosis. In conclusion, patients with liver diseases may have multiple co-existing metabolic acid-base abnormalities. Thus, knowledge of the pathophysiological and diagnostic concepts of acid-base disturbances in patients with liver disease is critical for therapeutic decision making.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bernhard Scheiner
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Department of Internal Medicine III, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria; Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, Otto Wagner Spital, Vienna, Austria
| | - Gregor Lindner
- Department of General Internal Medicine & Emergency Medicine, Hirslanden Klinik Im Park, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Thomas Reiberger
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Department of Internal Medicine III, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Bruno Schneeweiss
- Division of Oncology and Hematology, Department of Internal Medicine I, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Michael Trauner
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Department of Internal Medicine III, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Christian Zauner
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Department of Internal Medicine III, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Georg-Christian Funk
- Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, Otto Wagner Spital, Vienna, Austria.
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Powner DJ, Kellum JA, Darby JM. Concepts of the Strong Ion Difference Applied to Large Volume Resuscitation. J Intensive Care Med 2016. [DOI: 10.1177/088506660101600402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
The occurrence of acidosis following trauma or other clinical conditions that require large volumes of resuscitation fluid may be modified by manipulation of the physical chemistry properties of substances within plasma. These include the strong ion difference, modification of hydrogen ion production through control of alveolar ventilation, and protection/provision of protein and phosphate-based weak acids. An understanding of these principles as an alternative method to analyze/anticipate acid-base abnormalities is important during resuscitation. Loss of protein-based weak acids may often occur after trauma or other conditions requiring large-volume resuscitation. These losses may potentially be replaced with albumin-based colloid solutions. Large quantities of normal saline should be avoided so as to avoid hyperchloremia-induced metabolic acidosis. Ringer's lactate solution is preferred. Alveolar ventilation must be adjusted so as to eliminate further hydrogen ion production caused by hypercarbia. The serum base excess and/or hyperlactemia have only limited value in diagnosing acidosis and guiding resuscitation. Current experimental data and reviews of this topic were obtained from a Medline literature search. In addition, the personal experience and investigations of the authors in critically ill and injured patients were used to formulate recommendations.
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Affiliation(s)
- David J. Powner
- Departments of Anesthesiology/CCM and Medicine, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA.
| | - John A. Kellum
- Departments of Anesthesiology/CCM and Medicine, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA
| | - Joseph M. Darby
- Departments of Anesthesiology/CCM and Medicine, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA
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Omron EM. Comparative Quantitative Acid-Base Analysis in Coronary Artery Bypass, Severe Sepsis, and Diabetic Ketoacidosis. J Intensive Care Med 2016; 20:317-26. [PMID: 16280404 DOI: 10.1177/0885066605279955] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The main objective of this study was to assess the relationship of standard base excess (SBE) to delta strong ion difference effective (ΔSIDe) in critical illness. Critical illness is characterized by variable plasma nonvolatile weak acid components (ΔA-), and SBE becomes discordant with ΔSIDe. The author hypothesized that both acid-base models are equivalent when SBE and ΔSIDe are corrected for ΔA-. A retrospective chart review was performed to assess this hypothesis by looking at changes in SBE, ΔSIDe, and ΔA-in 30 coronary artery bypass graft surgery patients, 30 severe sepsis patients, and 15 diabetic ketoacidosis patients. SBE equals the sum of the ΔSIDe and ΔA-. The SBE quantifies the magnitude of the metabolic acid-base derangement, the ΔSIDe quantifies the plasma strong cation/anion imbalance, and the ΔA-quantifies the magnitude of the hypoalbuminemic alkalosis. The partitioning of SBE into physicochemical components can facilitate analyses of complex acid-base disorders in critical illness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edward M Omron
- Division of Pulmonary Medicine, National Naval Medical Center, Bethesda, MD, USA.
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Racinet C, Ouellet P, Charles F, Daboval T. Neonatal metabolic acidosis at birth: In search of a reliable marker. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2016; 44:357-62. [PMID: 27216950 DOI: 10.1016/j.gyobfe.2016.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2016] [Accepted: 04/11/2016] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE A newborn may present acidemia on the umbilical artery blood which can result from respiratory acidosis or metabolic acidosis or be of mixed origin. Currently, in the absence of a satisfactory definition, the challenge is to determine the most accurate marker for metabolic acidosis, which can be deleterious for the neonate. METHODS We reviewed the methodological and physiological aspects of the perinatal literature to search for the best marker of NMA. RESULTS Base deficit and pH have been criticized as the standard criteria to predict outcome. The proposed threshold of pathogenicity is not based on convincing studies. The algorithms of various blood gas analyzers differ and do not take into account the specific neonatal acid-base profile. CONCLUSION Birth-related neonatal eucapnic pH is described as the most pertinent marker of NMA at birth. The various means of calculating this value and the level below which it seems to play a possible pathogenic role are presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Racinet
- UGA Grenoble, Domaine Universitaire, 621, avenue Centrale, 38400 Saint-Martin-d'Hères, France; Childhood Disabilities and Perinatal Data Register (RHEOP), 23, avenue Albert-1(er)-de-Belgique, 38000 Grenoble, France.
