Primary brain cell infection by Toxoplasma gondii reveals the extent and dynamics of parasite differentiation and its impact on neuron biology

Toxoplasma gondii, endothelial cells and schizophrenia: is it just a barrier matter?

Toxoplasma gondii is an obligatory intracellular parasite responsible for causing toxoplasmosis. It is estimated that approximately one-third of the world's population has positive serology for toxoplasmosis. Acute T. gondii infection often results in subtle symptoms because of its nonspecific nature. Owing to immune pressure, parasites tend to encyst and persist in different tissues and organs, such as the brain, chronicling the infection. While most chronically infected individuals do not develop significant symptoms, the parasite can affect the central nervous system (CNS), leading to symptoms that range from dizziness to behavioral changes. To reach the CNS, parasites must overcome the blood-brain barrier, which is composed primarily of endothelial cells. While these cells are typically efficient at separating blood elements from the CNS, in T. gondii infection, they not only permit parasitic colonization of the CNS but also contribute to an inflammatory profile that may exacerbate previously established conditions at both the local CNS and systemic levels. An increasing body of research has demonstrated a potential link between the CNS, infection by T. gondii and the cellular or humoral response to infection, with the worsening of psychiatric conditions, such as schizophrenia. Therefore, continually advancing research aimed at understanding and mitigating the relationship between parasitic infection and schizophrenia is imperative.

Defining neuronal responses to the neurotropic parasite Toxoplasma gondii

A select group of pathogens infect neurons in the brain. Prior dogma held that neurons were "defenseless" against infecting microbes, but many studies suggest that neurons can mount anti-microbial defenses. However, a knowledge gap in understanding how neurons respond in vitro and in vivo to different classes of micro-organisms remains. To address this gap, we compared a transcriptional dataset derived from primary neuron cultures (PNCs) infected with the neurotropic intracellular parasite Toxoplasma gondii with a dataset derived from neurons injected with T. gondii protein in vivo . These curated responses were then compared to the transcriptional responses of PNCs infected with the single stranded RNA viruses West Nile Virus (WNV) or Zika Virus (ZKV). These analyses highlighted a conserved response to infection associated with chemokines ( Cxcl10, Ccl2 ) and cytokines (interferon signaling). However, T. gondii had diminished IFN-α signaling in vitro compared to the viral datasets and was uniquely associated with a decrease in neuron-specific genes ( Snap25 , Slc17a7 , Prkcg ). These data underscore that neurons participate in infection-induced neuroinflammation and illustrate that neurons possess both pathogen-specific and pathogen-conserved responses.

Importance

Though neurons are commonly the target of pathogens that infect the CNS, few datasets assess the neuronal response to infection. This paucity of data is likely because neurons are perceived to have diminished immune capabilities. However, to understand the role of neurons in neuroinflammation and their immune capabilities, their responses must be investigated. Here we analyzed publicly accessible, neuron-specific datasets to compare neuron responses to a eukaryotic pathogen versus two Orthoflaviviruses. A better understanding of neuron responses to different infections will allow us to develop methods for inhibiting pathways that lead to neuron dysfunction, enhancing those that limit pathogen survival, and mitigating infection-induced damage to the CNS.

Effects of diet and ovariectomy on Toxoplasma gondii brain infection: functional alterations and neuronal loss in rats

Epidemiological evidence associates Toxoplasma gondii latent infection with the development of neuropsychiatric disorders, and various immunological and environmental factors play key pathophysiological roles through host immune response alterations. We investigated the cognitive and motor alterations occurring in the terminal stage of T. gondii infection in rats, and whether a low-protein diet, a high-fat diet or ovariectomy may accelerate their development, given the role of malnutrition and menopause on immunity and resistance to infection. In two sets of experiments, 2-month-old (157.5 ± 4.3 g, n = 42) male (n = 18) and female (n = 24) Wistar rats were infected with T. gondii (ATCC 40050). Open-field and elevated plus maze tests were performed in the terminal stage of infection first and then in the early stage in low-protein diet-fed, high-fat diet-fed and ovariectomized infected rats. Late-stage (90 days) infected and early-stage (17 days) low-protein diet-fed groups showed significant decreases in body weight (42.42%↓, P = 0.016 and 57.14%↓, P < 0.001 versus non-infected, respectively), increases in body temperature (P = 0.001 and P < 0.001, respectively), decreases in blood glucose levels (P = 0.006 and P = 0.020, respectively), signs of cognitive and motor impairment and lower neuron counts. The alterations observed in high-fat diet-fed and ovariectomized infected animals were milder. Low-protein diet feeding to T. gondii-infected rats accelerated the occurrence of the infection terminal stage. Thus, a diet low in proteins could transform a slow early-stage T. gondii infection into an active neurotoxoplasmosis with neuropsychiatric manifestations and possible neurodegeneration in rats.

