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Costes P, Delapré A, Houssin C, Mulot B, Pouydebat E, Cornette R. Maximum trunk tip force assessment related to trunk position and prehensile 'fingers' implication in African savannah elephants. PLoS One 2024; 19:e0301529. [PMID: 38743734 PMCID: PMC11093316 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0301529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2023] [Accepted: 03/18/2024] [Indexed: 05/16/2024] Open
Abstract
African elephants have a wide range of abilities using their trunk. As a muscular hydrostat, and thanks to the two finger-like processes at its tip, this proboscis can both precisely grasp and exert considerable force by wrapping. Yet few studies have attempted to quantify its distal grasping force. Thus, using a device equipped with force sensors and an automatic reward system, the trunk tip pinch force has been quantified in five captive female African savanna elephants. Results showed that the maximum pinch force of the trunk was 86.4 N, which may suggest that this part of the trunk is mainly dedicated to precision grasping. We also highlighted for the first time a difference in force between the two fingers of the trunk, with the dorsal finger predominantly stronger than the ventral finger. Finally, we showed that the position of the trunk, particularly the torsion, influences its force and distribution between the two trunk fingers. All these results are discussed in the light of the trunk's anatomy, and open up new avenues for evolutionary reflection and soft robot grippers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pauline Costes
- Adaptive Mechanisms and Evolution, UMR 7179 CNRS/MNHN, Paris, France
- Institut de Systématique, Evolution, Biodiversité, UMR 7205 CNRS/MNHN /SU/EPHE/UA, Paris, France
| | - Arnaud Delapré
- Institut de Systématique, Evolution, Biodiversité, UMR 7205 CNRS/MNHN /SU/EPHE/UA, Paris, France
| | - Céline Houssin
- Institut de Systématique, Evolution, Biodiversité, UMR 7205 CNRS/MNHN /SU/EPHE/UA, Paris, France
| | - Baptiste Mulot
- ZooParc de Beauval & Beauval Nature, Saint-Aignan, France
| | | | - Raphaël Cornette
- Institut de Systématique, Evolution, Biodiversité, UMR 7205 CNRS/MNHN /SU/EPHE/UA, Paris, France
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Costes P, Soppelsa J, Houssin C, Boulinguez‐Ambroise G, Pacou C, Gouat P, Cornette R, Pouydebat E. Effect of the habitat and tusks on trunk grasping techniques in African savannah elephants. Ecol Evol 2024; 14:e11317. [PMID: 38646004 PMCID: PMC11027014 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.11317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2023] [Revised: 04/02/2024] [Accepted: 04/08/2024] [Indexed: 04/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Among tetrapods, grasping is an essential function involved in many vital behaviours. The selective pressures that led to this function were widely investigated in species with prehensile hands and feet. Previous studies namely highlighted a strong effect of item properties but also of the species habitat on manual grasping behaviour. African savannah elephants (Loxodonta africana) are known to display various prehensile abilities and use their trunk in a large diversity of habitats. Composed of muscles and without a rigid structure, the trunk is a muscular hydrostat with great freedom of movement. This multitasking organ is particularly recruited for grasping food items while foraging. Yet, the diet of African savannah elephants varies widely between groups living in different habitats. Moreover, they have tusks alongside the trunk which can assist in grasping behaviours, and their tusk morphologies are known to vary considerably between groups. Therefore, in this study, we investigate the food grasping techniques used by the trunk of two elephant groups that live in different habitats: an arid study site in Etosha National Park in Namibia, and an area with consistent water presence in Kruger National Park in South Africa. We characterised the tusks profiles and compared the grasping techniques and their frequencies of use for different foods. Our results show differences in food-grasping techniques between the two groups. These differences are related to the food item property and tusk profile discrepancies highlighted between the two groups. We suggest that habitat heterogeneity, particularly aridity gaps, may induce these differences. This may reveal an optimisation of grasping types depending on habitat, food size and accessibility, as well as tusk profiles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pauline Costes
- Adaptive Mechanisms and Evolution (MECADEV)UMR 7179 CNRS/MNHNParisFrance
- Institut de Systématique, Evolution, Biodiversité (ISYEB), UMR 7205, CNRS, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, SU, EPHE, UAParisFrance