| | - P Ouellet
- Department of Surgery, Sherbrooke University, Sherbrooke, Quebec, Canada; Vitality Health Care Network, zone 4, Edmundston, New Brunswick, Canada
| | - F Charles
- Regional Hospital Center of Toulon-La Seyne/Mer, Toulon, France
| | - T Daboval
- University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada; Department of Pediatrics, Children's Hospital of East Ontario, Ottawa, Canada
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Ortner CM, Combrinck B, Allie S, Story D, Landau R, Cain K, Dyer RA. Strong ion and weak acid analysis in severe preeclampsia: potential clinical significance. Br J Anaesth 2015; 115:275-84. [PMID: 26170350 DOI: 10.1093/bja/aev221] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The influence of common disturbances seen in preeclampsia, such as changes in strong ions and weak acids (particularly albumin) on acid-base status, has not been fully elucidated. The aims of this study were to provide a comprehensive acid-base analysis in severe preeclampsia and to identify potential new biological predictors of disease severity. METHODS Fifty women with severe preeclampsia, 25 healthy non-pregnant- and 46 healthy pregnant controls (26-40 weeks' gestation), were enrolled in this prospective case-control study. Acid-base analysis was performed by applying the physicochemical approach of Stewart and Gilfix. RESULTS Mean [sd] base excess was similar in preeclamptic- and healthy pregnant women (-3.3 [2.3], and -2.8 [1.5] mEq/L respectively). In preeclampsia, there were greater offsetting contributions to the base excess, in the form of hyperchloraemia (BE(Cl) -2 [2.3] vs -0.4 [2.3] mEq/L, P<0.001) and hypoalbuminaemia (BE(Alb) 3.6 [1] vs 2.1 [0.8] mEq/L, P<0.001). In preeclampsia, hypoalbuminaemic metabolic alkalosis was associated with a non-reassuring/abnormal fetal heart tracing (P<0.001). Quantitative analysis in healthy pregnancy revealed respiratory and hypoalbuminaemic alkalosis that was metabolically offset by acidosis, secondary to unmeasured anions and dilution. CONCLUSIONS While the overall base excess in severe preeclampsia is similar to that in healthy pregnancy, preeclampsia is associated with a greater imbalance offsetting hypoalbuminaemic alkalosis and hyperchloraemic acidosis. Rather than the absolute value of base excess, the magnitude of these opposing contributors may be a better indicator of the severity of this disease. Hypoalbuminaemic alkalosis may also be a predictor of fetal compromise. CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION clinicaltrials.gov: NCT 02164370.
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Affiliation(s)
- C M Ortner
- Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, University of Washington, 1959 NE Pacific Street, Suite BB1415, Box 356540, Seattle, WA 98195-6540, USA
| | - B Combrinck
- Department of Anaesthesia, University of Cape Town and New Groote Schuur Hospital, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - S Allie
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, University of Cape Town and New Groote Schuur Hospital, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - D Story
- Anaesthesia, Perioperative and Pain Medicine Unit, Melbourne Medical School, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - R Landau
- Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, University of Washington, 1959 NE Pacific Street, Suite BB1415, Box 356540, Seattle, WA 98195-6540, USA
| | - K Cain
- Department of Biostatistics, School of Public Health, University of Washington
| | - R A Dyer
- Department of Anaesthesia, University of Cape Town and New Groote Schuur Hospital, Cape Town, South Africa
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Moen V, Brudin L, Rundgren M, Irestedt L. Osmolality and respiratory regulation in humans: respiratory compensation for hyperchloremic metabolic acidosis is absent after infusion of hypertonic saline in healthy volunteers. Anesth Analg 2014; 119:956-964. [PMID: 25158789 DOI: 10.1213/ane.0000000000000404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Several animal studies show that changes in plasma osmolality may influence ventilation. Respiratory depression caused by increased plasma osmolality is interpreted as inhibition of water-dependent thermoregulation because conservation of body fluid predominates at the cost of increased core temperature. Respiratory alkalosis, on the other hand, is associated with a decrease in plasma osmolality and strong ion difference (SID) during human pregnancy. We investigated the hypothesis that osmolality would influence ventilation, so that increased osmolality will decrease ventilation and decreased osmolality will stimulate ventilation in both men and women. METHODS Our study participants were healthy volunteers of both sexes (ASA physical status I). Ten men (mean 28 years; range 20-40) and 9 women (mean 33 years; range 22-43) were included. All women participated in both the follicular and luteal phases of the menstrual cycle. Hyperosmolality was induced by IV infusion of hypertonic saline 3%, and hypoosmolality by drinking tap