Enzymatically enhanced ultrastructure expansion microscopy unlocks expansion of in vitro Toxoplasma gondii cysts

Expansion microscopy (ExM) is an innovative approach to achieve super-resolution images without using super-resolution microscopes, based on the physical expansion of the sample. The advent of ExM has unlocked the detail of super-resolution images for a broader scientific circle, lowering the cost and entry skill requirements for the field. One of its branches, ultrastructure expansion microscopy (U-ExM), has become popular among research groups studying apicomplexan parasites, including the acute stage of Toxoplasma gondii infection. Here, we show that the chronic cyst-forming stage of Toxoplasma, however, resists U-ExM expansion, impeding precise protein localization. We then solve the in vitro cyst's resistance to denaturation required for successful U-ExM. As the cyst's main structural protein CST1 contains a mucin domain, we added an enzymatic digestion step using the pan-mucinase StcE prior to the expansion protocol. This allowed full expansion of the cysts in fibroblasts and primary neuronal cell culture without disrupting immunofluorescence analysis of parasite proteins. Using StcE-enhanced U-ExM, we clarified the localization of the GRA2 protein, which is important for establishing a normal cyst, observing GRA2 granules spanning across the CST1 cyst wall. The StcE-U-ExM protocol allows accurate pinpointing of proteins in the bradyzoite cyst, which will greatly facilitate investigation of the underlying biology of cyst formation and its vulnerabilities.

IMPORTANCE

Toxoplasma gondii is an intracellular parasite capable of establishing long-term chronic infection in nearly all warm-blooded animals. During the chronic stage, parasites encapsulate to form cysts predominantly in neurons and skeletal muscle. Current anti-Toxoplasma drugs do not eradicate chronic parasites, leaving a reservoir of infection. The cyst is critical for disease transmission and pathology, yet it is harder to study, with the function of many chronic-stage proteins still unknown. Ultrastructure expansion microscopy, a new method to overcome the light microscopy's diffraction limit by physically expanding the sample, allowed in-depth studies of acute Toxoplasma infection. We show that Toxoplasma cysts resist expansion using standard protocol, but an additional enzymatic digestion with the mucinase StcE allows full expansion. This protocol offers new avenues for examining the chronic stage, including precise spatial organization of cyst-specific proteins, linking these locations to morphological structures, and detailed investigations of components of the durable cyst wall.

Cell cycle-regulated ApiAP2s and parasite development: the Toxoplasma paradigm

The cell division cycle of T. gondii is driven by cyclically expressed ApiAP2 transcription factors (AP2s) that promote gene sets (regulons) associated with specific biological functions. AP2s drive other AP2s, thereby propelling the progressive gene expression waves defining the lytic cycle. AP2s can act as dimers by themselves, in combination with other AP2s (constitutive or cyclical) or in complexes with epigenetic factors. Exit from the cell cycle into either the extracellular state or differentiation into bradyzoites results in major changes in gene expression. Surprisingly, both transitions lead to expression of a shared set of unique AP2s that suggest a shared stress response that, governed by the specific conditions, leads to different outcomes.

Reduced neural progenitor cell count and cortical neurogenesis in guinea pigs congenitally infected with Toxoplasma gondii

Toxoplasma (T.) gondii is an obligate intracellular parasite with a worldwide distribution. Congenital infection can lead to severe pathological alterations in the brain. To examine the effects of toxoplasmosis in the fetal brain, pregnant guinea pigs are infected with T. gondii oocysts on gestation day 23 and dissected 10, 17 and 25 days afterwards. We show the neocortex to represent a target region of T. gondii and the parasite to infect neural progenitor cells (NPCs), neurons and astrocytes in the fetal brain. Importantly, we observe a significant reduction in neuron number at end-neurogenesis and find a marked reduction in NPC count, indicating that impaired neurogenesis underlies the neuronal decrease in infected fetuses. Moreover, we observe focal microglioses to be associated with T. gondii in the fetal brain. Our findings expand the understanding of the pathophysiology of congenital toxoplasmosis, especially contributing to the development of cortical malformations.