| | - Julie Soppelsa
- Adaptive Mechanisms and Evolution (MECADEV)UMR 7179 CNRS/MNHNParisFrance
| | - Céline Houssin
- Institut de Systématique, Evolution, Biodiversité (ISYEB), UMR 7205, CNRS, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, SU, EPHE, UAParisFrance
| | - Grégoire Boulinguez‐Ambroise
- Adaptive Mechanisms and Evolution (MECADEV)UMR 7179 CNRS/MNHNParisFrance
- Department of Evolutionary AnthropologyDuke UniversityDurhamNorth CarolinaUSA
| | - Camille Pacou
- Adaptive Mechanisms and Evolution (MECADEV)UMR 7179 CNRS/MNHNParisFrance
| | - Patrick Gouat
- Laboratoire d'Éthologie Expérimentale et Comparée E.R. 4443Université Sorbonne Paris NordVilletaneuseFrance
| | - Raphaël Cornette
- Institut de Systématique, Evolution, Biodiversité (ISYEB), UMR 7205, CNRS, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, SU, EPHE, UAParisFrance
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Schulz AK, Schneider N, Zhang M, Singal K. A Year at the Forefront of Hydrostat Motion. Biol Open 2023; 12:bio059834. [PMID: 37566395 PMCID: PMC10434360 DOI: 10.1242/bio.059834] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Currently, in the field of interdisciplinary work in biology, there has been a significant push by the soft robotic community to understand the motion and maneuverability of hydrostats. This Review seeks to expand the muscular hydrostat hypothesis toward new structures, including plants, and introduce innovative techniques to the hydrostat community on new modeling, simulating, mimicking, and observing hydrostat motion methods. These methods range from ideas of kirigami, origami, and knitting for mimic creation to utilizing reinforcement learning for control of bio-inspired soft robotic systems. It is now being understood through modeling that different mechanisms can inhibit traditional hydrostat motion, such as skin, nostrils, or sheathed layered muscle walls. The impact of this Review will highlight these mechanisms, including asymmetries, and discuss the critical next steps toward understanding their motion and how species with hydrostat structures control such complex motions, highlighting work from January 2022 to December 2022.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew K. Schulz
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA
| | - Nikole Schneider
- Department of Biology, University of South Dakota, Vermillion, SD 57069, USA
| | - Margaret Zhang
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA
| | - Krishma Singal
- School of Physics, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA
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Schulz AK, Reidenberg JS, Ning Wu J, Ying Tang C, Seleb B, Mancebo J, Elgart N, Hu DL. Elephant trunks use an adaptable prehensile grip. BIOINSPIRATION & BIOMIMETICS 2023; 18:026008. [PMID: 36652720 DOI: 10.1088/1748-3190/acb477] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2022] [Accepted: 01/18/2023] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Elephants have long been observed to grip objects with their trunk, but little is known about how they adjust their strategy for different weights. In this study, we challenge a female African elephant at Zoo Atlanta to lift 20-60 kg barbell weights with only its trunk. We measure the trunk's shape and wrinkle geometry from a frozen elephant trunk at the Smithsonian. We observe several strategies employed to accommodate heavier weights, including accelerating less, orienting the trunk vertically, and wrapping the barbell with a greater trunk length. Mathematical models show that increasing barbell weights are associated with constant trunk tensile force and an increasing barbell-wrapping surface area due to the trunk's wrinkles. Our findings may inspire the design of more adaptable soft robotic grippers that can improve grip using surface morphology such as wrinkles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew K Schulz
- Schools of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332, United States of America
- Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Joy S Reidenberg
- Center for Anatomy and Functional Morphology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, United States of America
| | - Jia Ning Wu
- School of Additive Manufacturing, Sun Yat-Sen University, Shenzhen, People's Republic of China
| | - Cheuk Ying Tang
- Radiology, Neuroscience, & Psychiatry Translation and Molecular Imaging Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, United States of America
| | - Benjamin Seleb
- Biological Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332, United States of America
| | - Josh Mancebo
- Zoo Atlanta, Atlanta, GA 30315, United States of America
| | - Nathan Elgart