water. Arterial blood samples were collected for analysis of electrolytes, osmolality, and blood gases. Sensitivity to CO2 was determined by rebreathing tests performed before and after the fluid-loading procedures. RESULTS Infusion of hypertonic saline caused hyperchloremic metabolic acidosis with decreased SID in all subjects. Analysis of pooled data showed absence of respiratory compensation. Baseline arterial PCO2 (PaCO2) mean (SD) 37.8 (2.9) mm Hg remained unaltered, with lowest PaCO2 37.8 (2.9) mm Hg after 100 minutes, P = 0.70, causing a decrease in pH from mean (SD) 7.42 (0.02) to 7.38 (0.02), P < 0.001. Metabolic acidosis was also observed during water loading. Pooled results show that PaCO2 decreased from 38.2 (3.3) mm Hg at baseline to 35.7 (2.8) mm Hg after 80 minutes of drinking water, P = 0.002, and pH remained unaltered: pH 7.43 (0.02) at baseline to pH 7.42 (0.02), P = 0.14, mean difference (confidence interval) = pH -0.007 (-0.017 to 0.003). CONCLUSIONS Our results indicate that osmolality has an influence on ventilation. Respiratory compensation for hyperchloremic metabolic acidosis was suppressed during hyperosmolality. Water loading caused a decrease in plasma osmolality and metabolic acidosis, and although the decrease in SID was smaller compared with salt loading, the expected respiratory compensation was observed. Ventilation was also stimulated in men, therefore independently of progesterone levels. We propose that the influence of osmolality on ventilation consists mainly as depression in conditions of hyperosmolality and that this depression is absent during hypoosmolality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vibeke Moen
- From the Department of Anesthesiology and Intensive Care, County Hospital, Kalmar, Sweden
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Ručka Z, Koutná I, Tesařová L, Potěšilová M, Stejskal S, Simara P, Vaňhara P, DoleŽel J, Zvoníček V, Coufal O, Capov I. Intravenous insulin therapy during lung resection does not affect lung function or surfactant proteins. BMC Pulm Med 2014; 14:155. [PMID: 25278226 PMCID: PMC4271408 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2466-14-155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2013] [Accepted: 09/19/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The surgical resection of lung disrupts glucose homeostasis and causes hyperglycemia, as in any other major surgery or critical illness. We performed a prospective study where we carefully lowered hyperglycemia by insulin administration during the surgery, and for the first time we monitored immediate insulin effects on lung physiology and gene transcription. Methods The levels of blood gases (pH, pCO2, pO2, HCO3-, HCO3- std, base excess, FiO2, and pO2/FiO2) were measured at the beginning of surgery, at the end of surgery, and two hours after. Samples of healthy lung tissue surrounding the tumour were obtained during the surgery, anonymized and sent for subsequent blinded qPCR analysis (mRNA levels of surfactant proteins A1, A2, B, C and D were measured). This study was done on a cohort of 64 patients who underwent lung resection. Patients were randomly divided, and half of them received insulin treatment during the surgery. Results We demonstrated for the first time that insulin administered intravenously during lung resection does not affect levels of blood gases. Furthermore, it does not induce immediate changes in the expression of surfactant proteins. Conclusion According to our observations, short insulin treatment applied intravenously during resection does not affect the quality of breathing.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Irena Koutná
- Masaryk University, Faculty of Informatics, Centre for Biomedical Image Analysis, Botanická 68a, 60200 Brno, Czech Republic.
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Torrente C, Manzanilla EG, de Gopegui RR. A comparison of traditional and quantitative analysis of acid-base imbalances in hypoalbuminemic dogs. J Vet Emerg Crit Care (San Antonio) 2014; 24:509-18. [PMID: 25142816 DOI: 10.1111/vec.12218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2012] [Accepted: 07/13/2014] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To compare the traditional (HH) and quantitative approaches used for the evaluation of the acid-base balance in hypoalbuminemic dogs. DESIGN Prospective observational study. SETTING ICU of a veterinary teaching hospital. ANIMALS One hundred and five client-owned dogs. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS Jugular venous blood samples were collected from each patient on admission to determine: total plasma protein (TP), albumin (Alb), blood urea nitrogen (BUN), glucose (Glu), hematocrit (HCT), Na(+) , Cl(-) , K(+) , phosphate (Pi ), pH, PvCO2, bicarbonate (HCO3 (-) ), anion gap (AG), adjusted anion gap for albumin (AGalb ) or phosphate (AGalb-phos ), standardized base excess (SBE), strong ion difference (SID), concentration of nonvolatile weak buffers (Atot ), and strong ion gap (SIG). Patients were divided in 2 groups according to the severity of the hypoalbuminemia: mild (Alb = 21-25 g/L) and severe (Alb ≤20 g/L). All parameters were compared among groups. Patients with severe hypoalbuminemia showed significant decrease in TP (P = 0.011), Atot (P = 0.050), and a significant increase in adjusted AG (P = 0.048) and the magnitude of SIG (P = 0.011) compared to animals with mild hypoalbuminemia. According to the HH approach, the most frequent imbalances were simple disorders (51.4%), primarily metabolic acidosis (84.7%) associated with a high AG acidosis. However, when using the quantitative method, 58.1% of patients had complex disorders, with SIG acidosis (74.3%) and Atot alkalosis (33.3%) as the most frequent acid-base imbalances. Agreement between methods only matched in 32 cases (kappa < 0.20). CONCLUSIONS The agreement between the HH and quantitative methods for interpretation of acid-base balance was poor and many imbalances detected using the quantitative approach were missed using the HH approach. Further studies are necessary to confirm the clinical utility of using the quantitative approach in the decision-making process of the severely ill hypoalbuminemic patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos Torrente
- Servei d'Emergències i Cures Intensives de la Fundació Hospital Clínic Veterinari-UAB, Departament de Medicina i Cirurgia Animal, and Departament de Ciència Animal i dels Aliments, Facultat de Veterinària, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain
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Diagnostic de l’acidose métabolique à la naissance par la détermination du pH eucapnique. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2013; 41:485-92. [DOI: 10.1016/j.gyobfe.2013.07.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2013] [Accepted: 07/08/2013] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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Deetjen P, Lichtwarck-Aschoff M. Praktische Diagnostik des Säure-Base-Haushalts. Anaesthesist 2012; 61:989-1000. [DOI: 10.1007/s00101-012-2100-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Omron EM, Omron RM. A physicochemical model of crystalloid infusion on acid-base status. J Intensive Care Med 2012; 25:271-80. [PMID: 20622258 DOI: 10.1177/0885066610371633] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The objective of this study is to develop a physicochemical model of the projected change in standard base excess (SBE) consequent to the infused volume of crystalloid solutions in common use. A clinical simulation of modeled acid-base and fluid compartment parameters was conducted in a 70-kg test participant at standard physiologic state: pH =7.40, partial pressure of carbon dioxide (PCO2) = 40 mm Hg, Henderson-Hasselbalch actual bicarbonate ([HCO3]HH) = 24.5 mEq/L, strong ion difference (SID) = 38.9 mEq/L, albumin = 4.40 g/dL, inorganic phosphate = 1.16 mmol/L, citrate total = 0.135 mmol/L, and SBE =0.1 mEq/L. Simulations of multiple, sequential crystalloid infusions up to 10 L were conducted of normal saline (SID = 0), lactated Ringer's (SID = 28), plasmalyte 148 (SID = 50), one-half normal saline þ 75 mEq/L sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3; SID = 75), 0.15 mol/L NaHCO3 (SID = 150), and a hypothetical crystalloid solution whose SID = 24.5 mEq/L, respectively. Simulations were based on theoretical completion of steady-state equilibrium and PCO2 was fixed at 40 mm Hg to assess nonrespiratory acid-base effects. A crystalloid SID equivalent to standard state actual bicarbonate (24.5 mEq/L) results in a neutral metabolic acid-base status for infusions up to 10 L. The 5 study solutions exhibited curvilinear relationships between SBE and crystalloid infusion volume in liters. Solutions whose SID was greater than 24.5 mEq/L demonstrated a progressive metabolic alkalosis and less, a progressive metabolic acidosis. In a human model system, the effects of crystalloid infusion on SBE are a function of the crystalloid and plasma SID, volume infused, and nonvolatile plasma weak acid changes. A projection of the impact of a unit volume of various isotonic crystalloid solutions on SBE is presented. The model's validation, applications, and limitations are examined.
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Acid-base disorders in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a pathophysiological review. J Biomed Biotechnol 2012; 2012:915150. [PMID: 22500110 PMCID: PMC3303884 DOI: 10.1155/2012/915150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2011] [Accepted: 10/26/2011] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The authors describe the pathophysiological mechanisms leading to development of acidosis in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and its deleterious effects on outcome and mortality rate. Renal compensatory adjustments consequent to acidosis are also described in detail with emphasis on differences between acute and chronic respiratory acidosis. Mixed acid-base disturbances due to comorbidity and side effects of some drugs in these patients are also examined, and practical considerations for a correct diagnosis are provided.