Hydroxamate-based compounds are potent inhibitors of Toxoplasma gondii HDAC biological activity

Toxoplasmosis is a critical health issue for immune-deficient individuals and the offspring of newly infected mothers. It is caused by a unicellular intracellular parasite called Toxoplasma gondii that is found worldwide. Although efficient drugs are commonly used to treat toxoplasmosis, serious adverse events are common. Therefore, new compounds with potent anti-T. gondii activity are needed to provide better suited treatments. We have tested compounds designed to target specifically histone deacetylase enzymes. Among the 55 compounds tested, we identified three compounds showing a concentration of drug required for 50% inhibition (IC50) in the low 100 nM range with a selectivity index of more than 100. These compounds are not only active at inhibiting the growth of the parasite in vitro but also at preventing some of the consequences of the acute disease in vivo. Two of these hydroxamate based compound also induce a hyper-acetylation of the parasite histones while the parasitic acetylated tubulin level remains unchanged. These findings suggest that the enzymes regulating histone acetylation are potent therapeutic targets for the treatment of acute toxoplasmosis.

The apicoplast is important for the viability and persistence of Toxoplasma gondii bradyzoites

Toxoplasma gondii is responsible for toxoplasmosis, a disease that can be serious when contracted during pregnancy, but can also be a threat for immunocompromised individuals. Acute infection is associated with the tachyzoite form that spreads rapidly within the host. However, under stress conditions, some parasites can differentiate into cyst-forming bradyzoites, residing mainly in the central nervous system, retina and muscle. Because this latent form of the parasite is resistant to all currently available treatments, and is central to persistence and transmission of the parasite, specific therapeutic strategies targeting this developmental stage need to be found. T. gondii contains a plastid of endosymbiotic origin called the apicoplast, which is an appealing drug target because it is essential for tachyzoite viability and contains several key metabolic pathways that are largely absent from the mammalian host. Its function in bradyzoites, however, is unknown. Our objective was thus to study the contribution of the apicoplast to the viability and persistence of bradyzoites during chronic toxoplasmosis. We have used complementary strategies based on stage-specific promoters to generate conditional bradyzoite mutants of essential apicoplast genes. Our results show that specifically targeting the apicoplast in both in vitro or in vivo-differentiated bradyzoites leads to a loss of long-term bradyzoite viability, highlighting the importance of this organelle for this developmental stage. This validates the apicoplast as a potential area to look for therapeutic targets in bradyzoites, with the aim to interfere with this currently incurable parasite stage.

A positive feedback loop controls Toxoplasma chronic differentiation

Successful infection strategies must balance pathogen amplification and persistence. In the obligate intracellular parasite Toxoplasma gondii this is accomplished through differentiation into dedicated cyst-forming chronic stages that avoid clearance by the host immune system. The transcription factor BFD1 is both necessary and sufficient for stage conversion; however, its regulation is not understood. In this study we examine five factors that are transcriptionally activated by BFD1. One of these is a cytosolic RNA-binding protein of the CCCH-type zinc-finger family, which we name bradyzoite formation deficient 2 (BFD2). Parasites lacking BFD2 fail to induce BFD1 and are consequently unable to fully differentiate in culture or in mice. BFD2 interacts with the BFD1 transcript under stress, and deletion of BFD2 reduces BFD1 protein levels but not messenger RNA abundance. The reciprocal effects on BFD2 transcription and BFD1 translation outline a positive feedback loop that enforces the chronic-stage gene-expression programme. Thus, our findings help explain how parasites both initiate and commit to chronic differentiation. This work provides new mechanistic insight into the regulation of T. gondii persistence, and can be exploited in the design of strategies to prevent and treat these key reservoirs of human infection.

Advances towards the complete in vitro life cycle of Toxoplasma gondii

The full life cycle of Toxoplasma gondii cannot be recapitulated in vitro, and access to certain stages, such as mature tissue cysts (bradyzoites) and oocysts (sporozoites), traditionally requires animal experiments. This has greatly hindered the study of the biology of these morphologically and metabolically distinct stages, which are essential for the infection of humans and animals. However, several breakthrough advances have been made in recent years towards obtaining these life stages in vitro, such as the discovery of several molecular factors that induce differentiation and commitment to the sexual cycle, and different culture methods that use, for example, myotubes and intestinal organoids to obtain mature bradyzoites and different sexual stages of the parasite. We review these novel tools and approaches, highlight their limitations and challenges, and discuss what research questions can already be answered with these models. We finally identify future routes for recapitulating the entire sexual cycle in vitro.