- Zoo Atlanta, Atlanta, GA 30315, United States of America
| | - David L Hu
- Schools of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332, United States of America
- Biological Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332, United States of America
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Beeck VC, Heilmann G, Kerscher M, Stoeger AS. Sound Visualization Demonstrates Velopharyngeal Coupling and Complex Spectral Variability in Asian Elephants. Animals (Basel) 2022; 12:2119. [PMID: 36009709 PMCID: PMC9404934 DOI: 10.3390/ani12162119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2022] [Revised: 08/02/2022] [Accepted: 08/13/2022] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Sound production mechanisms set the parameter space available for transmitting biologically relevant information in vocal signals. Low-frequency rumbles play a crucial role in coordinating social interactions in elephants' complex fission-fusion societies. By emitting rumbles through either the oral or the three-times longer nasal vocal tract, African elephants alter their spectral shape significantly. In this study, we used an acoustic camera to visualize the sound emission of rumbles in Asian elephants, which have received far less research attention than African elephants. We recorded nine adult captive females and analyzed the spectral parameters of 203 calls, including vocal tract resonances (formants). We found that the majority of rumbles (64%) were nasally emitted, 21% orally, and 13% simultaneously through the mouth and trunk, demonstrating velopharyngeal coupling. Some of the rumbles were combined with orally emitted roars. The nasal rumbles concentrated most spectral energy in lower frequencies exhibiting two formants, whereas the oral and mixed rumbles contained higher formants, higher spectral energy concentrations and were louder. The roars were the loudest, highest and broadest in frequency. This study is the first to demonstrate velopharyngeal coupling in a non-human animal. Our findings provide a foundation for future research into the adaptive functions of the elephant acoustic variability for information coding, localizability or sound transmission, as well as vocal flexibility across species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Veronika C. Beeck
- Department of Behavioural and Cognitive Biology, University of Vienna, 1030 Vienna, Austria
| | | | | | - Angela S. Stoeger
- Department of Behavioural and Cognitive Biology, University of Vienna, 1030 Vienna, Austria
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Abstract
The elephant's trunk is multifunctional: It must be flexible to wrap around vegetation, but tough to knock down trees and resist attack. How can one appendage satisfy both constraints? In this combined experimental and theoretical study, we challenged African elephants to reach far-away objects with only horizontal extensions of their trunk. Surprisingly, the trunk does not extend uniformly, but instead exhibits a dorsal "joint" that stretches 15% more than the corresponding ventral section. Using material testing with the skin of a deceased elephant, we show that the asymmetry is due in part to patterns of the skin. The dorsal skin is folded and 15% more pliable than the wrinkled ventral skin. Skin folds protect the dorsal section and stretch to facilitate downward wrapping, the most common gripping style when picking up items. The elephant's skin is also sufficiently stiff to influence its mechanics: At the joint, the skin requires 13 times more energy to stretch than the corresponding length of muscle. The use of wrinkles and folds to modulate stiffness may provide a valuable concept for both biology and soft robotics.
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Schulz AK, Shriver C, Aubuchon C, Weigel EG, Kolar M, Mendelson JR, Hu DL. A Guide for Successful Research Collaborations between Zoos and Universities. Integr Comp Biol 2022; 62:icac096. [PMID: 35771995 DOI: 10.1093/icb/icac096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Zoos offer university researchers unique opportunities to study animals that would be difficult or impractical to find in the wild. However, the different cultures, goals, and priorities of these institutions can be a source of conflict. How can researchers build mutually beneficial collaborations with their local zoo? In this article, we present the results of a survey of 117 personnel from 59 zoos around the United States, where we highlight best practices spanning all phases of collaboration, from planning to working alongside the zoo and maintaining contact afterward. Collaborations were not possible if university personnel did not appreciate the zoo staff's time constraints as well as the differences between zoo animals and laboratory animals. We include a vision for how to improve zoo collaborations, along with a history of our own decade-long collaborations with Zoo Atlanta. A central theme is the long-term establishment of trust between institutions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew K Schulz