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Partitioning standard base excess: a new approach. J Clin Monit Comput 2011; 25:349-52. [DOI: 10.1007/s10877-011-9324-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2011] [Accepted: 11/09/2011] [Indexed: 10/15/2022]
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Wolf MB, DeLand EC. A mathematical model of blood-interstitial acid-base balance: application to dilution acidosis and acid-base status. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2011; 110:988-1002. [DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00514.2010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
We developed mathematical models that predict equilibrium distribution of water and electrolytes (proteins and simple ions), metabolites, and other species between plasma and erythrocyte fluids (blood) and interstitial fluid. The models use physicochemical principles of electroneutrality in a fluid compartment and osmotic equilibrium between compartments and transmembrane Donnan relationships for mobile species. Across the erythrocyte membrane, the significant mobile species Cl−is assumed to reach electrochemical equilibrium, whereas Na+and K+distributions are away from equilibrium because of the Na+/K+pump, but movement from this steady state is restricted because of their effective short-term impermeability. Across the capillary membrane separating plasma and interstitial fluid, Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+, Cl−, and H+are mobile and establish Donnan equilibrium distribution ratios. In each compartment, attainment of equilibrium by carbonates, phosphates, proteins, and metabolites is determined by their reactions with H+. These relationships produce the recognized exchange of Cl−and bicarbonate across the erythrocyte membrane. The blood submodel was validated by its close predictions of in vitro experimental data, blood pH, pH-dependent ratio of H+, Cl−, and HCO3−concentrations in erythrocytes to that in plasma, and blood hematocrit. The blood-interstitial model was validated against available in vivo laboratory data from humans with respiratory acid-base disorders. Model predictions were used to gain understanding of the important acid-base disorder caused by addition of saline solutions. Blood model results were used as a basis for estimating errors in base excess predictions in blood by the traditional approach of Siggaard-Andersen (acid-base status) and more recent approaches by others using measured blood pH and Pco2values. Blood-interstitial model predictions were also used as a basis for assessing prediction errors of extracellular acid-base status values, such as by the standard base excess approach. Hence, these new models can give considerable insight into the physicochemical mechanisms producing acid-base disorders and aid in their diagnoses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew B. Wolf
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology, and Neuroscience, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina; and
| | - Edward C. DeLand
- Department of Surgery, University of California at Los Angeles, Westwood, California
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Abstract
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE Arterial base excess and lactate levels are key parameters in the assessment of critically ill patients. The use of venous blood gas analysis may be of clinical interest when no arterial blood is available initially. METHODS Twenty-four pigs underwent progressive normovolaemic haemodilution and subsequent progressive haemorrhage until the death of the animal. Base excess and lactate levels were determined from arterial and central venous blood after each step. In addition, base excess was calculated by the Van Slyke equation modified by Zander (BE(z)). Continuous variables were summarized as mean +/- SD and represent all measurements (n = 195). RESULTS Base excess according to National Committee for Clinical Laboratory Standards for arterial blood was 2.27 +/- 4.12 versus 2.48 +/- 4.33 mmol(-l) for central venous blood (P = 0.099) with a strong correlation (r(2) = 0.960, P < 0.001). Standard deviation of the differences between these parameters (SD-DIFBE) did not increase (P = 0.355) during haemorrhage as compared with haemodilution. Arterial lactate was 2.66 +/- 3.23 versus 2.71 +/- 2.80 mmol(-l) in central venous blood (P = 0.330) with a strong correlation (r(2) = 0.983, P < 0.001). SD-DIFLAC increased (P < 0.001) during haemorrhage. BE(z) for central venous blood was 2.22 +/- 4.62 mmol(-l) (P = 0.006 versus arterial base excess according to National Committee for Clinical Laboratory Standards) with strong correlation (r(2) = 0.942, P < 0.001). SD-DIFBE(z)/base excess increased (P < 0.024) during haemorrhage. CONCLUSION Central venous blood gas analysis is a good predictor for base excess and lactate in arterial blood in steady-state conditions. However, the variation between arterial and central venous lactate increases during haemorrhage. The modification of the Van Slyke equation by Zander did not improve the agreement between central venous and arterial base excess.
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The rule regulating pH changes during crystalloid infusion. Intensive Care Med 2010; 37:461-8. [DOI: 10.1007/s00134-010-2095-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2010] [Accepted: 11/12/2010] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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Smith-Erichsen N, Kofstad J, Ingvaldsen B. [Acid-base disturbances in intensive-care patients]. TIDSSKRIFT FOR DEN NORSKE LEGEFORENING 2010; 130:1471-4. [PMID: 20706308 DOI: 10.4045/tidsskr.09.0302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Acid-base disturbances may cause a variety of symptoms, multi-organ failure and compromised immune defense. The aim of this paper is to provide an overview of acid-base disturbances in intensive-care patients. MATERIAL AND METHOD The article is based on a non-systematic search in Pub Med, a textbook on intensive care and the authors' clinical experience. RESULTS The Henderson-Hasselbalch equation describes acid-base status by changes in pCO2 and bicarbonate. Changes in pCO2 reflect the respiratory and bicarbonate the metabolic status. Standard base excess describes the metabolic part more exactly. Anion gap is calculated as a supplement. The Stewart method, describes acid-base status through three independent variables (pCO2, weak acids and strong ion difference [SID]) that regulate the dependent variables pH and bicarbonate concentration. INTERPRETATION The Henderson-Hasselbalch equation and standard base excess do not consider which acids or bases that are involved, The anion gap may disclose unmeasured anions and distinguish hyperchloremic acidosis from other types of metabolic acidosis, but the calculation is associated with uncertainty. The Stewart method describes the involved ions, but complicated equations makes it unsuitable in clinical practice. A combination of standard base excess and anion gap corrected for albumin levels provide a good description of acid-base status.