The determinants regulating Toxoplasma gondii bradyzoite development

Toxoplasma gondii is an obligate intracellular zoonotic pathogen capable of infecting almost all cells of warm-blooded vertebrates. In intermediate hosts, this parasite reproduces asexually in two forms, the tachyzoite form during acute infection that proliferates rapidly and the bradyzoite form during chronic infection that grows slowly. Depending on the growth condition, the two forms can interconvert. The conversion of tachyzoites to bradyzoites is critical for T. gondii transmission, and the reactivation of persistent bradyzoites in intermediate hosts may lead to symptomatic toxoplasmosis. However, the mechanisms that control bradyzoite differentiation have not been well studied. Here, we review recent advances in the study of bradyzoite biology and stage conversion, aiming to highlight the determinants associated with bradyzoite development and provide insights to design better strategies for controlling toxoplasmosis.

Restriction Checkpoint Controls Bradyzoite Development in Toxoplasma gondii

Human toxoplasmosis is a life-threatening disease caused by the apicomplexan parasite Toxoplasma gondii. Rapid replication of the tachyzoite is associated with symptomatic disease, while suppressed division of the bradyzoite is responsible for chronic disease. Here, we identified the T. gondii cell cycle mechanism, the G1 restriction checkpoint (R-point), that operates the switch between parasite growth and differentiation. Apicomplexans lack conventional R-point regulators, suggesting adaptation of alternative factors. We showed that Cdk-related G1 kinase TgCrk2 forms alternative complexes with atypical cyclins (TgCycP1, TgCycP2, and TgCyc5) in the rapidly dividing developmentally incompetent RH and slower dividing developmentally competent ME49 tachyzoites and bradyzoites. Examination of cyclins verified the correlation of cyclin expression with growth dependence and development capacity of RH and ME49 strains. We demonstrated that rapidly dividing RH tachyzoites were dependent on TgCycP1 expression, which interfered with bradyzoite differentiation. Using the conditional knockdown model, we established that TgCycP2 regulated G1 duration in the developmentally competent ME49 tachyzoites but not in the developmentally incompetent RH tachyzoites. We tested the functions of TgCycP2 and TgCyc5 in alkaline induced and spontaneous bradyzoite differentiation (rat embryonic brain cells) models. Based on functional and global gene expression analyses, we determined that TgCycP2 also regulated bradyzoite replication, while signal-induced TgCyc5 was critical for efficient tissue cyst maturation. In conclusion, we identified the central machinery of the T. gondii restriction checkpoint comprised of TgCrk2 kinase and three atypical T. gondii cyclins and demonstrated the independent roles of TgCycP1, TgCycP2, and TgCyc5 in parasite growth and development. IMPORTANCE Toxoplasma gondii is a virulent and abundant human pathogen that puts millions of silently infected people at risk of reactivation of the chronic disease. Encysted bradyzoites formed during the chronic stage are resistant to current therapies. Therefore, insights into the mechanism of tissue cyst formation and reactivation are major areas of investigation. The fact that rapidly dividing parasites differentiate poorly strongly suggests that there is a threshold of replication rate that must be crossed to be considered for differentiation. We discovered a cell cycle mechanism that controls the T. gondii growth-rest switch involved in the conversion of dividing tachyzoites into largely quiescent bradyzoites. This switch operates the T. gondii restriction checkpoint using a set of atypical and parasite-specific regulators. Importantly, the novel T. gondii R-point network was not present in the parasite's human and animal hosts, offering a wealth of new and parasite-specific drug targets to explore in the future.