- Schools of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA
| | - Cassie Shriver
- Biological Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA
| | | | - Emily G Weigel
- Biological Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA
| | | | - Joseph R Mendelson
- Biological Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA
- Zoo Atlanta, Atlanta, GA 30315, USA
| | - David L Hu
- Schools of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA
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Soppelsa J, Pouydebat E, Lefeuvre M, Mulot B, Houssin C, Cornette R. The relationship between distal trunk morphology and object grasping in the African savannah elephant ( Loxodonta africana). PeerJ 2022; 10:e13108. [PMID: 35368332 PMCID: PMC8969868 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.13108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2021] [Accepted: 02/22/2022] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Background During reach-to-grasp movements, the human hand is preshaped depending on the properties of the object. Preshaping may result from learning, morphology, or motor control variability and can confer a selective advantage on that individual or species. This preshaping ability is known in several mammals (i.e., primates, carnivores and rodents). However, apart from the tongue preshaping of lizards and chameleons, little is known about preshaping of other grasping appendages. In particular, the elephant trunk, a muscular hydrostat, has impressive grasping skills and thus is commonly called a hand. Data on elephant trunk grasping strategies are scarce, and nothing is known about whether elephants preshape their trunk tip according to the properties of their food. Methods To determine the influence of food sizes and shapes on the form of the trunk tip, we investigated the morphology of the distal part of the trunk during grasping movements. The influence of food item form on trunk tip shape was quantified in six female African savannah elephants (Loxodonta africana). Three food item types were presented to the elephants (elongated, flat, and cubic), as well as three different sizes of cubic items. A total of 107 ± 10 grips per individual were video recorded, and the related trunk tip shapes were recorded with a 2D geometric morphometric approach. Results Half of the individuals adjusted the shape of the distal part of their trunk according to the object type. Of the three elephants that did not preshape their trunk tip, one was blind and another was subadult. Discussion and perspectives We found that elephants preshaped their trunk tip, similar to the preshaping of other species' hands or paws during reach-to-grasp movements. This preshaping may be influenced by visual feedback and individual learning. To confirm these results, this study could be replicated with a larger sample of elephants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie Soppelsa
- Adaptive Mechanisms and Evolution (MECADEV), Centre national de la recherche scientifique/Muséum national d’Histoire naturelle, Paris, France
| | - Emmanuelle Pouydebat
- Adaptive Mechanisms and Evolution (MECADEV), Centre national de la recherche scientifique/Muséum national d’Histoire naturelle, Paris, France
| | - Maëlle Lefeuvre
- Institute of Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Biology, Jagiellonian University Cracow, Cracow, Poland
| | - Baptiste Mulot
- Zooparc de Beauval & Beauval Nature, Saint-Aignan, France
| | - Céline Houssin
- Institut de Systématique, Evolution, Biodiversité (ISYEB), Centre national de la recherche scientifique/ Muséum national d’Histoire naturelle, SU, EPHE, UA, Paris, France
| | - Raphaël Cornette
- Institut de Systématique, Evolution, Biodiversité (ISYEB), Centre national de la recherche scientifique/ Muséum national d’Histoire naturelle, SU, EPHE, UA, Paris, France
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Abstract
Neuroscience research is understandably focused on highly tractable and lab-friendly mice and rats, but that emphasis obfuscates the biological beauty and intellectual richness that lies in animal diversity. The benefits of venturing further into that phylogenetic diversity are nicely illustrated by a new study on the elephant brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suzana Herculano-Houzel
- Department of Psychology, Department of Biological Sciences, Vanderbilt Brain Institute, Vanderbilt University, 111 21(st) Avenue South, Nashville, TN 37240, USA.