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The standard strong ion difference, standard total titratable base, and their relationship to the Boston compensation rules and the Van Slyke equation for extracellular fluid. J Clin Monit Comput 2010; 24:177-88. [DOI: 10.1007/s10877-010-9231-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2010] [Accepted: 03/09/2010] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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Cole R. Acid-base balance in acute panic attack. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2009; 24:2007; author reply 2007. [DOI: 10.1093/ndt/gfp139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
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Park M, Maciel AT, Noritomi DT, Pontes de Azevedo LC, Taniguchi LU, da Cruz Neto LM. Effect of PaCO2 variation on standard base excess value in critically ill patients. J Crit Care 2009; 24:484-91. [PMID: 19427755 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcrc.2008.12.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2008] [Revised: 12/08/2008] [Accepted: 12/30/2008] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE The aim of this study was to investigate the impact of acute Paco(2) temporal variation on the standard base excess (SBE) value in critically ill patients. METHODS A total of 265 patients were prospectively observed; 158 were allocated to the modeling group, and 107 were allocated to the validation group. Two models were developed in the modeling group (one including and one excluding Paco(2) as a variable determinant of SBE), and both were tested in the validation group. RESULTS In the modeling group, the mathematical model including SIDai, SIG, l-lactate, albumin, phosphate, and Paco(2) had a predictive superiority in comparison with the model without Paco(2) (R(2) = 0.978 and 0.916, respectively). In the validation group, the results were confirmed with significant F change statistics (R(2) change = 0.059, P < .001) between the model with and without Paco(2). A high correlation (R = 0.99, P < .001) and agreement (bias = -0.25 mEq/L, limits of agreement 95% = -0.72 to 0.22 mEq/L) were found between the model-predicted SBE value and the SBE calculated using the Van Slyke equation. CONCLUSIONS Acute Paco(2) temporal variation is related to SBE changes in critically ill patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcelo Park
- Emergency Department, Intensive Care Unit, Hospital das Clínicas, University of São Paulo Medical School, São Paulo 0563010, Brazil.
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Morgan TJ. Invited commentary: Putting standard base excess to the test. J Crit Care 2009; 24:492-3. [PMID: 19427165 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcrc.2009.02.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2009] [Accepted: 02/12/2009] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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Morgan TJ, Power G, Venkatesh B, Jones MA. Acid-base effects of a bicarbonate-balanced priming fluid during cardiopulmonary bypass: comparison with Plasma-Lyte 148. A randomised single-blinded study. Anaesth Intensive Care 2009; 36:822-9. [PMID: 19115651 DOI: 10.1177/0310057x0803600611] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Fluid-induced metabolic acidosis can be harmful and can complicate cardiopulmonary bypass. In an attempt to prevent this disturbance, we designed a bicarbonate-based crystalloid circuit prime balanced on physico-chemical principles with a strong ion difference of 24 mEq/l and compared its acid-base effects with those of Plasma-Lyte 148, a multiple electrolyte replacement solution containing acetate plus gluconate totalling 50 mEq/l. Twenty patients with normal acid-base status undergoing elective cardiac surgery were randomised 1:1 to a 2 litre prime of either bicarbonate-balanced fluid or Plasma-Lyte 148. With the trial fluid, metabolic acid-base status was normal following bypass initiation (standard base excess 0.1 (1.3) mEq/l, mean, SD), whereas Plasma-Lyte 148 produced a slight metabolic acidosis (standard base excess -2.2 (2.1) mEq/l). Estimated group difference after baseline adjustment was 3.6 mEq/l (95% confidence interval 2.1 to 5.1 mEq/l, P=0.0001). By late bypass, mean standard base excess in both groups was normal (0.8 (2.2) mEq/l vs. -0.8 (1.3) mEq/l, P=0.5). Strong ion gap values were unaltered with the trial fluid, but with Plasma-Lyte 148 increased significantly on bypass initiation (15.2 (2.5) mEq/l vs. 2.5 (1.5) mEq/l, P < 0.0001), remaining elevated in late bypass (8.4 (3.4) mEq/l vs. 5.8 (2.4) mEq/l, P < 0.05). We conclude that a bicarbonate-based crystalloid with a strong ion difference of 24 mEq/l is balanced for cardiopulmonary bypass in patients with normal acid-base status, whereas Plasma-Lyte 148 triggers a surge of unmeasured anions, persisting throughout bypass. These are likely to be gluconate and/or acetate. Whether surges of exogenous anions during bypass can be harmful requires further study.