Host cell proteins modulated upon Toxoplasma infection identified using proteomic approaches: a molecular rationale

Toxoplasma gondii is a pathogenic protozoan parasite belonging to the apicomplexan phylum that infects the nucleated cells of warm-blooded hosts leading to an infectious disease known as toxoplasmosis. Apicomplexan parasites such as T. gondii can display different mechanisms to control or manipulate host cells signaling at different levels altering the host subcellular genome and proteome. Indeed, Toxoplasma is able to modulate host cell responses (especially immune responses) during infection to its advantage through both structural and functional changes in the proteome of different infected cells. Consequently, parasites can transform the invaded cells into a suitable environment for its own replication and the induction of infection. Proteomics as an applicable tool can identify such critical proteins involved in pathogen (Toxoplasma)-host cell interactions and consequently clarify the cellular mechanisms that facilitate the entry of pathogens into host cells, and their replication and transmission, as well as the central mechanisms of host defense against pathogens. Accordingly, the current paper reviews several proteins (identified using proteomic approaches) differentially expressed in the proteome of Toxoplasma-infected host cells (macrophages and human foreskin fibroblasts) and tissues (brain and liver) and highlights their plausible functions in the cellular biology of the infected cells. The identification of such modulated proteins and their related cell impact (cell responses/signaling) can provide further information regarding parasite pathogenesis and biology that might lead to a better understanding of therapeutic strategies and novel drug targets.

In vitro maturation of Toxoplasma gondii bradyzoites in human myotubes and their metabolomic characterization

The apicomplexan parasite Toxoplasma gondii forms bradyzoite-containing tissue cysts that cause chronic and drug-tolerant infections. However, current in vitro models do not allow long-term culture of these cysts to maturity. Here, we developed a human myotube-based in vitro culture model of functionally mature tissue cysts that are orally infectious to mice and tolerate exposure to a range of antibiotics and temperature stresses. Metabolomic characterization of purified cysts reveals global changes that comprise increased levels of amino acids and decreased abundance of nucleobase- and tricarboxylic acid cycle-associated metabolites. In contrast to fast replicating tachyzoite forms of T. gondii these tissue cysts tolerate exposure to the aconitase inhibitor sodium fluoroacetate. Direct access to persistent stages of T. gondii under defined cell culture conditions will be essential for the dissection of functionally important host-parasite interactions and drug evasion mechanisms. It will also facilitate the identification of new strategies for therapeutic intervention.

Bradyzoites are a quiescent form of Toxoplasma gondii enclosed in cysts during chronic infections. Here, Christiansen et al. develop a human myotube-based in vitro culture model of cysts that are infectious to mice and characterize their metabolism in comparison to fast replicating tachyzoites.

A potent HDAC inhibitor blocks Toxoplasma gondii tachyzoite growth and profoundly disrupts parasite gene expression

Toxoplasmosis is a major health issue worldwide especially for immune-deficient individuals and the offspring of newly infected mothers. It is caused by a unicellular intracellular parasite called Toxoplasma gondii. Although the drugs commonly used to treat toxoplasmosis are efficient, they present serious side effects and adverse events are common. Therefore, there is a need for the discovery of new compounds with potent anti-T. gondii activity. We have tested compounds designed to target enzymes that are involved in the epigenetic regulation of gene expression. Among the most active compounds, we identified an HDAC inhibitor that shows an IC₅₀ of around 30 nM with a selectivity index of more than 100. MC1742 is active at inhibiting the growth of the parasite in vitro but also at preventing the consequences of the acute disease in vivo. This compound induces hyper-acetylation of histones while acetylated tubulin level remains unchanged. After MC1742 treatment, the parasite expression profile is profoundly changed with the activation of genes preferentially expressed in the sexual stages that are normally repressed at the tachyzoite stage. These findings suggest that this compound disturbs the T. gondii gene expression program, inducing parasite death.

The pathogenicity and virulence of Toxoplasma gondii

Toxoplasma gondii is a parasitic protist infecting a wide group of warm-blooded animals, ranging from birds to humans. While this infection is usually asymptomatic in healthy individuals, it can also lead to severe ocular or neurological outcomes in immunocompromised individuals or in developing fetuses. This obligate intracellular parasite has the ability to infect a considerable range of nucleated cells and can propagate in the intermediate host. Yet, under the pressure of the immune system it transforms into an encysted persistent form residing primarily in the brain and muscle tissues. Encysted parasites, which are resistant to current medication, may reactivate and give rise to an acute infection. The clinical outcome of toxoplasmosis depends on a complex balance between the host immune response and parasite virulence factors. Susceptibility to the disease is thus determined by both parasite strains and host species. Recent advances on our understanding of host cell-parasite interactions and parasite virulence have brought new insights into the pathophysiology of T. gondii infection and are summarized here.