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Cuban D, Hewes AE, Sargent AJ, Groom DJE, Rico-Guevara A. On the feeding biomechanics of nectarivorous birds. J Exp Biol 2022; 225:274052. [PMID: 35048977 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.243096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Nectar-feeding birds employ unique mechanisms to collect minute liquid rewards hidden within floral structures. In recent years, techniques developed to study drinking mechanisms in hummingbirds have prepared the groundwork for investigating nectar feeding across birds. In most avian nectarivores, fluid intake mechanisms are understudied or simply unknown beyond hypotheses based on their morphological traits, such as their tongues, which are semi-tubular in sunbirds, frayed-tipped in honeyeaters and brush-tipped in lorikeets. Here, we use hummingbirds as a case study to identify and describe the proposed drinking mechanisms to examine the role of those peculiar traits, which will help to disentangle nectar-drinking hypotheses for other groups. We divide nectar drinking into three stages: (1) liquid collection, (2) offloading of aliquots into the mouth and (3) intraoral transport to where the fluid can be swallowed. Investigating the entire drinking process is crucial to fully understand how avian nectarivores feed; nectar-feeding not only involves the collection of nectar with the tongue, but also includes the mechanisms necessary to transfer and move the liquid through the bill and into the throat. We highlight the potential for modern technologies in comparative anatomy [such as microcomputed tomography (μCT) scanning] and biomechanics (such as tracking BaSO4-stained nectar via high-speed fluoroscopy) to elucidate how disparate clades have solved this biophysical puzzle through parallel, convergent or alternative solutions.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Cuban
- Department of Biology, University of Washington, Life Sciences Building, Box 351800, Seattle, WA 98105, USA.,Burke Museum of Natural History and Culture, Ornithology Department, 4300 15th Avenue NE, Seattle, WA 98105, USA
| | - Amanda E Hewes
- Department of Biology, University of Washington, Life Sciences Building, Box 351800, Seattle, WA 98105, USA.,Burke Museum of Natural History and Culture, Ornithology Department, 4300 15th Avenue NE, Seattle, WA 98105, USA
| | - Alyssa J Sargent
- Department of Biology, University of Washington, Life Sciences Building, Box 351800, Seattle, WA 98105, USA.,Burke Museum of Natural History and Culture, Ornithology Department, 4300 15th Avenue NE, Seattle, WA 98105, USA
| | - Derrick J E Groom
- Department of Biology, San Francisco State University, 1600 Holloway Avenue, San Francisco, CA 94132, USA
| | - Alejandro Rico-Guevara
- Department of Biology, University of Washington, Life Sciences Building, Box 351800, Seattle, WA 98105, USA.,Burke Museum of Natural History and Culture, Ornithology Department, 4300 15th Avenue NE, Seattle, WA 98105, USA
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Dagenais P, Hensman S, Haechler V, Milinkovitch MC. Elephants evolved strategies reducing the biomechanical complexity of their trunk. Curr Biol 2021; 31:4727-4737.e4. [PMID: 34428468 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2021.08.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2021] [Revised: 06/25/2021] [Accepted: 08/09/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The elephant proboscis (trunk), which functions as a muscular hydrostat with a virtually infinite number of degrees of freedom, is a spectacular organ for delicate to heavy object manipulation as well as social and sensory functions. Using high-resolution motion capture and functional morphology analyses, we show here that elephants evolved strategies that reduce the biomechanical complexity of their trunk. Indeed, our behavioral experiments with objects of various shapes, sizes, and weights indicate that (1) complex behaviors emerge from the combination of a finite set of basic movements; (2) curvature, torsion, and strain provide an appropriate kinematic representation, allowing us to extract motion primitives from the trunk trajectories; (3) transport of objects involves the proximal propagation of an inward curvature front initiated at the tip; (4) the trunk can also form pseudo-joints for point-to-point motion; and (5) the trunk tip velocity obeys a power law with its path curvature, similar to human hand drawing movements. We also reveal with unprecedented precision the functional anatomy of the African and Asian elephant trunks using medical imaging and macro-scale serial sectioning, thus drawing strong connections between motion primitives and muscular synergies. Our study is the first combined quantitative analysis of the mechanical performance, kinematic strategies, and functional morphology of the largest animal muscular hydrostat on Earth. It provides data for developing innovative "soft-robotic" manipulators devoid of articulations, replicating the high compliance, flexibility, and strength of the elephant trunk. VIDEO ABSTRACT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paule Dagenais
- Laboratory of Artificial and Natural Evolution (LANE), Department of Genetics and Evolution, University of Geneva, 30, Quai Ernest-Ansermet, 1211 Geneva, Switzerland; SIB Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics, 30, Quai Ernest-Ansermet, 1211 Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Sean Hensman
- Adventure with Elephants, Bela Bela, South Africa
| | - Valérie Haechler
- Laboratory of Artificial and Natural Evolution (LANE), Department of Genetics and Evolution, University of Geneva, 30, Quai Ernest-Ansermet, 1211 Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Michel C Milinkovitch
- Laboratory of Artificial and Natural Evolution (LANE), Department of Genetics and Evolution, University of Geneva, 30, Quai Ernest-Ansermet, 1211 Geneva, Switzerland; SIB Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics, 30, Quai Ernest-Ansermet, 1211 Geneva, Switzerland.
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12
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Basu C. Elephants hoover up their dinner. J Exp Biol 2021. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.236935] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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