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Affiliation(s)
- T J Morgan
- Department of Anaesthesia, Princess Alexandra Hospital, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
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Kurtz I, Kraut J, Ornekian V, Nguyen MK. Acid-base analysis: a critique of the Stewart and bicarbonate-centered approaches. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 2008; 294:F1009-31. [PMID: 18184741 DOI: 10.1152/ajprenal.00475.2007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
When approaching the analysis of disorders of acid-base balance, physical chemists, physiologists, and clinicians, tend to focus on different aspects of the relevant phenomenology. The physical chemist focuses on a quantitative understanding of proton hydration and aqueous proton transfer reactions that alter the acidity of a given solution. The physiologist focuses on molecular, cellular, and whole organ transport processes that modulate the acidity of a given body fluid compartment. The clinician emphasizes the diagnosis, clinical causes, and most appropriate treatment of acid-base disturbances. Historically, two different conceptual frameworks have evolved among clinicians and physiologists for interpreting acid-base phenomena. The traditional or bicarbonate-centered framework relies quantitatively on the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation, whereas the Stewart or strong ion approach utilizes either the original Stewart equation or its simplified version derived by Constable. In this review, the concepts underlying the bicarbonate-centered and Stewart formulations are analyzed in detail, emphasizing the differences in how each approach characterizes acid-base phenomenology at the molecular level, tissue level, and in the clinical realm. A quantitative comparison of the equations that are currently used in the literature to calculate H+concentration ([H+]) is included to clear up some of the misconceptions that currently exist in this area. Our analysis demonstrates that while the principle of electroneutrality plays a central role in the strong ion formulation, electroneutrality mechanistically does not dictate a specific [H+], and the strong ion and bicarbonate-centered approaches are quantitatively identical even in the presence of nonbicarbonate buffers. Finally, our analysis indicates that the bicarbonate-centered approach utilizing the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation is a mechanistic formulation that reflects the underlying acid-base phenomenology.
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Morris CG, Low J. Metabolic acidosis in the critically ill: Part 1. Classification and pathophysiology. Anaesthesia 2008; 63:294-301. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2044.2007.05370.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 140] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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Abstract
BACKGROUND Intensivists spend much of their time managing problems related to fluids, electrolytes, and blood pH. Recent advances in the understanding of acid-base physiology have resulted from the application of basic physical-chemical principles of aqueous solutions to blood plasma. All changes in blood pH, in health and in disease, occur through changes in three variables: carbon dioxide, relative electrolyte concentrations, and total weak acid concentrations. However, while this quantitative approach has enjoyed widespread use among researchers, clinicians are reluctant to employ it. Recent advances have brought a measure of parity between the newer and the older, descriptive approach to acid-base physiology. DATA SYNTHESIS Case-based review of the literature. CONCLUSION Both quantitative and traditional approaches can be easily combined to result in a powerful tool for bedside acid-base analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- John A Kellum
- Clinical Research, Investigation, and Systems Modeling of Acute Illness (CRISMA) Laboratory and the Department of Critical Care Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA.
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Edwards SL. Pathophysiology of acid base balance: the theory practice relationship. Intensive Crit Care Nurs 2007; 24:28-38; quiz 38-40. [PMID: 17689248 DOI: 10.1016/j.iccn.2007.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2007] [Revised: 05/03/2007] [Accepted: 05/13/2007] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
There are many disorders/diseases that lead to changes in acid base balance. These conditions are not rare or uncommon in clinical practice, but everyday occurrences on the ward or in critical care. Conditions such as asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (bronchitis or emphasaemia), diabetic ketoacidosis, renal disease or failure, any type of shock (sepsis, anaphylaxis, neurogenic, cardiogenic, hypovolaemia), stress or anxiety which can lead to hyperventilation, and some drugs (sedatives, opioids) leading to reduced ventilation. In addition, some symptoms of disease can cause vomiting and diarrhoea, which effects acid base balance. It is imperative that critical care nurses are aware of changes that occur in relation to altered physiology, leading to an understanding of the changes in patients' condition that are observed, and why the administration of some immediate therapies such as oxygen is imperative.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sharon L Edwards
- Buckinghamshire Chilterns University College, Chalfont Campus, Newland Park, Gorelands Lane, Chalfont St. Giles, Buckinghamshire, United Kingdom.
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Zamudio S, Postigo L, Illsley NP, Rodriguez C, Heredia G, Brimacombe M, Echalar L, Torricos T, Tellez W, Maldonado I, Balanza E, Alvarez T, Ameller J, Vargas E. Maternal oxygen delivery is not related to altitude- and ancestry-associated differences in human fetal growth. J Physiol 2007; 582:883-95. [PMID: 17510190 PMCID: PMC2075336 DOI: 10.1113/jphysiol.2007.130708] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Fetal growth is reduced at high altitude, but the decrease is less among long-resident populations. We hypothesized that greater maternal uteroplacental O(2) delivery would explain increased fetal growth in Andean natives versus European migrants to high altitude. O(2) delivery was measured with ultrasound, Doppler and haematological techniques. Participants (n=180) were pregnant women of self-professed European or Andean ancestry living at 3600 m or 400 m in Bolivia. Ancestry was quantified using ancestry-informative single nucleotide polymorphism. The altitude-associated decrement in birth weight was 418 g in European versus 236 g in Andean women (P<0.005). Altitude was associated with decreased uterine artery diameter, volumetric blood flow and O(2) delivery regardless of ancestry. But the hypothesis was rejected as O(2) delivery was similar between ancestry groups at their respective altitudes of residence. Instead, Andean neonates were larger and heavier per unit of O(2) delivery, regardless of altitude (P<0.001). European admixture among Andeans was negatively correlated with birth weight at both altitudes (P<0.01), but admixture was not related to any of the O(2) transport variables. Genetically mediated differences in maternal O(2) delivery are thus unlikely to explain the Andean advantage in fetal growth. Of the other independent variables, only placental weight and gestational age explained significant variation in birth weight. Thus greater placental efficiency in O(2) and nutrient transport, and/or greater fetal efficiency in substrate utilization may contribute to ancestry- and altitude-related differences in fetal growth. Uterine artery O(2) delivery in these pregnancies was 99 +/- 3 ml min(-1), approximately 5-fold greater than near-term fetal O(2) consumption. Deficits in maternal O(2) transport in third trimester normal pregnancy are unlikely to be causally associated with variation in fetal growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stacy Zamudio
- Department of Obstetrics Gynecology and Women's Helath, New Jersey Medical School, 185 South Orange Avenue, Newark, NJ 07103, USA.
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Omron EM. Effects of saline or albumin resuscitation on acid-base status and serum electrolytes. Crit Care Med 2007; 35:1220-1; author reply 1221-2. [PMID: 17413805 DOI: 10.1097/01.ccm.0000259485.75423.42] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Norman RG, Goldring RM, Clain JM, Oppenheimer BW, Charney AN, Rapoport DM, Berger KI. Transition from acute to chronic hypercapnia in patients with periodic breathing: predictions from a computer model. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2005; 100:1733-41. [PMID: 16384839 DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00502.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Acute hypercapnia may develop during periodic breathing from an imbalance between abnormal ventilatory patterns during apnea and/or hypopnea and compensatory ventilatory response in the interevent periods. However, transition of this acute hypercapnia into chronic sustained hypercapnia during wakefulness remains unexplained. We hypothesized that respiratory-renal interactions would play a critical role in this transition. Because this transition cannot be readily addressed clinically, we modified a previously published model of whole-body CO2 kinetics by adding respiratory control and renal bicarbonate kinetics. We enforced a pattern of 8 h of periodic breathing (sleep) and 16 h of regular ventilation (wakefulness) repeated for 20 days. Interventions included varying the initial awake respiratory CO2 response and varying the rate of renal bicarbonate excretion within the physiological range. The results showed that acute hypercapnia during periodic breathing could transition into chronic sustained hypercapnia during wakefulness. Although acute hypercapnia could be attributed to periodic breathing alone, transition from acute to chronic hypercapnia required either slowing of renal bicarbonate kinetics, reduction of ventilatory CO2 responsiveness, or both. Thus the model showed that the interaction between the time constant for bicarbonate excretion and respiratory control results in both failure of bicarbonate concentration to fully normalize before the next period of sleep and persistence of hypercapnia through blunting of ventilatory drive. These respiratory-renal interactions create a cumulative effect over subsequent periods of sleep that eventually results in a self-perpetuating state of chronic hypercapnia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert G Norman
- Divisions of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, New York University School of Medicine/Bellevue Medical Center, New York, NY 10016, USA.
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Abstract
Recent advances in acid-base physiology and in the epidemiology of acid-base disorders have refined our understanding of the basic control mechanisms that determine blood pH in health and disease. These refinements have also brought parity between the newer, quantitative and older, descriptive approaches to acid-base physiology. This review explores how the new and older approaches to acid-base physiology can be reconciled and combined to result in a powerful bedside tool. A case based tutorial is also provided.
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Affiliation(s)
- John A Kellum
- The CRISMA (Clinical Research Investigation and Systems Modeling of Acute Illness) Laboratory, Department of Critical Care Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
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49
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Abstract
An advanced understanding of acid-base physiology is central to the practice of critical care medicine. Intensivists spend much of their time managing problems that are related to fluids, electrolytes, and blood pH. Recent advances in the understanding of acid-base physiology occurred as the result of the application of basic physical-chemical principles of aqueous solutions to blood plasma. This analysis revealed three independent variables that regulate pH in blood plasma: carbon dioxide, relative electrolyte concentrations, and total weak acid concentrations. All changes in blood pH, in health and in disease, occur through changes in these three variables. This article reviews the physical-chemical approach to acid-base balance and considers clinical implications for these findings.
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Affiliation(s)
- John A Kellum
- The CRISMA Laboratory, Department of Critical Care Medicine, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, 608 Scaife Hall, Pittsburgh, PA 15213-2582, USA.
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